A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides.

A cell spends most of its time in what is called interphase, and during this time it
grows, replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for cell division. The cell then
leaves interphase, undergoes mitosis, and completes its division. The resulting
cells, known as daughter cells, each enter their own interphase and begin a new
round of the cell cycle.

Cell cycle has different stages called G1, S, G2, and M. G1 is the stage where the
cell is preparing to divide. To do this, it then moves into the S phase where the
cell copies all the DNA. So, S stands for DNA synthesis. After the DNA is copied
and there's a complete extra set of all the genetic material, the cell moves into
the G2 stage, where it organizes and condenses the genetic material, or starts to
condense the genetic material, and prepares to divide. The next stage is M. M
stands for mitosis. This is where the cell actually partitions the two copies of the
genetic material into the two daughter cells. After M phase completes, cell
division occurs and two cells are left, and the cell cycle can begin again.

Mitosis Definition

“Mitosis is that step in the cell cycle where the newly formed DNA is separated
and two new cells are formed with the same number and kind of chromosomes as
the parent nucleus.”
Mitosis is a process of asexual reproduction observed in unicellular organisms.
Read on to explore what is mitosis, and the different stages of mitosis.

What is Mitosis?

Cell division is the driving process of reproduction at the cellular level. Most
eukaryotic cells divide in a manner where the ploidy or the number of
chromosomes remains the same, except in the case of germ cells where the
number of chromosomes is halved.
Mitosis is the phase of the cell cycle where the nucleus of a cell is divided into
two nuclei with an equal amount of genetic material in both the daughter nuclei.
It succeeds the G2 phase and is succeeded by cytoplasmic division after the
separation of the nucleus.
Mitosis is essential for the growth of the cells and the replacement of worn-out
cells. Abnormalities during mitosis may alter the DNA, resulting in genetic
disorders.

Features of Mitosis

1. In each cycle of cell division, two daughter cells are formed from the
parent cell.
2. The cell is also known as equational cell division because
the chromosome number in the parent cell and daughter cell is the same.
3. In plants, mitosis leads to the growth of vegetative parts of the plant like
root tip, stem tip, etc.
4. Segregation and combination do not occur in this process.

The processes occurring during mitosis have been divided into different stages.

Stages of Mitosis

Right before prophase, the cell spends most of its life in the interphase, where
preparations are made before the beginning of mitosis (the DNA is copied).
However, since the actual process involves the division of the nucleus, the
prophase is technically the first stage of this process.
The different stages of mitosis occurring during cell division are given as follows-

Interphase
Before entering mitosis, a cell spends a period of its growth under interphase. It
undergoes the following phases when in interphase:

 G1 Phase: This is the period before the synthesis of DNA.

 S Phase: This is the phase during which DNA synthesis takes place.
 G2 Phase: This is the phase between the end of DNA synthesis and the
beginning of the prophase.

M phase
This is the mitotic phase or the phase of the equational division as the cell
undergoes a complete reorganization to give birth to a progeny that has the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. The other organelles are also
divided equally by the process of cytokinesis which is preceded by mitotic
nuclear division. The mitotic phase is divided into four overlapping stages:-

Prophase
Prophase immediately follows the S and G2 phases of the cycle and is marked by
condensation of the genetic material to form compact mitotic chromosomes
composed of two chromatids attached at the centromere.
The completion of the prophase is characterized by the initiation of the assembly
of the mitotic spindle, the microtubules and the proteinaceous components of
the cytoplasm that help in the process.
The nuclear envelope starts disintegrating.

Prometaphase
In the prometaphase, the nuclear envelop disintegrates. Now the microtubules
are allowed to extend from the centromere to the chromosome. The
microtubules attach to the kinetochores which allow the cell to move the
chromosome around.

Metaphase
At this stage, the microtubules start pulling the chromosomes with equal force
and the chromosome ends up in the middle of the cell. This region is known as
the metaphase plate. Thus, each cell gets an entire functioning genome.

Anaphase
The splitting of the sister chromatids marks the onset of anaphase. These sister
chromatids become the chromosome of the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes
are then pulled towards the pole by the fibres attached to the kinetochores of
each chromosome. The centromere of each chromosome leads at the edge
while the arms trail behind it.

Telophase
The chromosomes that cluster at the two poles start coalescing into an
undifferentiated mass, as the nuclear envelope starts forming around it. The
nucleolus, Golgi bodies and ER complex, which had disappeared after prophase
start to reappear.
Telophase is followed by cytokinesis, which denotes the division of the
cytoplasm to form two daughter cells. Thus, it marks the completion of cell
division.

Functions of Mitosis

Following are the two important functions of mitosis:

1. Mitosis helps in the development of an organism. In single-celled

organisms, mitosis is the process of asexual reproduction.
2. Mitosis helps in the replacement of damaged tissues. The cells near the
damaged cells begin mitosis when they do not sense the neighbouring
cells. The dividing cells reach each other and cover the damaged cells.

Significance of Mitosis

1. Mitosis is responsible for the development of the zygote into an adult.

2. Equal distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell.
3. It is responsible for the growth and development of an individual.
4. It maintains the constant number of chromosomes in all body cells of an
organism.
5. Mitosis is required for asexual reproduction, vegetative propagation in
plants and is also responsible for the repair and regeneration of damaged
tissues.
6. Mitosis helps in maintaining the purity of the genome as no recombination
or crossing over takes place.
7. It is responsible for the repair and regeneration of old and damaged cells in
animals e.g. gut epithelium, blood cells, etc.

Cytokinesis

In this phase, the cytoplasm of the cell divides. It begins as soon as the mitosis
ends. Plant cells are much tougher than animal cells, as they have a rigid cell wall
and high internal pressure. Thus, cytokinesis occurs in plant and animal cells
differently.

SUMMARY:

Mitosis is the type of cell division by which a single cell divides in such a way as
to produce two genetically identical “daughter cells”.

Why is mitosis called equational division?

Mitosis is the process of cell division wherein the chromosomes replicate and
get equally distributed into two daughter cells. The chromosome number in each
daughter cell is equal to that in the parent cell, i.e., diploid. Hence, mitosis is
known as equational division.

List all the stages of mitosis.

The stages of Mitosis are:

 Prophase – The chromosomes shorten and thicken.

 Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
 Anaphase – Chromatids break apart at the centromere and move to
opposite poles.
 Telophase – Two nuclei formed after nuclear envelopes reform around
each group of chromosomes.

What is prophase?
The process of mitosis begins with the prophase. In this stage, the chromatin
condenses and the nucleolus disappears.

What happens in metaphase?

Metaphase is the second stage of the process, chromosomes get condensed at
the equator, before being split apart for each of the two daughter cells.

In what cells does mitosis occur?

Mitosis occurs in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells divide by both mitosis and
meiosis. For eg., skin cells divide by mitosis, whereas gametes divide by meiosis.

What is the primary function of mitosis?

Mitosis plays an important role in the life cycle of most living things. It helps in
cell regeneration, asexual reproduction and growth.

Meiosis 1

Mitotic cell division is equational in nature while meiosis is a reduction division.

The salient features of meiotic division that make it different from mitosis are as
follows:-

1. It occurs in two stages of the nuclear and cellular division as Meiosis I and
Meiosis II. DNA replication occurs, however, only once.
2. It involves the pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination
between them.
3. Four haploid daughter cells are produced at the end, unlike two diploid
daughter cells in mitosis.

Meiosis 1 separates the pair of homologous chromosomes and reduces the

diploid cell to haploid. It is divided into several stages that include, prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Also Read: Significance of Meiosis

Meiosis 1 Stages

The different stages of meiosis 1 can be explained by the following phases :

 Prophase 1
 Metaphase 1
 Anaphase 1
 Telophase

Phases of Meiosis 1
Meiosis 1 Prophase 1

 Prophase I is longer than the mitotic prophase and is further subdivided

into 5 substages,

 leptotene
 zygotene
 pachytene
 diplotene
 diakinesis
 The chromosomes begin to condense and attain a compact structure
during leptotene.
 In zygotene, the pairing of homologous chromosomes starts a process
known as chromosomal synapsis, accompanied by the formation of a
complex structure called synaptonemal complex. A pair of synapsed
homologous chromosome forms a complex known as bivalent or tetrad.
 At pachytene stage, crossing over of non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes occurs at the recombination nodules. The chromosomes
remain linked at the sites of crossing over.
 Diplotene marks the dissolution of the synaptonemal complex and
separation of the homologous chromosomes of the bivalents except at the
sites of cross-over. The X-shaped structures formed during separation are
known as chiasmata.
 Diakinesis is marked by the termination of chiasmata and assembly of the
meiotic spindle to separate the homologous chromosomes. The nucleolus
disappears and the nuclear envelope breaks down.
Meiosis 1 Metaphase 1

The bivalents align at the equatorial plate and microtubules from the opposite
poles attach to the pairs of homologous chromosomes.
Meiosis 1 Anaphase 1

The two chromosomes of each bivalent separate and move to the opposite ends
of the cells. The sister chromatids are attached to each other.
Meiosis 1 Telophase 1

The nuclear membrane reappears and is followed by cytokinesis. This gives rise

to a dyad of cells.

Features of Meiosis

 It results in the formation of four daughter cells in each cycle of cell

division.
 The daughter cells are identical to the mother cell in shape and size but
different in chromosome number.
 The daughter cells are haploid.
 Recombination and segregation take place in meiosis.
 The process occurs in the reproductive organs and results in the formation
of gametes.
 The process is divided into two types-Meiosis-I reduces the chromosome
number to half and is known as reductional division. Meiosis-II is just like
the mitotic division.

Significance

1. Meiosis is responsible for the formation of sex cells or gametes that are
responsible for sexual reproduction.
2. It activates the genetic information for the development of sex cells and
deactivates the sporophyte information.
3. It maintains the constant number of chromosomes by halving the same.
This is important because the chromosome number doubles after
fertilization.
4. In this process independent assortment of maternal and paternal
chromosomes takes place. Thus, the chromosomes and the traits
controlled by them are reshuffled.
5. The genetic mutation occurs due to irregularities in cell division by
meiosis. The mutations that are beneficial are carried on by natural
selection.
6. Crossing over produces a new combination of traits and variations.

SUMMARY:
Meiosis is the process in which a single cell divides twice to produce four cells
with half the original number of chromosomes.

What are the different stages of meiosis 1?

The different stages of meiosis 1 include:

 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase

How is meiosis 1 different from meiosis 2?

In meiosis 1 the homologous chromosomes separate from each other, whereas,
in meiosis 2 the sister chromatids separate. In meiosis 1 two diploid daughter
cells are produced, whereas, in meiosis 2 four haploid daughter cells are
produced.

Why is meiosis 1 also known as reductional division?

Meiosis 1 is known as reductional division because in this process the number of
chromosomes is reduced to half, i.e., from diploid to haploid.
What do you understand by crossing over in meiosis 1?
Crossing over is the process of meiosis in which two chromosomes of a
homologous pair are exchanged between non-sister chromatids.

Stages of Meiosis II

The four stages of meiosis II are as follows:

 Prophase II – It immediately sets off after the cytokinesis when the
daughter cells are formed. The chromosomes begin to condense
accompanied by the dissolution of the nuclear membrane and the
disappearance of the Golgi apparatus and ER complex.
  Metaphase II – The chromosomes are connected to the centriole poles at
the kinetochores of sister chromatids through the microtubules. They also
get aligned at the equator to form the metaphase plate.

 Anaphase II – In this phase of meiosis II, there is a simultaneous splitting

of the centromere of each chromosome and the sister chromatids are
pulled away towards the opposite poles. As the chromatids move towards
the poles, the kinetochore is at the leading edge with the chromosomal
arms trailing.

 Telophase II – The chromosomes dissolve again into an undifferentiated

lump and a nuclear envelope develops around it. Followed by cytokinesis,
telophase II marks the end of meiosis. Four haploid daughter cells are
formed as a result.

Significance of Meiosis
Reproduction in animals takes place through the fusion of gametes i.e., two cells
fuse together with their genetic material to develop a zygote. If germ cells, which
give rise to gametes, also maintains their ploidy during division like the somatic
cells, the zygote will have an accumulation of chromosomes in its nucleus. This
accumulation will keep on increasing with every subsequent generation. Meiosis
offers a very smart solution to this problem as it reduces the number of
chromosomes in the gametes to half of their parent germ cells. Moreover,
prophase I of meiosis allows recombination of homologous chromosomes.
This recombination is essential for the variation to be introduced in the genetic
makeup of the gametes as this variation only holds the key to evolution through
sexual reproduction.

Cell cycle refers to the series of events that results in the duplication of the cell
along with the DNA.

What are the four major stages of mitosis?

The four important stages of cell cycle include:
  Interphase
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Cytokinesis

What are the different phases of a cell cycle:

The different phases of a cell cycle include:

 Interphase – This phase includes the G1 phase, S phase and the G2 phase.
 M phase – This is the mitotic phase and is divided into prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
 Cytokinesis – In this phase the cytoplasm of the cell divides.

Who discovered cell cycle?

Walther Flemming discovered cell cycle in the 19th century. He was a professor
at the Institute of Anatomy.

What is the importance of cell division?

The cell division is important because of the following reasons:

 It helps in the survival and growth of organisms.

 Maintenance of chromosome number.
 Renewal of damaged cells

Which is the most important stage of cell cycle?

Interphase is the most important stage of cell cycle. The cell stays in the
interphase for maximum periods. During this phase the cell prepares itself for
division. The cell undergoes cell growth and replication during this phase.

What is the significance of G1, S and G2 phases of the interphase?

 During the G1 phase the cell continues to grow but does not replicate.
 During the S phase the DNA of the cell replicates.
  During the G2 phase the RNA, proteins and other macromolecules required
for mitotic division are produced by the cell.

Mitosis: The process cells use to make exact replicas of themselves. Mitosis is observed in
almost all the body’s cells, including eyes, skin, hair, and muscle cells.

Meiosis: In this type of cell division, sperm or egg cells are produced instead of identical
daughter cells as in mitosis.

Binary Fission: Single-celled organisms like bacteria replicate themselves for reproduction.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

There are two primary phases in the cell cycle:

1. Interphase: This phase was thought to represent the resting stage between subsequent
cell divisions, but new research has shown that it is a very active phase.
2. M Phase (Mitosis phase): This is where the actual cell division occurs. There are two key
steps in this phase, namely cytokinesis and karyokinesis.

The interphase further comprises three phases:

1. G0 Phase (Resting Phase): The cell neither divides nor prepares itself for the division.
2. G1 Phase (Gap 1): The cell is metabolically active and grows continuously during this
phase.
3. S phase (Synthesis): The DNA replication or synthesis occurs during this stage.
4. G2 phase (Gap 2): Protein synthesis happens in this phase.
5. Quiescent Stage (G0): The cells that do not undergo further division exits the G1 phase
and enters an inactive stage. This stage is known as the quiescent stage (G0) of the cell
cycle.

There are four stages in the M Phase, namely:

1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase