Chapter 3: A word and its parts: roots, affixes and

their shapes
Reference: Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology

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Chapter 3: A word and its parts: roots, affixes and their shapes
1. Taking words apart
2. Kinds of morpheme: bound versus free
3. Kinds of morpheme: root, affix, combining form
4. Morphemes and their allomorphs
5. Identifying morphemes independently of meaning
6. Conclusion: ways of classifying word-parts

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1. Taking words apart

Ø Vice-President Gore is likely to use deliberately un-Clintonish tactics.

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1. Taking words apart

Ø Vice-President Gore is likely to use deliberately un-Clintonish tactics.

Ø un-Clintonish tactics = are tactics unlike those that president Clinton

would use
Ø Don’t need to be listed in dictionaries, because its meaning is completely
predictable (un-Clinton-ish)
Ø These smaller parts of words are called morphemes

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 1. Taking words apart

Morphemes:
§ the area of grammar concerned with the structure of words
§ and with relationships between words involving the morphemes that
composed them is technically called morphology (from the Greek word morphe ‘form, shape’)
§ and morphemes can be thought of as the minimal units of morphology.

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1. Taking words apart
The distinction between words that are lexical items and words that are not:
§ words that are not lexical items must be complex, in the sense that they are
composed of two or more morphemes (un-Clintonish).
Ø But those are not the only words that are complex; lexical-item words can be
complex too
Ø words that are lexical items do not have to be monomorphemic (consisting of just
one morpheme). ((we have already encountered lexical items that are so complex as
to extend over more than one word, namely idioms)).
Ø lexical items that are polymorphemic (consisting of more than one morpheme)

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Morphemes
A. Two characteristics of morphemes:
1. morphemes must be identifiable from one word to another.
2. contribute in some way to the meaning of the whole word.

Ø It may seem natural to link characteristic 1. Tightly to 2. Making the

identification of morphemes dependent on their meaning (un-clintonish)
o There is no necessary or logical connection between characteristics 1. And 2.
o in Section 3.5, we will encounter evidence that it is risky to tie the identification of morphemes too closely
to their meaning.

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Morphemes

B. Morphemes do not have to be of any particular

length.
• Some relatively long words, such as catamaran and
knickerbocker, may consist of just one morpheme
• a single-syllable word, such as tenths, may contain as
many as three morphemes (ten, -th, -s).

C.

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Morphemes
C. The morphological structure of words is largely independent of their
phonological structure (their division into sounds, syllables and rhythmic
units).

Ø you should avoid a mistake that beginners sometimes make, that of

confusing morphemes with phonological units such as syllables.

This reflects a difference between human speech and all animal communication systems:
only speech is analyzable in two parallel ways:
1. into units that contribute to meaning (morphemes, words, phrases etc.)
2. units that are individually meaningless (sounds, syllables etc.).

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2. Kinds of morpheme: bound versus free

Morphemes

Free Morphemes Bound Morphemes

• can stand alone • must be attached to a base

• e.g. boy, desire, gentle morpheme (affixes)
• e.g. un-, -ness, -ish

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 2. Kinds of morpheme: bound versus free

A B
read-able leg-ible
hear-ing audi-ence
• Contain a free morpheme • both morphemes are bound
• most of the free morphemes in (A) belong to that part of • all the morphemes in (B) have been introduced, or
the vocabulary of English that has been inherited directly borrowed, from Latin, either directly or via French.
through the Germanic branch of the Indo-European
language family to which English belongs

• A high proportion of complex words have a free morpheme at their core.

• Words in (b) are less common than those in (A)

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2. Kinds of morpheme: bound versus free

Ø Is it possible for a bound morpheme to be so limited in its distribution that

it occurs in just one complex word? The answer is yes.
Ø This is almost true, for example, of the morpheme leg- ‘read’ in legible. It is
found in only one other word, namely illegible, the negative.
Ø cran- and huckle in cranberry and huckleberry .
§ Cranberry and huckleberry are compounds whose second element is clearly the
free morpheme berry, occurring in several other compounds such as straw-
berry, blackberry and blueberry; however, cran- and huckle- occur nowhere
outside these compounds. A name commonly given to such bound morphemes
is cranberry morpheme.

• Cranberry morphemes are more than just a curiosity, because they reinforce the difficulty of tying morphemes
tightly to meaning. What does cran- mean? nothing at all

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 3. Kinds of morpheme: root, affix, combining form

• Root: the morpheme that makes the most precise and concrete contribution to
the word’s meaning. The root of a complex word is usually free.

• Affixes:
• prefixes (occurs at the beginning of a word, enlarge) and suffixes (at the
end, performance)
• There are more suffixes than prefixes in English.
• affixes are necessarily bound.

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 3. Kinds of morpheme: root, affix, combining form

If affixes are always bound, do not ‘bound morpheme’ and ‘affix’ mean
essentially the same thing? Likewise, if roots are usually free, do we really
need both the terms ‘root’ and ‘free morpheme’?

• The answer lies in the word ‘usually’ in the previous sentence.

• Affixes are always bound, but it is not the case that roots are always free.
• In fact, all the words in (B) have roots that are bound. (leg-ible/audi-ence)

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 3. Kinds of morpheme: root, affix, combining form

Ø Is it the case, then, that a word can contain no more than one root?
Certainly NOT. We have compound words (bookcase: a compound of two free roots)

Ø if a complex word can be formed out of two (or more) free roots, it is natural to
ask whether a word can contain two or more bound roots.
The answer is yes – although, in the light of the English language’s preference for
free roots, they are not nearly so common as ordinary compounds.
Examples of words with two bound roots as microscopy, etc.

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 3. Kinds of morpheme: root, affix, combining form

Some words that contain one bound and one free root: microfilm, electrometer

• these are mostly not words in common use.

• Unlike ordinary compounds, these words are nearly all technical terms of
scientific vocabulary.
• Because of the big difference between ordinary compounds and these learned words, and because of the
non- English character of the bound morphemes that compose them, many linguists and dictionary-makers
classify these bound morphemes as neither affixes nor bound roots but place them in a special category of
combining forms.

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 3. Kinds of morpheme: root, affix, combining form
• Given that native English words generally contain free roots, we might expect
that, if a word made up of combining forms is in common use, the morphemes
within it should tend to acquire the status of free morphemes.

• This expectation turns out to be correct.

• For example, the word photograph existed, as a learned technical term

composed of combining forms, before the word photo; but photo must now be
classified as a free morpheme.
• Other combining forms that have more recently ‘acquired their freedom’ are
micro- and macro- (as in at a micro level or on a macro scale).

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4. Morphemes and their allomorphs

Allomorphs:
• morphemes that have two or more different pronunciations
• the choice between them being determined by the context.
• E.g. -s suffix has three allomorphs:
1. [s] (as in cats or lamps)
2. [z] (as in dogs or days)
3. [Iz] or [əz] (as in horses or judges)
Ø three allomorphs are distributed in an entirely regular fashion, based on the sound
immediately preceding the suffix

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4. Morphemes and their allomorphs

-s suffix has three allomorphs:

Ø When the preceding sound is a sibilant (horse), the [Iz] allomorph occurs
Ø when the preceding sound is voiceless (cat), the [s] allomorph occurs
Ø otherwise(i.e. after a vowel or a voiced consonant, as dog), the [z]
allomorph occurs.

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4. Morphemes and their allomorphs

A. The choice of allomorphs depends on phonology and it is a morphological

matter as well.
• Lie ____ lies with [z]
• If we replace the [z] of lies with [s]_____ lice

Ø So phonologically determined allomorphy need not just be a matter of

avoiding what is phonologically prohibited.

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 4. Morphemes and their allomorphs
B. It is not only phonology that may influence the choice of allomorphs of a morpheme.
Grammar or vocabulary play a part as well.
E.g.
Ø wife (end with voiceless consonant) pl. wives (*wifes- Grammatically incorrect)
Ø Examples of nouns which, in the singular, end in a voiceless f, s or th sound but
which change this in the plural to the voiced counterpart: knives, houses, paths etc.

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4. Morphemes and their allomorphs
• Wife, and the rest do not use their voiced allomorph (wive- etc.) before any
morpheme except plural -s – not even before the ‘apostrophe s’ morpheme that
indicates possession, as in my wife’s job.
• So the allomorphy here is determined both lexically (it is restricted to certain
nouns only) and grammatically (it occurs before the plural suffix -s but not
before other morphemes).

Ø This state of affairs suggests a refinement to the bound-free distinction: as a

morpheme, wife is clearly free, but, of its two allomorphs:
Ø wife (with final [f ]) ___ free
Ø wive (with final [v])___bound.

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5. Identifying morphemes independently of meaning

• the prefix re- can be added to verbs quite freely, contributing the meaning
‘again’, as in rewrite
• can be represented phonetically as [ri]
• return, restore, revise, reverse, this time pronounced with a so-called
‘reduced vowel’, [rI] or [rə].
• Return = ‘come back’ or ‘give back’
• restore = ‘bring back to a former condition’
• [ri] and [rə] as allomorphs of the same morpheme.

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5. Identifying morphemes independently of meaning

Ø There are some roots with which both [ri] and [rə] can occur, yielding different
meanings:

for example, the meanings just given for restore and return are distinct from
those for re-store ‘store again’ and re-turn ‘turn again’

(as in I turned the steaks on the barbecue a minute ago, and I’ll re-turn them
soon).

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5. Identifying morphemes independently of meaning

Ø The [ri] prefix can be added to almost any verb, with the consistent
meaning ‘again’ whereas the [rə] prefix is lexically much more restricted as
well as harder to pin down semantically.

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 5. Identifying morphemes independently of meaning

a central characteristic of prefix–root combinations:

• the prefixes and roots that they comprise are identifiable without reference
to meaning.
• E.g. the meaning of conduce (verb) has nothing to do with that of
conduction (noun)

Ø Because of this, all these complex words must clearly be lexical items.
Thus the lexical conditioning to which these morphemes are subject is of a
particularly strong kind: none of them ever occurs except in complex words
that require dictionary listing.

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5. Conclusion: ways of classifying word-parts

• one of the most prominent features of English vocabulary as it has accumulated

over the centuries is the existence both of words in which morphological
structure and meaning seem closely associated, and of many words in which
the relationship is obscure.

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