Mathematics in the Modern World ; Mid-Term
Friday, 7AM-10AM ; MMW 101 ; Prof. Maria Cecilia Martin
PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD
Mathematics pertains to:
- A study of patterns
- A language
- A set of problem-solving tools
- A process of thinking
- An art
Patterns in Nature. The regularities that we see in the forms of
the things in the natural world are considered patterns in
nature.
Types of Natural Patterns
1. Symmetry. There is symmetry if an imaginary line is
drawn across an object, the resulting parts are mirrors of
each other.
2. Spiral. It is a curved pattern that focuses on a center
point and a series of circular shapes that revolve around
it. This is common in plants and some animals. (e.g.
Millipede, Chameleon's tail, Ram's Horns).
3. Meander. Is a series of regular sinuous curves, bends,
loops, turns, or windings, in the channel of a river, stream,
or other watercourses. It is produced by a stream or river
swinging from side to side as it flows across its floodplain
or shifts its channel within a valley.
4. Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to
relieve stress. The pattern of cracks indicates whether the
material is elastic or not.
5. Stripe is a strip or band that has a different color from
the surface surrounding it. This may be seen in various
living things, especially animals.
Notes:
1. Some patterns cannot be seen because they are already
parts of human experience like, for example, the water
cycle of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.
With this knowledge, people were able to understand
the world better and make intuitive decisions to improve
the ability to forecast weather, climate, water resources,
and the ecosystem's health.
2. Regardless of the purpose by which natural patterns
serve, such as for camouflage, for adaptation to the
environment, or they are caused by natural phenomena,
all of them are considered to be closely related to
mathematics.
Other Types of Patterns. Aside from the natural patterns, you
can also come across four main types of patterns in which you
are also familiar with or if not, not is the time to know them.
Logical Patterns. Logic reasoning and pattern observing are
the first two math standards, which are the most important
measurement of IQ and the core component of many careers.
Geometric Patterns. It consists of shapes like polygons and
circles that are repeated to create a design. Geometric patterns
can be seen in nature and in different artworks. Examples of
these are also found in textiles, floor tiles, paintings, and
wallpapers.
Tessellations is a pattern that is formed by repeating
polygons to cover a play so that there are no gaps or
overlaps. Some examples showing tessellations are the
honeycombs made by honey bees and scales of fish. It
may be a regular tessellation (where a regular polygon is
repeated) or a semi-regular tessellation (with two or more
regular polygons being repeated
Fractals is a never-ending pattern. It can be formed by
continuously repeating something. Because of these
continuous repetitions, fractals are considered to be
self-similar. Each part of the object is similar to the whole
object.
- Pascal's Triangle contains the numerical coefficients
of binomial expansions. The triangle below shows the
coefficients of (x + y)^0 up to (x + y)^17. in the Pascal's
triangle, the Sierpinski triangle can also be drawn by
connecting or shading the odd numbers.
- Fractal Tree. To construct a fractal tree, start at some
point and draw a line segment. From an endpoint,
draw two branches at a certain angle. Repeat the
previous step to the new endpoints and continue the
process to make more branches.
- Koch Snowflake. In drawing a Koch Snowflake, one
needs to start by drawing an equilateral triangle.
Then, divide each side into three equal parts. After
that, draw an equilateral triangle on each middle part.
Then divide each outer side into thirds and again,
draw an equilateral triangle on the middle part.
Repeat until you're satisfied with the number of
iterations, like the example below.
Word Patterns. It can be found in giving the plural of nouns, in
forming the past tense of verbs, and in word analogy. They can
also be found in the meters of poetry and in the rhythm of the
words.
1. Plural of Nouns
2. Past Tense of Verbs
3. Analogy
4. Rhyme Scheme
Number Patterns. It is a list of numbers that follow a particular
sequence or order. Consider the given sequence of numbers:
23, 30, 37, 44, 51, 58, 65 and 72. (+7).
1. Odd Integers
2. Consecutive negative integers
3. Perfect Squares
4. Arithmetic Sequence
5. Geometric Sequence
6. Triangular Numbers
7. Cube Numbers
8. Fibonacci Numbers
FIBONACCI NUMBERS
Who is Fibonacci?
- Leonardo Pisano or Leonardo of Pisa
- Born in Pisa, Italy, in 1170.
- He is popularly known as Fibonacci, a shortened word for
the Latin term "fillius Bonacci," which means "son of
Bonacci" because his father was Guglielmo Bonaccio.
 Letter Conventions
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55…
Ex. What they usually
mean
Fibonacci in Nature
1. In the number of Petals of Flowers Start of the alphabet a, b, c, … Constants (with
2. In the number of sections in Fruits fixed values
The Fibonacci Spiral
Using the first ten (10) numbers in the Fibonacci From i to n i, j, k, l, m, Positive integers (for
sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 as dimensions of adjacent n counting)
squares, you can create a Fibonacci spiral. When arranged in a
certain way, the Fibonacci sequence creates a special spiral End of the alphabet …, x, y, z Variables
pattern. 1 (unknowns)
- Nautilus shell
- Hurrican, tornadoes Uppercase Letter
- Spiral arrangement in nature - For sets and formulas
- Ear or fist of humaN Lowercase Letter
The Golden Ratio - For variables or counting values.
- “Phi” Φ (Uppercase) and φ (lowercase)
- Phidias
English Language Language of Ex.
- Irrational number equal to 1.6180339889… (1.618)
Mathematics
5+1 2
- φ = 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 φ = 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 54°)
- Also known as divine ratio/proportion Nouns (objects, fixed Numbers 15, 1/2, 4^2
The Golden Spiral things)
- Usually used for artworks
Connectives/associati Operational +, -, *, /, 2(c^2
- Mona Lisa by Da Vinci
ons symbols/ grouping - 6y)
The Golden Rectangle
symbols
- Usually used for structures like temple
- Parthenon Verbs (to show Relation symbols =, <, >
Proportions of the Human Body comparison)
- Sometimes followed the divine proportion
- Face Pronouns Variables (letter x, y, z
- representing
quantities)
THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

Expression vs. Sentence in the Language of Mathematics

The language of mathematics was designed so that Mathematical expression - an expression with a correct
we can write about things (like numbers, sets, …) and what we arrangement and symbols but does not complete the thought.
do with those things (add, subtract, multiply, divide, …). Mathematical sentence - a complete thought and make
sense to ask TRUE or FALSE.
Symbols
Mathematical Mathematical Sentences
Mathematic Uses symbols instead of words. Expressions
There are ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9 Examples: Examples:
18 6 + 3 - /81 TRUE
There are symbols for operations +, -, x, /, …
-22 20 / 5 > 4 FALSE
Symbols that "stand-in" for values a, b, c, … 5^2 (10 - 7) + 11 5x - 2y = -8, if x = -3 and y = 4
3x/y (6x^2 - z)^2 FALSE
Relation/special symbols =, <, <=, pi, … 7 vaovubr N TRUE

Grouping symbols ( ), [ ], and { } Symbol of operations and relations with their

corresponding meanings
Other symbols The sum of
there exists Symbol Meaning
for every (for
+ Plus, sum, total, increased by, more than,
any)
add, added to, added by, added with, in
infinity
 addition to, combined with, put together, The ratio of four more than twice a
augmented number, and twice the same 2𝑥 + 4
= 2
3𝑥
number is two.
- Minus, less, less than, difference decreased
by, diminished by, subtracted from, The sum of the squares of two x2 + y2
subtracted by, exceeds by, lowered by, numbers
reduced by, loss, fewer, exceeds The square of the sum of two (x + y)2
numbers
The cube of a number decreased by x3 - y2
Times, the product of, multiplied by,
the square of another number
multiplied to, multiplied with, twice,
The ratio of the cube of a number 3
𝑥 2
doubled, thrice, tripled, squared, cubed 6
− 𝑦
and six, less the square of another
/ Ratio, quotient, divided by, half of, average, number
per, over, all over

= Equals, is equal to, is the same as, is similar
to, results in, procedures, represents, is
equivalent to, is, are, was, were, will be
English Expression/Sentence Math Expression/
Sentence
THE LANGUAGE OF SETS
Sets become a powerful building block of
mathematics when applied to different situations.
Set and Set Notations
Set is a collection of distinct objects (well-defined).

The sum of a number and x + 17

Well-defined Not well-defined
seventeen
twenty added to a certain number x + 20 The set of female presidents The set of good Filipino
a number augmented by 3 x+3 of the Philippines writers

The difference of a number and ten x - 10 The set of quadrilaterals The set of best books in
ten less than a number the library
ten subtracted from a number x - 10
a number less than 10 x - 10 The set of rainbow colors The set of difficult subjects
seven less than the product of a 10 - x in SHS
number and six 6x - 7
The set of even numbers The set of delicious
Twice a number 2x less than 80 smoothies
cube of a number x3
the product of a number and four 4x + 9 The set of ASEAN Member The set of smart people in
increased by nine countries the meeting
The product of eight and a number 8x - 5y
less five times a second number Rules in writing sets
The product of eight and a number 5y - 8x 1. Name the set using a capital letter of the English
less than five times a second alphabet
number 2. The objects in the set are known as elements (small
letters)
The ratio of a number and nine x / 9 ; x/9
3. The elements are separated by commas and are
The quotient of a number and x / 12 ; x/12
written inside the braces
twelve
4. The letter e must be written only once
The ratio of 3, and six decreased by 3/6 -x
If an object is an element of the set, use the symbool ∈
a number
the quotient of half a number and 1/2x / 11 or 1/2x/11 /
The Set of Real Numbers
eleven x/2/11
The average of three number x+y+z / 3 N Natural Counting numbers 1, 2, 3…
Numbers (positive integers)
The sum of a number and its 𝑥 +
1
= 1
𝑥
reciprocal is 1. Z Integers Natural numbers …, -2, -1, 0, 1,
Thrice the difference of a number (negative and 0) 2…
3 (x - 4) = 24
and four equals twenty-four.
Q Rational Numbers that can be -2, 0, 3
The sum of two numbers over a 𝑥+𝑦
= 10 Numbers represented as a/b, -½, ¼, 7/3
third number is the same as ten. 𝑧
where a and b are -1.5, 2.4
 integers and b≠0 elements are n(W) = ∞
unlimited or cannot
Q’ Irrational Numbers that cannot √2 = 1.41 be counted
Numbers be expressed as the
ratio of two integers Unit Set or • A set with only F = {x|x is an integer
Singleton Set one element greater than 10 but
R Real Numbers Rational and less than 12}
Irrational F = {11}
n(F) = 1

Methods of Writing a Set Empty Set or • A set with no H = {x|x is an integer

Null Set object or element. greater than -1 but
Enumeration or Roster Set-builder Notation or
less than 0}
Method Rule Method
H = { } or
H=∅
● The elements of a set ● The members of the set n(H) = 0
are listed or are defined by stating
enumerated in any their common
Equal Set • Two sets Let A = {13, 14, 15}
order but no repetition properties. Example of a
containing the B = {14, 15}
and are enclosed by set builder notation:
same elements are
curly braces. {x | x > -2}
equal
• Symbolically, A =
The set set of all x’s, such
B
that x is greater than -2
Equivalent • If Sets A and B Let A = (11, 12, 13)
Steps for set-builder notation Sets have the same B = (x, y, z)
1. Use a lowercase letter to describe the elements number of C = (λ, B, a}
elements or the
2. Use a separator (: colon or | vertical bar)
same cardinality,
3. Tell the condition of the elements then they are
4. Enclose using curly braces equivalent sets
Examples:
Disjoint Set • Two sets with no
Enumeration or Statement Rule Method
common elements
Roster Method
are disjoint.

D = {e, i} D is the set of D = {x|x is a vowel Ellipsis are read “and so forth”
vowels in the in the word little}
word little Subsets, Supersets, and Power Sets

E = {c, d, n, y} E is the set of E = {x|x is a Subsets A is a subset of B if every element of A is in B.

consonants in the consonant in the The phrases “A is contained in B” and “B
word decency word decency} contains A” are other ways of saying that A is a
subset of B.
N = {1, 2…} N is the set of a N = {x|x is a
natural numbers natural number} o A⊆
N = {x|x ∈ N}
Proper If every element of A is in B, but there is at
Subset least one element in B that is not in A, then A
Kind of Sets is a proper subset of B.

Kind of Set Definition / Examples A⊂B

Notation
Subset • If A is a subset of B, then we can say that B is
Finite Set • A set whose A = {x|x is a positive a superset of A, denoted by
elements are integer less than 17}
limited or B⊇A
countable n(A) = 16
• The cardinality of a
Power • A set of all subsets of a set A is called the
set is the number
Sets power set of A, denoted as P(A)
of its elements. The
cardinality of set A
|P(A)| = 2n
is denoted by n(A)
or |A|
Universal Set and Complementary Sets
Infinite Set • A set whose W = {0, 1, 2 …}
 Universal It is the set
Set containing all the
possible elements
under consideration
or the set containing
all the elements of its
subsets, without
repetition.
Compleme Set A and B are
ntary Set complementary if
they have no
common elements,
and their union is the
universal set.
Let A = {a, c, e, g}
B = {b, d, f, g}
Then, U = {a, b, c, d, e,
f, g}
Let U = {10, 11, 12}
A = {10, 12}
B = {11, 13}
C = {10, 12, 13, 14}
ELEMENTARY LOGIC
Logic. The discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning.
- Give precise meaning to mathematical statements
- Used to distinguish between valid and invalid arguments
Propositions, Simple and Compound Statements
A proposition sometimes called a statement, is a
declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both. To
represent propositions, lowercase letters like p, q, r, s… are used
and called propositional variables.
Propositions Not Propositions

In symbol, the Tarlis is a province in Region Where is your teacher? ( a

complement of A is III (true) question)
AC or A’
Elephants have wings (false) Open the door (a command)

Operations on Sets 15 - 2x = 8, if x = 5 (false) Ouch! (an exclamation)

Union The union of two sets is the set
containing all the elements of both Twenty is less than fifty This food is delicious
sets. (true) (subjective)

In symbols, write A U B 52 + 1 is a prime number 5x + 2y = 7 (there are no

(false) assigned values to x and y)
Intersection The intersection of two sets is the
set containing the common
Propositions can either be a simple statement or a
elements of both sets.
compound statement.
In symbols, write A ∩ B A simple statement is a single statement that does not
have other statements as parts.
Combination Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, *Two is a rational number.
13, 14} A compound statement contains two or more statements
A = {1, 3, 5} joined by logical connectives.
B = {1, 5, 8, 10} *Two is a rational number and four ia an even number
C = {3, 6, 12, 14}
Logical Connectives and Symbols
D={}
Proposit Conne Symbol/Te Sym Read as
(A U B) ∩ C = {1, 3, 5, 8, 10} ∩ (3, 6, 12, onal ctive rm bolic
14} Logic Form
= {3}
(A ∩ C) U B = {3} U {1, 5, 8, 10} = {1, 3, 5, Negatio not ~ curl or ~p Not p
8, 10} A U B U C n tide
= {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14} ㄱ dash ㄱp
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = {1, 5} ∩ {3, 6, 12, 14} with a tail
={}
Conjunct and/bu ∧ caret p∧ p and q
Cross Product of Sets ion t mark q

Cross • The cross product of two Let A = {5, 7, Disjuncti or ∨ wedge p∨ p or q

Product nonempty sets A and B is the 9}, B = {r, s, t} on or vee q
of Sets set of all ordered pairs (a, b),
where the first element a is Find: A x B Conditio If…, → right p→q If p, then q
from set A, and the second nal/Impli then arrow P implies q
element b is from set B. Solution: cation
A x B = {(5, r),
Note: The symbol "x" is used (5, s), (5, t), (7,
biconditi If and ↔ p↔q P if and
for the operation. r), (7, s), (7, t),
onal only if double-he only if q
(9, r), (9, s), (9,
aded arrow
Read A x B as A cross B. t)}
It is used to form compound statements
AxB≠BxA A. Negation:
 Proposition Negation 1. If it is going to rain, then I will not go p→q
out. (in the if p then q form)
p: The traffic in EDSA is ~p: The traffic in EDSA is not
heavy. heavy. 2. I will not go out if it is going to rain. p→q
(in the q if p form)
q: Today is Friday ~q: Today is not Friday.
3. I will not go out whenever it is going p→q
r: I do not like milk tea. ~r: I like milk tea. to rain

s: The students did not ~s: The students attended 4. If it is not going to rain, then Cherry ~p → r
attend the webinar the webinar. is going to visit a friend.

t: 23 + 34 ≠ 57 ~t: 23 + 34 = 54 5. If it is not going to rain, then I will go ~p → ~q

out.

B. Conjunction: 6. If all even numbers are integers, then s→t

Let p, q, r, and s be the following propositions: zero is an integer.
p: Russel is not happy.
q: Russel is going to a party.
E. Biconditional
r: It is a holiday.
Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:
s: Jack is not invited.
p: Lewis is a singer
Compound Propositions Symbolic Form q: Lewis is a vocalist
r: Lewis is a recording artist
1. Russel is not happy but it is a holiday p∧r s: Seven is a whole number
t: 9 + 13 = 25
2. It is not a holiday and Russel is ¬r ∧¬p
happy. Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

3. Russel is going to a party but Jack is q∧s 1. Lewis is a vocalist if and only if he is a q↔p
not invited. singer.

2. Lewis is a recording artist if and only r↔p

C. Disjunction: if he is a singer,
Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:
p: Jerald is a producer 3. Lewis is not a recording artist if and ~r ↔ ~p
q: Jerald is a composer only if he is not a singer.
r: 2 > 5
s: 5 < 7 4. Seven is not a whole number if and ~s ↔ t
only if 9 + 13 = 25
Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Jerald is a producer or he is a p∨q Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

composer When a compound statement is to be written in
symbolic form, there are instances when simple statements
2. Jerald is not a composer or he is a ¬q ∨ p need to be grouped together. This is done by using the
producer parentheses.
The table below shows examples of compound
3. 2 > 5 or 5 < 7 𝑟∨s statements with grouping symbols.

D. Conditional: Symbolic Form The parentheses indicate that:

In “if p, then q”, p is called the antecedent (hypothesis or
premise), and q is called the consequent (or the conclusion). 𝑝 ⋀ (𝑞 ⋁ 𝑟) q and r are grouped together

Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:
p: It is going to rain
q: I will not go out
r: Cherry is going to visit a friend
s: All even numbers are integers
t: Zero is an integer
Compound Propositions
(𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞)⋁~ r p and ~q are grouped together
(𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞) → (~𝑟 ⋀ ~𝑠) p and q are grouped together.
~r and ~s are grouped together.
When a compound statement is to be written as an
Symbolic Form English sentence, the statements inside the parentheses must
be written on the same side of the comma.
Examples:
Truth Table If a statement is true, its negation is
p: Cathy is good in Chemistry
false.
p: Cathy is good in Statistics If a statement is false, its negation is
p ~p
r: Cathy is a scholar true.
s: Cathy is an athlete. T F
English Sentence Symbolic Form
F T
Cathy is not an athlete, but she is good ~𝑠 ⋀ (𝑝 ⋀ 𝑟)
in Chemistry and she is a scholar Conjunction:

If Cathy is good in Chemistry and she (𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞) →r Truth Table The conjunction p ∧ q is TRUE when
is good in Statistics, then she is a both p and q are true
scholar p p p∧
q
Cathy is not good in Chemistry and (~𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞)⋀ (𝑟 ⋀ 𝑠)
she is not good in Statistics, but she is T T T
a scholar and an athlete
T F F

TRUTH VALUES AND TRUTH TABLES F T F

F F F
The truth value
• of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F)
• of a compound statement depends on the truth values Disjunction:
of its simple statements and its connectives.
Truth Table The disjunction p ∨ q is TRUE if at
A truth table is a table that shows the truth values of a least one of them (either p or q) is
compound statement for all possible truth values of its simple p p p∨ true.
statements. q
Note: 1. The Truth Table of one simple statement consists of
two rows showing the possible truth values of the given T T T
statement.
T F t
Truth Table (Assertion)
F T t
p
F F F
T

F Conditional:

Note: 2. The Truth Table of a compound statement containing Truth Table The conditional p → q is FALSE
two simple statements starts with two columns of four rows when p is true, and q is false. It is
showing the truth values of every possible combination of the p p p→q true in all other cases.
two given statements. The third column shows the truth
values of the given compound statement and their T T T
connectives in all possible cases. This table is the so-called
standard truth table form. T F F

Truth Table F T T
p q Truth Value of the compound statement
F F T
T T

T F

F T Biconditional:

Truth Table The biconditional p ↔ q is TRUE

F F when p and q have the same truth
p p p↔q values.
Study the following truth tables.
Negation: T T T
 Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new
T F F
column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values in the
F T F
next column.
F F T Step 4: Write the truth values of the conditional p → q on
another column.
Step 5: Using the truth values from the negation of p (in
Let us determine the truth values of the following compound step 2) and the negation
statements. of q (in step 3), determine the truth values of ~q ∨ ~p.
1. Five is an even integer and four is an odd number. Step 6: Using the truth values of p → q (in step 4) and ~q ∨
F∧F ~p (in step 5), write the truth values of (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p) in the
F last column.
2. Sampaguita is our national flower or Narra is a vegetable. p q ~p ~q p→q ~q ∨ (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p)
T∨F ~p
T
3. If California is a continent, then the Philippines is a province. T T F F T F F
F→F
T T F F T F T F
4. Five is a factor of 10 if and only if 10 is a multiple of 100.
T↔F F T T F T T T
F
F F T T T T T
Try this!
Given the following propositions with their corresponding
truth values, what is the truth value of the statement "Archie Try this!
has fever and he has difficulty in breathing, but he is infected Construct a truth table for the compound proposition
with COVID 19". (p → ~q) ↔ (~p ∨ q).
p: Archie has fever. (T) Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency
q: Archie has difficulty in breathing. (F) A tautology is a proposition where the truth values are
r: Archie is not infected with COVID 19. (T) always true in all possible cases.
Constructing Truth Tables A contradiction is a proposition where the truth values
Now let us try to construct a truth table. Follow the steps, as are always false in all possible cases.
shown in the examples that follow. A contingency is a proposition where the truth values are
Examples: not always true nor always false.
1. Construct the truth table for the compound statement Examples:
(p ∨ q) ∧ ~ p. 1. Show that ~p ∨ (~q → p) is a tautology.
Solution: Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form. Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Write the truth values of the disjunction p ∨ q on a Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new
new column. column.
Step 3: Negate p, then write the results on the next Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values on
column. another column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of p ∨ q (in step 2) and ~p Step 4: Using the truth values from the negation of q (in
(in step 3), determine the truth values of (p ∨ q) ∧ ~p. Write step 3) and p (in step 1), determine the truth values of ~q → p.
the results in the last column. Step 5: Using the truth values of the negation of p (in step 2)
and ~q →p (in step 4), find the truth values of the disjunction ~p
p q p∨q ~p (p ∨ q) ∧ ~
∨ (~q → p). Write the results in the last column.
T T T F F p q ~p ~q ~q → p ~p ∨ (~q → p)

T F T F F T T F F T T

F T T T T T F F T T T

F F F T F F T T F T T

F F T T F T
2. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p →
q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p).
Solution: It shows that the truth values of ~p ∨ (~q → p) are always true.
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form. Thus, ~p ∨ (~q → p) is a tautology.
2. Is the proposition p ∧ (p → ~p) a tautology, a contradiction, or Since p → q and ~p ∨ q have the same truth values in all
a contingency? possible cases, they are logically equivalent. In symbolic form:
Look at the table below. p → q ⇔ ~p ∨ q or p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q.
2. Is ~p ∧ ~q logically equivalent to p ∨ q? Let us examine the
p ~p p → ~p p ∧ (p → ~p)
truth table below.
T F F F p q ~p ~q p→q ~p→q

F T T F T T F F F T

T F F T F T
Since the truth values of p ∧ (p → ~p) are always false, then it is
a contradiction.
F T T F F T
3. Is (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) a tautology, a contradiction, or a
contingency? F F T T T F
p q ~q p ∧ ~q p∨q (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q)
Since the truth values of ~p ∧ ~q in all cases are not the same
T T F F T F as the truth values of p ∨ q, then ~p ∧ ~q is not logically
equivalent to p ∨ q or in symbols, ~p ∧ ~ q ⇎ p ∨ q.
T F T T T T
3. Verify if ~(p → q) is logically equivalent to p ∧ ~q.
F T F F T F p q ~q p→q ~ (p → q) ~ (p → q)

F F T F F F T T F T F F
Since the truth values of (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) are not always true
T F T F T T
nor always false, then (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) is a contingency.
Try this!
F T F T F F
Tell whether the proposition (q ∨ ~p) →p is a tautology, a
contradiction, or a contingency. F F T T F F

STATEMENTS RELATED TO CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS From the truth table, we can see that ~ (p → q) have the same
AND LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE truth values as p ∧ ~ q. Therefore, they are logically equivalent.
Try this!
Logical Equivalence Is q ∧ ~p logically equivalent to ~p ∨ q? Use the truth table to
Two statements having the same truth values in all show your answer.
possible cases are logically equivalent. The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive
Symbolic form: p <=> q or p ≡ q (read as p and q are There are three statements related to a conditional
logically equivalent) statement. These are the
Examples: converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive.
1. Show that p → q and ~p ∨ q are logically equivalent. Given: conditional statement p → q
Solution:
Converse q→p Interchange the hypothesis (p)
Step 1: Begin with the standard truth table form. and the conclusion (q).
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new
column. Inverse ~p → ~q Negated hypothesis (p) and the
Step 3: Write the truth values of p → q in the next column. negated conclusion (q).
Step 4: Using the truth values of the negation of p (in step
2) and q (in column 2), write the truth values of ~p ∨ q in the Contrapositive ~q → ~p Interchange the negated
last column. hypothesis (p) and the negated
conclusion (q).
p q ~p p→q ~p→q

T T F T T Examples:
Write the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of
T F F F F the following conditional statements:
1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.
F T T T T 2. If you are smart, then you can get the job.
Solution:
F F T T T 1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.
Converse: If I buy a new motorbike, then I get the
loan.
 Inverse: If I do not get the loan, then I will not buy a
new motorbike.
Contrapositive: If I will not buy a new motorbike, then
I do not get the loan.
2. If you are smart, then you can get the job.
Converse: If you can get the job, then you are smart.
Inverse: If you are not smart, then you cannot get the
job.
Contrapositive: If you cannot get the job, then you are
not smart.
Try this!
Tell the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the
conditional statement, "I feel nauseous whenever I stay up late
at night."
Truth Table for the Conditional and its Related Statements
The truth table for the conditional and its related statements is
shown below.

p q ~ ~ Conditi Convers Invers Contraposi

p q onal p ep→q e ~p → tive ~q →
→q ~q ~p

T T F F T T T T

T F F T F T T F

F T T F T F F T

F F T T T T T T

The table also shows that any conditional statement is logically

equivalent to its contrapositive, and its converse is logically
equivalent to its inverse.
Notation:
p → q ≡ ~q → ~p
q → p ≡ ~p → ~q