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Comprehensive utilization of corn starch processing by-products:

A review

Runyang Zhang, Sen Ma, Li Li, Minghui Zhang, Shuangqi Tian,

Dongying Wang, Kunlun Liu, Huamin Liu, Wenxue Zhu, Xuede
Wang

PII: S2590-2598(21)00024-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaost.2021.08.003
Reference: GAOST 57

To appear in: Grain & Oil Science and Technology

Received date: 25 June 2021

Revised date: 8 August 2021
Accepted date: 25 August 2021

Please cite this article as: R. Zhang, S. Ma, L. Li, et al., Comprehensive utilization of corn
starch processing by-products: A review, Grain & Oil Science and Technology (2021),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaost.2021.08.003

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Comprehensive utilization of corn starch processing by-products: A

review
Runyang Zhang, Sen Ma, Li Li, Minghui Zhang, Shuangqi Tian, Dongying Wang,
Kunlun Liu, Huamin Liu, Wenxue Zhu* zhuwenxue67@126.com, Xuede Wang*
wang-xuede1962@126.com
College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan University of Technology,
Zhengzhou 450001, China
*
Corresponding authors.

Abstract

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Corn is a high starchy cereal crop with the highest production and provides over
85% of the starch produced worldwide. Various by-products, differentiated by

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technological process features such as steep liquor, corn germ, corn bran, gluten, are
created largely during corn starch processing. They are inexpensive, nutrient-rich, and
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vary widely in chemical composition such as proteins, oils, carbohydrates, and
minerals. In an increasingly resource-constrained modern world, the utilization
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approach of these by-products for non-starch industrial processing is attractive widely

considering both nutritive value and economic aspects. In fact, at present, applications
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of these by-products can often be found in feed, fermentation, nutrient extraction and
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other industries. For example, protein-rich corn gluten can be used as a good animal
feed, and corn germ can be used as a raw material for the high-quality edible oil
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industry. Undoubtedly, increasing utilization means that these by-products will no

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longer be treated as waste but will be transformed into high value-added products. In
this work, the separation process and chemical composition of several main by-
products of the corn starch industry is briefly described, and the application in many
industrial fields of these by-products over the last ten years are discussed in particular.
This review attempts to summarise all aspects of the application and research of these
by-products. For the by-products of the corn starch industry, the most promising way
is to be utilized in high value and used to produce high value-added products.
According to the characteristics of their chemical composition, they have a better
application prospect and research significance in the industries directly related to
human beings, such as medicine, green food and health care products. In fact, in
recent years, some researchers have recognized this and carried out the research. It is
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clear from these studies that the main issues to be faced now and in the future are how
to produce efficiently while maintaining the quality of the product and using it
effectively. The retrospective discussions also provide some ideas for other grain and
oilseed crops to be fully utilized.

Keywords
Corn starch processing; By-products; Utilization

1. Introduction
Corn, or maize (Zea mays L.), is a monocotyledonous annual herb cereal crop

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belonging to the grass family. It is thought to have originated in Mesoamerica and is
now cultivated globally in tropical and temperate regions, such as the Americas, East
Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, European Union, etc. [1, 2].
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Corn kernels consist of 61%–78% starch on a dry basis (DB), non-starch
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polysaccharides (about 10%, DB), protein (6%–12%, DB), and lipids (3%–6%, DB)
[3, 4]. Besides, it is easily dried and readily transportable. Therefore, corn is a near-
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perfect starch grain crop for the food industry. As a result, it’s the leading and
important cereal crop in the world. It is estimated that world corn production is more
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than 1136.3 MMT (million metric tons) in 2020–2021(Sep–Aug), and is much higher
than the production of wheat (776.8 MMT) and rice (504.4 MMT). Furthermore,
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about 31.7% (360.3 MMT) was produced in the United States, followed by China
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(260.6 MMT) and Brazil (109.0 MMT) [5]. The year before, 1150.5 MMT was
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consumed worldwide, with the United States (305.4 MMT), China (289.0 MMT) as
the major consumers of corn. About 30% of total corn production is consumed as
industrial materials, and the consumption of the United States accounts for 40% of
those raw materials [6].
Corn, as the major starch source, provides over 85% of the starch produced all
over the world [6]. The starch amylose and amylopectin molecules have distinctive
characteristics that provide a wide array of properties. The functional diversity
provided by amylose and amylopectin molecules with a wide array of distinctive
properties makes native and modified corn starch an adaptable and valuable industry
resource. Therefore, these starches are widely applied as the thickener, gelling agent,
bulking agent and water retention agent in the food industry [7]. Meanwhile, about
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40% of corn starch from wet-milled processing is applied for the non-food industry,
such as paper-making, textiles, laundry, gypsum wallboard, adhesives, bio-plastics,
glass-fibre sizing [6, 8]. Besides, with the development of biotechnology, corn starch
is now the main material used in bioethanol production, because it can be easily
converted into simple sugars by hydrolysis and then fed to Saccharomyces cerevisiae
before fermentation to produce ethanol. The ethanol manufacturing industry provides
a huge demand for starch, and more than 90% of the ethanol produced material comes
from corn in the United States [8].
The corn starch granule is abundant in the endosperm of corn kernel, and is
developed by successive layering of amorphous and crystalline starch molecules, but

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surrounded with protein matrixes and protein bodies [9]. While, the whole intact corn

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kernel consists of endosperm (82%–84%, DB), germ (10%–12%, DB), pericarp
(5%–6%, DB), and tip cap (1%) [10], see Fig. 1. All ingredients except starch must
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be removed for the production of corn starch. The seed coat would be removed
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during corn starch processing and named bran but is rich in polysaccharides, such as
cellulose and hemicellulose. During this de-branning processing, the tip cap, namely
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the connection point between kernel and cob, was also largely removed. Similarly,
the germ/embryo, containing almost all the oil of the corn kernel, is also separated
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from the kernel [11]. Therefore, during the process of starch production, many by-
products rich in organic ingredients and nutrients are also produced, such as corn
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bran, corn germ, corn steep liquor, corn gluten, etc.

In the current century, energy conservation, emission reduction and
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environmental protection are among the biggest challenges facing industrial

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production and human beings. As revealed by numerous researches, all the by-
products from crops have unthinkable potential value and benefits [12, 13]. Thus, the
effective transformation, cyclic utilization of these by-products’ resources, is of great
significance to human beings [14–16]. The starch processing industry represents an
important role in the food or non-food industrial field. About 100 million tons of
organic by-products were produced from the starch industry every year [16]. These
by-products are currently used for non-starch industrial processing in different ways.
The corn germ can be used to extract edible oil and to process foodstuffs such as
bread and biscuits. It can also be used as a protein feed for animals in the same way as
corn gluten. Corn bran can be used to extract edible oils, and is more commonly used
in the production of dietary fibre, sterol and zeaxanthin. Corn steep liquor has been
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used extensively in the fermentation industry as an ingredient in the preparation of

culture media for antibiotics, glutamate and nucleotides, and also for the production of
phytic acid [6, 7, 9]. These by-products were processed into higher-value products
instead of being used wastefully or inefficiently. Indeed, sustainable processing
means, which are based on cost reduction, environmentally friendly production,
product acceptability, have become the greatest challenges. Therefore, the by-products
were designed and developed innovative products is a very important development
approach for food and other industries [17].
This article aims to summarize and discuss the current utilization approach and
research of the by-products of the corn starch industry for animal feed, a fermentation

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substrate, polysaccharides, oil, protein, etc. This information could help improve the

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understanding of recent findings and the development of further research in this field.
Longitudinal
Whole

Floury
Endosperm
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Cross section

Pericarp
section
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Horny
Endosperm
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Embryo

Tip cap
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Fig. 1. A schematic of mature corn kernel with major components.

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2. By-products of corn starch processing

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Milling schemes represent the principal procedure to yield corn starch and are
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conveniently classified as wet or dry (Fig. 2.), while each has its characteristics [18].
Dry milling is a gradually abrasive technique separating the bran and germ to obtain
dry-milled cornflour [19]. Its products mostly serve as feed, food, industrial material
and as starch sources for ethanol production, fermentation processes and related starch
conversions. Dry milling production of corn has increased in the last decade years due
to the increasing demand for corn flour used for fermentation ethanol. Moreover, 90%
of corn bioethanol is processed from dry-milled corn [20–22].
Wet milling aims to fractionate different components of the kernel and release
starch granules with minimal mechanical damage. High purity starch can be yielded
by this technique, which is the distinct advantage over dry milling. Wet milling is used
to produce high purity starches (99.95%), and more than 85% of corn starch is
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produced by wet milling. Corn kernel was firstly steeping by adding the sulfurous
acid solution to increase the permeability of corn hull, to swell the kernel, reduce
mechanical strength, and disrupt the protein wrapping around the starch granules.
Then the germ, bran and protein can be easily separated in subsequent processing,
such as grind screen and washing [23]. This industrial process involves chemical,
biochemical, and mechanical operations to separate pure starch fractions from corn
kernels. Various products were isolated, including starch (about 68.0%), corn bran
(12.0%), corn germ (7.5%), steep liquor (6.5%), gluten (5.6%), and others (0.04%)
[24]. Therefore, several by-products were also obtained during this processing except
for starch [25]. Redundant nutrient substances and microelements containing these by-

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products cannot be ignored, and are now generally exploited and used by other

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industries. For example, the recovered protein meal and bran can be applied in feed
factories, and the corn germ has also found lipid applications for edible oil
supplements [26, 27].
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Wet milling Dry milling
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Corn kernel Corn kernel

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Steeping Soak water

First grind screen Coarse grind

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Second grind screen Remove germ

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Fine grind screen Grind, add water

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Screen bend Separate fiber

Gluten separation Adjust specific gravity

Washing Dry grind

Starch Corn flour

Fig. 2. The wet and dry milling processes.

In brief, some by-products were obtained from starch processing (Table 1), and
their differences in producing process and chemical composition between these by-
products are briefly described below.
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2.1. Corn steep liquor

During steeping, the corn was softened by steep water to produce optimum
efficiency of grinding kernel and separating corn components. It involves maintaining
the correct balance of sulfur dioxide concentration, temperature, water flow, and
Pondus Hydrogenii value (pH) during soaking. Corn kernels are generally soaked in
steep water for 30–40 hours at 48–52 ℃. The germ cell membranes become porous
and organic compounds are easily liberated intactly and separated from hull or
endosperm. At this point, approximately 6.0%–6.5% (dry matter content) of the corn
kernel is released into the condensed steep water, and mainly in the organic
compounds of living cells, such as proteins (40% –50%), minerals, soluble sugars,

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amino acids, etc. [28, 29]. The previous study indicated that about 50% of steep

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water-soluble matter belonging to the corn germ, because of the high proportion
(95%) of naturally soluble substances in the germ, such as germ protein (60%). In
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contrast, only 9% of the endosperm protein can be solubilized during steeping [30,
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31].
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2.2 Corn germ

After steeping the corn kernel undergoes the first milling operation by an attrition
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mill, and more than half of starch and germ is released from the kernel. Then the
separation process of the heavier kernel and oil-rich germ is proceeded by continuous
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flow-through liquid cyclones or hydro clones taking advantage of the large density
difference between them. The isolated germ was washed and dewatered to 50%–55%
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water content to be used for other products (wet weight basis) [32]. Typically, the
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crude oil of corn kernel (4%) is almost stored in corn germ and the entire germ mainly
contains oil (48%), protein (13%), and starch (12%). However, the recovery germ
composition in oil (18%–41%), protein (12%–21%) and starch (6%–21%) is also
influenced by growing conditions, genetic factors, and isolation methods [33]. Corn
germ oil can reduce the risk of chronic diseases and exhibits a long shelf life, because
of its high content of unsaturated fatty acids and tocopherols [34–36]. Regarding
proteins, albumins, globulins, water-soluble and saline-soluble proteins, represent
over 60% of germ protein which accounts for 29% of total kernel protein [37, 38].
2.3 Corn bran
Corn bran mainly comes from the pericarp, which is another by-product derived
from the production of corn starch [39]. Corn bran is lignocellulosic material
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containing complex carbohydrate polymers, such as cellulose (20%), hemicellulose

(30%–50%), starch (9%–23%), protein (10%–13%), crude oil (2%–3%), and phenolic
acids (4%, mainly ferulic and diferulic acid) [40]. It is usually removed as the by-
product during dry milling processing, also known as dehulling or de-branning [41].
During the second milling step, the endosperm particles are milled into the fine slurry
to release the starch granules from the protein matrix, and the pericarp also is released
and separated by a metal sieve [39]. Isolated bran was recognized to produce dietary
fibre which is consumed by humans, such as bread, biscuits, pasta and snacks. It is an
attractive alternative for the preparation of bread, biscuits, pasta and extruded snacks.
2.4 Corn gluten

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Corn gluten mainly comes from steep liquor and corn bran and may also contain

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few germs and damaged corn kernels. Dry corn gluten typically contains 90% dry
matter, including considerable crude protein (19%–24%). This content of proteins is
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much higher than corn seed, beans, and sunflower seeds. Therefore, it is an attractive
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source for the protein product processing industry [42]. Gluten and starch released by
milling must be separated from the fibre, which is usually accomplished by taking
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advantage of the difference between the fine particle sizes of starch granules and
gluten particles, and the larger endosperm and pericarp particles. The underflow from
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the germ cyclones containing fibre and pieces of horny endosperm is more thoroughly
milled to recover the maximum yield of starch. Typically, finished fibre contains
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15%–20% starch and 65%–75% moisture content [43]. Then, these fibres are blended
with concentrated steep liquor, corn cleaning, spent (de-oiled) germ flakes and starch
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hydrolysate residue, and finally dried to produce corn gluten [44]. Therefore, dietary
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fibre is rich in gluten and also regarded as an energy fibre source.

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Table 1. Compositional values (%) for corn starch processing by-products

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Items Corn bran Corn germ Corn gluten Steep liquor Reference

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Main components
Moisture (%) 8–10 10–12 2–10 45–55
Protein (%) 10–13 12–21 19–24 40–50
Fat (%) 2–3 18–41 2-3 0
Fibre (%)
Neutral detergent fiber (%)
Acid Detergent Fiber (%)
12.3
44.2
14.5
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10.4
45.0
12.2
1.2
4.1
1.6
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39.0
17.7 [18, 27, 33,
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Lignin (%) 2.2 2.4 0.3 4.8 40, 45–47]
Ether extract (%) 4.6 8.1 2.9 13.0
Ash (%) 2–5 3–5 8-9 6–8
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Starch (%) 9–23 6–21 15 -

Total sugars (%) 2.8 1.55 2.11 3.0
Gross energy (MJ/kg) 18.5 20.7 23.1 21.7
Minerals
Calcium (%) 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03
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Phosphorus (%) 0.60 1.19 1.18 0.87

Potassium (%) 0.83 1.07 1.54 0.93
Sodium (%) 0.37 0.00 0.28 0.27
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Magnesium (%) 0.26 0.46 0.48 0.32 [22, 48, 49]

Manganese (mg/kg) 13.0 18.0 23.5 16.5
Zinc (mg/kg) 233.0 90.0 106.0 62.5
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Copper (mg/kg) 3.5 5.0 3.5 6.0

Iron (mg/kg) 90.0 72.5 95.5 116.0
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Amino acids
Alanine (%) 0.64 1.38 5.30 7.10
Arginine (%) 0.40 1.55 2.26 3.90
Aspartic acid (%) 0.55 1.68 3.85 6.70
Cystine (%) 0.23 0.33 1.14 1.90
Glutamic acid (%) 1.64 2.84 12.04 14.60
Glycine (%) 0.40 1.23 1.84 3.80
Histidine (%) 0.34 0.64 1.31 2.30
Isoleucine (%) 0.34 0.84 2.60 3.10
Leucine (%) 1.13 1.86 10.09 10.10
[22, 47–50]
Lysine (%) 0.30 0.94 1.18 3.00
Methionine (%) 0.16 0.40 1.61 1.80
Phenylalanine (%) 0.46 1.04 4.30 4.10
Proline (%) 0.97 1.09 5.68 7.40
Serine (%) 0.37 0.80 2.54 4.60
Threonine (%) 0.37 0.83 2.03 3.30
Tryptophan (%) 0.07 0.18 0.44 0.40
Tyrosine (%) 0.33 0.67 3.27 -
Valine (%) 0.48 1.30 2.89 4.30
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3. Application of corn starch processing by-products

3.1. Livestock and poultry feed

Table 2. Nutritional value of by-products as feed

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Corn Corn gluten Corn gluten
Items Corn germ Reference
bran feed meal
Ruminant nutritive values
OM digestibility (%) 74.8 82.4 79.3 96.1
Energy digestibility (%)
DE ruminants (MJ/kg)
72.4
13.4
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80.4
16.8
84.6
24.5
99.1
22.9 [47, 51–54]
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ME ruminants (MJ/kg) 11.0 14.9 20.3 16.6
Nitrogen digestibility, ruminants (%) - 74.4 - 81.0
Pig nutritive values
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Energy digestibility, growing pig (%) 79.2 65.4 72.6 93.0

DE growing pig (MJ/kg) 12.6 12.5 15.1 21.4
[48, 49, 55,
MEn growing pig (MJ/kg) 12.88 11.6 13.9 19.8
56]
NE growing pig (MJ/kg) 7.3 7.7 9.2 12.7
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Nitrogen digestibility, growing pig (%) 45.5 60.2 71.0 86.2

Poultry nutritive values
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AMEn cockerel (MJ/kg DM) 8.8 8.7 9.8 16.8

[47, 57– 59]
AMEn broiler (MJ/kg DM) - 8.5 - 16.6
Notes: OM: Organic Matter; DE: Digestible Energy; ME: Metabolizable Energy; MEn: Metabolizable
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Energy, Nitrogen-corrected; NE: Net Energy; AMEn: Apparent Metabolizable Energy, Nitrogen-
corrected.
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The downstream processing of corn mainly focuses on the utilization of corn starch,
and the non-starch parts are not fully utilized. Most of them are used as a feed or
directly discharged in the form of wastewater, with low added value. It also
exacerbates environmental pollution. Corn starch processing by-products contain
large amounts of protein and carbohydrates, which are the high-quality raw material
for livestock and poultry feed [60]. Corn bran, germ meal, corn gluten and gluten
meal are feed commodities traded worldwide, while corn pulp and corn fibre usually
need to be treated or fermented before they can be added to animal diets [60, 61]. Due
to the redistribution of nutrients in the processing, the chemical components and
nutritional value of different corn starch processing by-products are differing greatly,
and the digestion characteristics in different animals are also different (Table 1, 2).
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Corn bran is usually used as an energy source for ruminants due to its lower price
than grain and better nutritional value depending on chemical composition and
content. Also, because of the considerable content of dietary fibre, adding bran in the
feed of livestock and poultry can effectively regulate the structure of digestive tract
flora and promote the health status of livestock and poultry [61]. Corn bran can be
used to fully replace corn grain in the concentrate fed to cows without lowering milk
quality [62, 63]. However, a protein supplement is necessary for corn bran as feed. In
Tanzania, sunflower meals were added to corn bran as protein sources and the mixture
was effectively to increase the yield of milk [64]. The noticeable advantage of corn

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bran is it hardly causes negative digestive interactions with other ingredients. In
Kenya, supplementation with 1 kg of dry corn bran in elephant grass did not
significantly reduce the rumen degradation of forage [64]. For Non-Ruminants,
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nutrient digestibility, growth performance, gut hormones, or fermentation products of
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weaned pigs cannot be dietarily affected by corn bran. While 5% corn bran was added
in the post-weaning diet, intestinal microbial diversity was increased. This also leads
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to more fibrolytic bacteria and promotes the anti-inflammatory of piglets [65].

Corn gluten meal is rich in protein (60%–75%), residual starch (15%–20%) and has
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a small amount of crude fibre (1%), fat (3%) and minerals (2%). Due to its high
protein content, corn gluten meal is mostly used as a potential alternative to other
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plant or animal-based proteins [66]. In recent years, there has been more research on
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the application of corn gluten meals in the diets of broilers, beef cattle and dairy cows,
but less in pig production. Compared with traditional technology, at present, corn
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gluten meal is mostly fermented to produce soluble peptides, which improves its
utilization rate in livestock feed [67]. Supplementation with a 60:40 blend of ground
corn gluten meal significantly increased cow’s milk production when the cows are
restricted grazing on Italian ryegrass [68]. In another similar study, by-pass protein
intake milk yield, milk protein content and body condition score of the cow were
increased, while body weight losses were reduced [69]. However, the low lysine and
tryptophan content of corn gluten meal is the main factor limiting its use in pig diets,
and it is necessary to supplement an appropriate amount of lysine in practical
application. When 5% corn gluten meal and lysine were added to the diets of
growing-finishing pigs, there was no significant difference in growth performance
between corn gluten meal added and control groups [70]. The application of corn
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gluten mainly focused on ruminants, but less on monogastric animal feed. Plenty of
wet gluten feed was added to the diet of dairy cows in the feeding factory. These cows
fed 20% to 35% wet corn gluten feed was more efficiently produced energy-corrected
milk than controls. Moreover, yields of milk protein and lactose were increased, with
a lower fat percentage, while fat yield was unaffected [71]. The animal (rowing ewes)
performance improved when dehydrated corn gluten feed (10% or 20% dietary levels)
was blended in a rice straw/concentrate diet, and daily gain and feed was significantly
increased [72].
The dietary fibre content of corn gluten is also much higher than corn kernel. For
growing pigs, the Net Energy of corn gluten is about 60% that of corn grain [73].

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After 15% corn gluten feed was added to the pig diet, the growth performance was
significantly improved. But when the proportion of corn gluten increased to 30%, the
growth performance and nutrient digestibility were relatively decreased. Therefore,
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corn gluten feed can be added 15%–30% to the pig diet [74].
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Corn germ was usually firstly extracted oil and the defat germ (corn germ meal)
was also considered a good ingredient for all livestock species [75]. It has good
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palatability, rich in digestible amino acids and hemicellulose, and can be used as
protein feed for monogastric animals, as well as protein and energy feed for ruminants
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[76]. Due to the variety and processing technology of corn, the effective energy of
different corn germ meals has a great difference [77]. Corn germ meals have been
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widely used as a substitute for corn grain in Brazil, China and Ethiopia. However, the
corn germ meal was detrimental to the performance of lamb [78]. Furthermore, it is
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not recommended to extrapolate the results of those trials to all types of corn germ
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meal. In the USA, diet consumption, net yield, weight gain, feed coefficient, survival,
fillet yield, and fillet protein, fat and moisture concentrations were not affected by
adding corn germ meals included at up to 35% in the diets of channel catfish
fingerlings. However, it has been shown that adding corn germ meal to the diet of
coloured broilers could significantly reduce the digestibility and metabolism of dry
matter and organic matter, but 0–25% addition level had no effect on Carcass
Performance of coloured broilers, and 0.05% phytase had no significant effect on
growth performance [79]. The content of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in egg
yolk increased with the increase of corn germ meal in the diet of laying hens, and the
feeding effect was the best when 0.5% was added [80].
Supplementation with a 60:40 blend of ground corn gluten meal significantly
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increased cow’s milk production when the cows are restricted grazing on Italian
ryegrass [68]. In another similar study, by-pass protein intake milk yield, milk protein
content and body condition score of the cow were increased, while body weight losses
were reduced [69].
In brief, by-products from corn starch processing had good application effects and
prospects in livestock and poultry production. However, because of the higher fibre
content, and also varied content of other nutrients such as crude protein and energy
due to different types of raw materials and processing techniques, its application in
the production of some monogastric animals was limited. At present, with
fermentation or combining with enzyme and other feed materials, the feed value and

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application range of corn starch processing by-products can be improved greatly. To

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improve the animal’s growth performance and health level, corn pulp can be made
into enzyme-hydrolyzed protein feed after enzymolysis treatment. 10% corn pulp
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enzyme-hydrolyzed protein feed was proven to increase the average daily gain of
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meat rabbits in an experiment [81].
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3.2. Food ingredients

The use of corn starch by-products for animal feed is a very easy application
approach to process them. This is because animals do not have a high demand for
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quality feed compared to humans. But this application route also significantly reduces
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the added value of the by-products. To improve the application value of by-products,
many researchers consider using them as food ingredients directly in human food. By-
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products derived from corn starch processing, which are rich in fibre, protein and
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antioxidants can be added as low-cost and low-calorie agents in food products to

partially substitute fat or sugar [82]. The corn bran contains a high content of dietary
fibre (up to 90%), which can be used to increase the total fibre content of foods at low
levels of inclusion. In a study, used corn bran was added at 10%–80% inclusion in
extruded snacks which were made with different starch (10%–80%) and Bambara nut
flour (10%–80%). The total dietary fibre in all treatments was above 7%, therefore the
extruder can be considered to be high fibre [83]. But no sensory analyses were carried
out as part of this study. Sousa et al. [84] evaluated the application of corn bran to
low-calorie snack bars. Formulations with up to 40% corn bran were well accepted by
the judges, by comparison with the formulation without corn bran. In another study,
maize milling by-product was also contained in the short-dough biscuit, and the
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supplement of wheat flour at a level not exceeding 20% was necessary. This product
was equally well received by the panellists that took part in the sensory evaluation
[85]. The defatted germ flour can be added to wheat flour and then the protein content
significantly increases in the blends. Moreover, the textural properties increased with
the defatted germ flour incorporation level up to 30%, such as fracture force,
hardness, breaking strength, breaking energy, cutting strength and cutting energy [86].
Enrichment of bread and bun with dietary fibres from corn starch processing by-
products is also an interesting way. It can increase consumers' fibre intake and
decreases by-products [87]. When the corn bran was developed to partially replace
flour at a level of 18%, 20%, and 22% in white bread, the product was a much smaller

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loaf volume than control bread and had worse microstructure and textural properties.

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To resolve the issue effectively, the authors have to increase its standard values from
38.3%, 38.6%, 38.8% to 40.8%, 41.9%, and 44.0%, respectively. Then, the product
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presented similar microstructure, volume, and textural properties compared to the
e-
control bread [88]. In another recent study, the bun was produced by blending wheat
flour with different proportions of defatted germ flour (5%–25%). With the increase in
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proportion, the fibre content, yield and hardness increased, but volume decreased.
Overall, the bun prepared from 10% incorporation of defatted germ flour scored
al

highest for its comprehensive appearance [89]. The fortification of bread with maize
germ protein hydrolysate (1%–4%) would improve the bread texture with reductions
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in hardness and chewiness during storage [90].

Recent study [91] reported that emulsion-based meat products can be added dietary
u

fibre from corn bran without reducing its sensory and textural quality. Panthera et al.
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[91] added the corn bran (5–15 g) in chicken nuggets and the firmness and toughness
scores of products increased significantly (P < 0.01) with the increase of bran
proportion. A study showed the chicken sausages were developed with good
acceptability, higher dietary fibre content and storability by replacing lean meat with
corn bran at a 3% level [92].
These reports revealed that by-products of corn starch processing can be used as
fortification of biscuits, bread, meat products for human consumption to improve their
nutritional quality. Certainly, by-products as additives in the food chain entail the final
products must comply with the safety regulations of the food industry.
3.3. Substrate resource of biological fermentation
Corn starch processing by-products cannot only be used as food sources for
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humans and animals, but also as substrates for biological fermentation and energy
sources for microorganisms. The field of biological fermentation has been expanding,
including organic acids, amino acids, starch sugar, enzyme preparations, yeast,
polyols, multi-functional biological products, biological medicine, paper making, new
energy, etc. It is an important way to solve the major problems of mankind [93]. Corn
contains a variety of rich nutrients, and various fermentation products can be obtained
through fermentation. The alcohol industry was the first to use corn fermentation to
produce bioethanol. Later, with the simultaneous development of various technologies
and the increasing demand of people, some fermented products began to be produced
on a large scale and industrialized, including biosurfactants, amino acids, antibiotics,

f
organic acid, etc. (Fig. 3).

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pr
e-
Pr
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u rn
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Fig. 3. Application of corn starch by-products in biological fermentation.

Biosurfactants are compounds derived from microorganisms, which have surface

activity, low toxicity and high biodegradability. The use of industrial waste to produce
high value-added biomolecules, such as biosurfactants, is a promising method to
reduce the total cost of production. It has recently been discovered that there are
biosurfactants produced by Bacillus strains in corn steep liquor which is a liquid waste
obtained from the corn milling process. The Bacillus strain was subjected to 16S
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rRNA amplification and sequence analysis and then was identified as Aneurinibacillus
aneurinilyticus. The biosurfactant is composed of a mixture of lipopeptides,
containing C16 and C18 fatty acids and amino acids, including valine, phenylalanine,
proline, cysteine, histidine, aspartic acid/asparagine, alanine, glycine,
leucine/isoleucine [93]. In another similar study, biosurfactant production by Mucor
circinelloides using apple peel, vegetable oil and corn steep liquor (2%) as substrate
was considered as a promise emulsifier agent [94]. One study aims to use Rhizopus
UCP 1607 to produce biosurfactants with crude glycerol (3%) and corn steep liquor
(5%) as substrates. These biosurfactants are composed of protein (38.0%),
carbohydrates (35.4%) and lipids (5.5%), and can reduce the surface tension of water

f
from 72.0 to 28.8 mN/m, and the yield was 1.74 g/L [95].

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Corn steep liquor is also commonly used as a media supplement for the
fermentation industry of penicillin, erythromycin, and gentian. Because it is widely
pr
considered as a cheap N-, C-, vitamin or trace element source and as an alternative to
e-
expensive media ingredients. The most prominent example is the production process
of Penicillin, which is a typical secondary metabolite of microorganisms. The
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productivity has increased about 20%, owing the corn steep liquor was added
since1940s [96].
al

The numerous applications of citric acid have led to continuous research on

improving production systems and reducing the cost of substrates. In one study, corn
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steep liquor was used as a low-cost and non-seasonal nutrient source for the growth of
Yarrowia lipolytica to produce citric acid. The citric acid yield of up to 38 g/L in flask
u

culture after proper manipulation. In addition, the scale-up of the bioreactor increased
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productivity by 130% and greatly reduced the fermentation time. Overall, the
combination of these ingredients from the corn starch processing industry and low-
cost nutritional sources that can be stored at room temperature seems attractive for
citric acid production [97]. Rivas et al. [98] studied glucose consumption and lactic
acid generation using a variety of media made with different nutrient
supplementation. The results showed media containing glucose, the biomass of D.
hansenii and corn steep liquor as unique components led to product yields similar to
those obtained in a fully supplemented medium under selected conditions.
The utilization of corn bran for inulinase production by Penicillium oxalicum has
been studied. The optimized conditions are moisture (80%), incubation time (6.0
days) and pH (6.5) and substantial inulinase production (77.95 IU/GDS) was
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obtained. Hence, corn bran is a good substrate for inulinase production by P. oxalicum
at laboratory scale [99].
Therefore, corn starch by-product is a commonly applied raw material in
biological fermentation processes. However, its mechanistic impact on process
performance is still not completely unravelled.

3.4 Extraction of polysaccharide

In the previous sections, it was described that corn starch by-products can be
used as food ingredients for humans, or animal feeds, or as fermentation substrates for
microorganisms. These utilization approaches mainly apply the by-product as a

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whole, rather than extract and apply a specific component of the by-product. There are

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many nutrients and functional substances worth separating and extracting from the by-
products of corn starch processing. The soluble polysaccharide from the corn hull is
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valuable for development. Polysaccharide is the main component of corn hull, which
e-
is a good edible plant compound. It has the effect of reducing blood sugar, blood
lipids and blood pressure, promoting bowel movement and treating colon cancer
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[100]. The polysaccharide extracted from corn hull with functional properties and
biological activities is shown in Fig. 4. Generally, the following extraction methods
al

are used: solvent extraction, enzyme extraction, ultrasonic and microwave-assisted

methods and so on. The solvent extraction method uses water, acid or alkali solvent
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for extraction. The method is mild and easy to operate, but the extraction cycle is
long, the yield of the product is low, acid and alkali will destroy the stereo structure
u

and activity of polysaccharides. Compound enzymes are often used in enzymatic

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extraction. The enzymatic extraction conditions are mild, the extraction rate is high,
and it has a wide range of industrial applications. Compared with traditional solvent
extraction methods, ultrasonic and microwave-assisted methods have higher
extraction efficiency and less damage to the structure of polysaccharides. Microbial
fermentation has also been studied. Research on submerged fermentation using corn
bran acid hydrolysate (CBAH) as a nutrient source and utilizing lasiodiplodan to
produce β-glucan exopolysaccharide [101]. Steam explosion with periodic peristalsis
is also exploited to separate corn pericarp and can improve the extraction rate [102].
The structure and purity of polysaccharides are usually identified by NMR and IR.
Corn bran hemicellulose was purified to obtain corn fibre glue. The molecular
structure information of PCFG and its acid hydrolysates was provided by NMR and
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methylation analysis [103].

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Fig. 4. The polysaccharide extracted from corn bran with its functional properties

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Recently, chemical modifications of polysaccharides, such as sulfation,
carboxymethylation, acetylation, and oxidation have been extensively researched.
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Ultrasound-assisted extraction of polysaccharides from corn bran and then
e-
carboxymethylation could make the surface of polysaccharides particles loose.
Carboxymethylated polysaccharides can inhibit the proliferation of A549 and HepG-2
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cells, and improve its antioxidant activity [104]. Corn bran arabinoxylan (CAX) was
esterified by glucuric acid (SA) to obtain glucuric acid corn bran arabinoxylan ester
al

(SA-CAX) with different degrees of substitution. It has shown that SA-CAX has
higher antioxidant activity and gel behaviour [105].
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Corn bran dietary fibre has attracted much attention because of its anti-cancer
and hypolipidemic activities. Dietary fibre is prepared by physical, chemical and
u

biological methods. Physical methods include high temperature and high-pressure

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method, ultrasonic method, ultra-micro pulverization method, etc. However, these

methods have the problem of high energy consumption and are usually used together
with other methods. The chemical method uses chemical reagents such as acids and
alkalis to process raw materials. Its extraction process is simple, and it can remove
starch and protein well. Fermentation can also be used to extract dietary fibre, but its
application is limited due to the long fermentation period. The enzymatic method is
currently the main method of extracting dietary fibre, and the enzymatic reaction
conditions are mild. Xylanase has been studied extensively. Appropriate xylanase has
been shown to affect the binding of corn bran dietary fibre to bile salt [106]. Chemical
and enzymatic methods can also be combined to extract dietary fibre from corn.
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Firstly, enzymatic decomposition was adopted and followed by alkali modification at

high temperature and high pressure. It was an effective method for glycosidic bond
cracking. Through this approach, corn dietary fibre with a larger specific surface area
and more hydroxyl groups could be obtained, which could combine a large amount of
water, nitrite and blood lipids. The physiological activity assay shows that dietary
fibre extracted by enzymatic chemistry is an ideal dietary component to reduce cancer
risk by adsorbing dietary nitrites and to prevent hyperlipidemia by lowering lipid
concentrations [107].
Corn bran fibre is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Lignin
is the most difficult impurity to remove in the process of cellulose extraction, and the

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content of lignin in corn hull is less than other by-product raw materials such as straw,

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rice husk and bagasse. Therefore, corn husk can be used as a high-quality raw
material for cellulose extraction. The main processing methods of lignin are physical,
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chemical and microbial. Because of environmental protection, convenience and
e-
quickness, cellulase hydrolysis is the most suitable method to produce corn husk fibre.
Cellulose is the main component of the corn hull. Cellulase can easily remove the
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loose tissue cellulose around the fibre. However, if the treatment time is too long, the
strength of the fibre will be destroyed. Moreover, Ultrasonic-assisted extraction [108],
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lye separation and enzymatic extraction are also available methods [109]. A previous
study revealed the influence of acid hydrolysis reaction time and fibre/acid ratio on
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the crystallinity, particle size and thermal stability of nanocrystalline cellulose. The
results show that all these factors have a certain influence, and the reaction time has
u

the most influence [110]. The okra bast fibre and corn bran fibres were treated by
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different degumming methods, such as alkalization, bleaching and vinyl acetate. Corn
hull fibres were found to be more susceptible to chemical treatment, and corn husk
fibres treated with vinyl acetate had the highest mechanical strength. Therefore, corn
husk fibre may have applications in non-load-bearing applications, such as insulation
or noise control [111]. Corn bran and oat hulls were concentrated and then rotated or
spray-dried to produce crude bio-based fibrous gum, which has functional
characteristics, such as water-in-oil and oil-in-water emulsifier, binder and antioxidant
[112]. Further treatment of the extracted corn fibre can increase its application in
industry, such as improving the emulsification stability, increasing the mechanical
properties of the membrane, etc. However, the modification method of corn fibre
extraction still needs to be further studied to expand its application in various
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products. Fibres are widely used in industry. To improve their properties, they are
modified as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Methods for modification of corn fiber

Technology Conditions Major findings Reference
Higher mechanical strength
Via different degumming methods
for corn husk fibres, and it
and subjected to different chemical
may find use in non-load
Degumming treatments including alkalization, [105]
bearing applications like
bleaching, maleic anhydrite and
thermal insulation or noise
vinyl acetate treatments.
control.
Preparation of CMC from husk
cellulose was carried out by an
The synthesis of CMC with
etherification process, using sodium
Carboxymethylation higher DS as well as higher [113]
hydroxide and monochloroacetic

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purity.
acid, with ethanol as the supporting

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medium.
Corn fibre gum was covalently Milk protein combined with
Conjugation with
conjugated with lactoglobulin and corn fibre can improve its [114]
protein
whey protein isolate.
pr emulsifying stability.

Antioxidant properties, gel properties, immunostimulatory and anti-metastatic

e-
activity are the functional properties of corn fibre polysaccharides. Corn fibre
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polysaccharide has antioxidant activity in vitro. Arabinoxylan is the main structural

polysaccharide of corn fibre polysaccharide, which contains ferulic acid and other
components, and is believed to provide antioxidant capacity. Sulfated corn bran
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polysaccharide was obtained from corn bran by sulfation and showed strong
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scavenging ability to free radical (DPPH and ABTS) and iron-chelating ability, and it
can inhibit the proliferation of two kinds of cancer cells [115]. Water-extractable AXs
u

are well-known owing to their ability to form viscous solutions and their gelling
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capacity after being treated with the oxidizing agent. As is known to all, gel formation
occurs through oxidative crosslinking of FA (erulic acid) moieties. The arabinoxylan
was extracted from corn bran by alkali treatment. It was found that the axons
extracted by mild alkali treatment were cross-linked by FA under the action of laccase
to form a strong gel. The higher the strength of alkali treatment, the lower the average
FA content of axial fibres and the lower the gel elasticity [116]. According to its gel
properties, it can be used to make products such as gels and drinks with low sugar and
pH [117]. There is a kind of immune-stimulating polysaccharide in corn
polysaccharide, which is an important functional compound. The main mechanism by
which corn polysaccharides enhance the immune system is their ability to activate
macrophages and NK cells as well as the complement system. Polysaccharides were
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isolated from corn steep liquor, which was divided into supernatant and sediment. The
effects of polysaccharides on innate immune stimulation and anti-metastasis were
evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The results show that the supernatant is mainly
composed of hyperbranched polysaccharides rich in arabinose glycans, and has strong
innate immune system stimulation activity. It can be used as an immunostimulatory by
stimulating the innate immune system to promote the inhibition of lung metastasis
[118].
At present, cellulose extracted from corn husks can be used to produce CMC.
Compared with oat husk, the oxidized corn husk fibre has a higher carboxylic acid
content, so the oxidized corn husk fibre has a greater tendency to nano fibrosis [119].

f
In previous research, Pickering emulsions were stabilized by zeatin/corn fibre gum

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(CFG) composite particles (ZCPS) which were prepared by electrostatic interaction.
The adsorption of ZCPS on the oil-water interface was uniform, which was beneficial
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to the formation of dense interfacial deposits and the gel network structure of
e-
emulsion droplets [120]. Hemicellulose can also be used to prepare pentose, and
sodium hydroxide was used to extract corn husk and corn cob to obtain hemicellulose.
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The hemicellulose was hydrolyzed by xylanase to obtain pentose and

xylooligosaccharides [121]. The preparation of cellulosic ethanol is also a research
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hotspot.
In another research, the glucose and lipid concentrations of ageing mice could be
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effectively regulated by three differently processed corn bran (corn bran soluble
hemicellulose (HEM), hemicellulose hydrolyzed by oxalic acid (HOA), Amberlite
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XAD-2 eluate (XE). The high degree of esterification of feruloylated oligosaccharides

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has a significant effect on reducing glucose and lipid concentrations of the human
body [122, 123].
In the future, in the research and development of corn by-products, it is necessary
to strengthen the research on the industrialization extraction technology of corn husk
active polysaccharide, the functional and physicochemical properties of the product,
to obtain polysaccharide products with high yield, high activity and high application
quality.

3.5. Lipids and their derivatives

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Table 4. Fat acid composition in corn germ and bran

Fatty acid composition (%)
Oil
Palmitic Palmitoleic Stearic Oleic Linoleic acid Linolenic acid Arachidic acid
source Reference
(C16:0) (C16:1) (C18:0) (C18:1) (C18:2) (C18:3) (C20:0)
Germ 13.1 0.0 1.5 29.2 55.0 1.0 0.2 [124–126]
Bran 12.2 0.1 2.3 22.3 54.5 4.2 0.6 [126]

Table 5. The contents of sterol, tocopherol and carotene from the oils of corn germ and bran
Ingredients Germ oil Bran oil Reference
Total tocopherols (μg/g oil) 822.3 114.7
α-tocopherol 140.9 0.0
β-tocopherol 24.4 0.0 [124, 127]
γ-tocopherol 627.0 79.0
δ-tocopherol 30.0 35.7
Total tocotrienols (μg/g oil) 235.6 463.6
α-tocotrienol 21.9 15.3
[124, 125,
β-tocotrienol 0.0 0.0
128]
γ-tocotrienol 165.6 378.3

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δ-tocotrienol 48.1 70.0

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Total carotenoids (μg/g oil) 1.4 80.1
Lutein 0.4 25.1
Zeaxanthin 0.4 26.4 [125, 129]
β-cryptoxanthin 0.6 17.9
β-carotene ND 10.7
Total sterols (mg/100 g oil)
Campesterol
Campestanol
840
151
13
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8611
680
1279
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Stigmasterol 54 209
Sitosterol 503 2115
Sitostanol 30 3246
Δ5-Avenasterol 29 393 [114, 130]
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Stigmasta-5,24 (25)-dienol 5 57
Gramisterol + α-amyrin 9 6
Cycloartenol Δ7-stigmastenol 18 236
Δ7-Avenasterol 5 145
24-Methylene cycloartanol 15 128
Citrostadienol 8 117
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With the development of the corn processing industry, oil has become one of the
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important products of corn deep processing. Generally, the lipid content of corn germ
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is about 18%–41%, which accounts for more than 80% of the amount of the total lipid
in corn. Therefore, commercial corn oil is mostly extracted from corn germ and is
commonly known as corn germ oil. Corn germ oil is one of the nutritional vegetable
oils with a high content of unsaturated fatty acids (≥ 80%), especially linoleic acid (≥
50%) (Table 4), total trans fatty acid content was < 0.3% [127, 131]. As known,
linoleic is an essential fatty acid for humans that cannot be synthesized in human
bodies. Furthermore, some functional compounds can also be found in corn germ oil
such as Vitamin E, phytosterols (Table 5). Corn germ oil was confirmed to be one of
the edible oils by WHO (World Health Organization) and FAO (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations) due to its superior oxidative stability and
nutritive properties.
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As a kind of high-quality vegetable oil, corn germ oil has been studied for many
years by using lots of extraction methods including pressing extraction, Soxhlet
extraction, organic solvent extraction, supercritical CO2 and aqueous enzymatic [127,
131–134]. In most industries, corn germ oil is extracted by pre-pressing and solvent to
improve the yield of corn germ oil [132]. Recent study demonstrated that the corn
germ oil extracted by supercritical CO2 could improve the antioxidant capacity of oil
without lowering the profile of fatty acids [127]. The longer extraction time and the
larger amount of solvent may reduce the selectivity of organic solvents, though the
organic solvents presented the highest values of oil yield. In comparison with the
traditional approach, supercritical CO2 extraction could obtain more functional

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compounds due to its lower operating temperature. Furthermore, to reduce the
chemical contamination for the extraction of vegetable oils, aqueous enzymatic oil
extraction attracted much more attention among the researchers and corn germ oil was
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also explored by using this technology. Although many advantages prove that
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aqueous enzymatic oil extraction has a great future, a variety of problems such as the
high price of enzymes, long extraction time and low extraction yield are needed to be
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solved. Therefore, many studies aimed to improve the technology for the extraction of
corn germ oil [135, 136].
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Originally, liquid corn germ oil was commonly produced as an expensive novel
edible oil for domestic uses, such as dressing, cooking, frying and roasting. Later,
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low-cost germ oil became available because of mature product technology, and it is
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widely used in the formulation of many industrialized products, such as shortenings,

margarine, mayonnaise, sauces mixtures and technical fats [137]. Corn germ oil is
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well received by consumers because of its preferable appearance, mild aroma, high
levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids and high oxidative stability [138]. Corn germ oil
is also applied as an ingredient in the formulation of snacks, baking mixes and bakery
products. Meanwhile, the application of corn germ oil as frying oil has expanded
dramatically due to its comparatively better oxidative stability and the restriction of
hydrogenated fat [139]. In addition to the application in food, corn germ oil can be
used in medical treatment because of its high content of linoleic acid, tocopherols,
phytosterols and lecithin. Linoleic acid can prevent the deposition of cholesterol in the
arterial wall by combining with cholesterol in human serum and reducing the
absorption of cholesterol [140]. Therefore, linoleic acid could effectively restrain the
formation of atherosclerosis. Furthermore, in comparison with other vegetable oils,
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corn germ oil has abundant phytosterols which can significantly prevent
cardiovascular diseases [141, 142]. Moreover, corn germ oil was rich in tocopherols,
which is demonstrated to have effective antioxidant effects and can be used to
scavenge free radicals, soften blood vessels, improve blood circulation and enhance
the immunity of the human body. During the production and refining process of corn
oil, the triglyceride fatty acid composition of the oil itself did not change significantly,
but the content of elements (Na, Mg, K, Ca, Fe, Pb, Cd, Ni, Mn, Zn, Co, Cr, P, Cu)
decreased significantly. Cd, Co and Zn were not detected in the refined corn oil.
Therefore, the chemical refining process affected some of the quality properties of
corn oil [143]. In addition to corn germ, corn bran can also be used as the raw material

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to extract oil. Many researchers extracted corn bran oil by using a solvent method
because of its low content of lipid. According to Ma’s study [142], the lipid content of
corn barn was 6%.
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However, corn bran oil has great application perspectives owing to its abundant
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unsaturated fatty acids (80%, oleic acid and linoleic acid) and phytosterols [142]. In
addition to traditional solvent extraction (petroleum ether), the methods of hexane
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extraction and subcritical butane extraction were used to extract corn bran oil which
contains high content of unsaturated fatty acids and phytosterols [144]. These two
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approaches could get high-phytosterols corn bran oil with phytosterols concentration
of 6.4% (hexane) and 5.2% (subcritical butane). The main phytosterols in corn bran
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oil were campesterol, sitostanol, stigmastol, β-sitosterol, and stigmastanol. Therefore,

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it could be developed as a sort of health care edible vegetable oil due to its
physicochemical and nutritional properties. The development of corn bran oil could
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improve the valorization of corn by-products, reduce the cost of production and
increase the overall profit for the corn processing industry.
Generally speaking, the oil from corn germ or bran is a type of functional vegetable
oil and have a great perspective to be used as the raw material in pharmaceutical
manufacturing and applied in food to develop functional foods. Other industrial uses
include formulations of insecticides, paints, resins, plastics, varnishes, soaps and
textiles [141, 142]. Furthermore, another attractive application of corn germ oil is
biodiesel, which is a renewable and biodegradable fuel converted by fatty acids esters
and alkyl esters of long-chain carboxylic acids.
The so-called biodiesel, that is, diesel produced from vegetable oil, is a
monoalkyl ester of long-chain fatty acids. Natural oils and fats are mostly composed
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of triglycerides of straight-chain fatty acids. After transesterification with methanol,

the molecular weight is reduced to close to that of diesel, and it has performance close
to that of diesel [145]. It is a kind of renewable and environmentally friendly fuel.
Biodiesel is a promising alternative to fossil diesel fuel and is recognized as one of the
power sources for long-chain fatty acid alkyl esters that meet the prescribed and
conventional standards [146]. Recently, many biodiesel production companies and
researchers are developing technologies for recovering corn oil from the germ and
converting it into biodiesel. For biodiesel, the higher the content of unsaturated fatty
acids, the better the low-temperature fluidity of the corresponding fatty acid methyl
ester. Therefore, the existence of a large number of unsaturated fatty acids in corn oil

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can effectively improve the low-temperature flow of biodiesel. And the cold filter

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point, turbidity point, pour point and condensation point of corn oil biodiesel are -3, -
2, -3 and -4 ℃ respectively [147]. At present, transesterification method using acid,
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base or enzyme as catalyst is the most widely used. But there are problems of high
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cost or pollution. Therefore, low cost and energy-saving production technologies have
received continued attention. Waste oil from corn oil refining is more suitable for
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making biodiesel when production costs are taken into account [148]. With the
massive consumption of earth resources and the serious pollution of the environment,
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green energy which can replace petroleum resources has been paid more and more
attention by researchers and consumers. In the future, the production of fuel from
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vegetable oil is likely to get more research and wide application.

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3.6. Protein production

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The protein content of corn accounts for about 7.8%. About 30% of the by-products
such as corn gluten, corn barn, corn germ is produced during the deep processing of
corn, which can be used as high-quality feed resources. The protein content of corn
endosperm is about 8%, the most important of which is zein, accounting for 35%–
60% of the protein in the endosperm. Hydrophobic amino acids are predominant in
zein (about 50%), but lack charged acidic and basic amino acids, especially
tryptophan and lysine. Therefore, the composition of amino acids in zein is not
balanced, resulting in low nutritional value. However, the hydrophilic and
hydrophobic parts of zein are distinguished, so it has unique advantages in
biologically active substances, drug delivery carrier systems and edible materials, and
is of great significance to the preparation of micro- and nano-materials [149]. Prietto
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et al. [150] added red cabbage anthocyanins to zein ultrafine fibres to obtain ultrafine
fibres sensitive to pH changes through electrospinning. Curcumin-loaded zein
nanofibers were prepared and used as a coating material on the surface of apples to
understand the degree of decay of apples after harvest [151].
Protein in corn germ accounts for 18%–22% of the mass of corn germ and 29% of
total protein of corn. It has a good amino acid balance. However, corn germ is usually
subjected to solvent extraction and high-temperature treatment to extract oil, resulting
in severe denaturation of residual protein. These denatured proteins almost lose their
functional properties and are mainly used as a protein and energy supplement in
animal feed [152]. Study by Widmer et al. [153] has shown that adding 5% and 10%

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of corn germ to the daily feed of pigs has no adverse effects on the growth

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performance, carcass quality, and meat flavour of pigs.
The defatted corn germ (CGM) has a protein content of about 60%–71%. Corn
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germ protein is a whole protein, and its essential amino acid composition is close to
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the FAO/WHO model [149]. Soluble dried corn distillers’ grains (DDGS) are another
by-product of dry milling and have a protein content of about 27%–35% [154]. The
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main protein component of CGM is composed of approximately 65% zein and 30%
gluten [155]. However, the low water solubility of CGM and DDGS limits their
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performance and application in food. Corn bran accounts for about 12%–14% of the
dry quality of corn. Corn bran is dried after adding corn syrup, which is called pulp
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fibre, which can replace part of gluten. At present, corn bran is mainly used in the
production of the feed industry. For instance, Galeana-Lopez et al. [156] evaluated the
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influence of dietary supplementation of corn bran on growth performance, liver

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antioxidant status and intestinal microbiota of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

fingerlings. The results revealed that corn bran is safe to improve crude protein and
enhance SOD activity. The deep processing of corn bran is mainly to extract dietary
fibre, corn yellow pigment, ferulic acid, L-arabinose, sterol, etc. There are few reports
on protein extraction and hydrolysis.
To achieve the ideal food functional properties of corn gluten, better develop corn
gluten products, and expand the application in medicine and health and food
processing, we can degrade the macromolecular protein in corn to make soluble
peptides, and increase the added value. There have been many reports on the
biological activity of corn peptides, such as antioxidant [157], antihypertensive [158],
anti-inflammatory [159], and antiproliferative activity [160]. In particular, Yu et al.
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[161] extracted albumin from corn germ meal, and studied the in vitro antioxidant
activity of corn germ meal albumin peptides, and revealed that protein-peptide
components less than 1 kDa after proteolysis (APF4) when the dosage is higher than
800 mg/kg body weight, it can significantly reverse the adverse changes of alcoholic
liver injury in mice, and the possible effect of APF4 on the liver from alcoholic injury
is proposed. Ruan et al. [162] used corn polypeptide particles and polypeptide-
modified citrus soluble fibre as a stabilizer to prepare a citrus fibre-based high internal
phase emulsion under acidic conditions, and its rheological properties, thermal
stability, freeze-thaw recovery rate and other properties were evaluated. Research has
been carried out and the potential application prospects of this product in the

f
development of plant-based egg substitutes have been proposed. Study has shown the

oo
corn protein hydrolysates or peptides had attractive antioxidant activity by in vitro
chemical methods [154]. However, there is still a need for more researches on the
pr
performance of food and non-food systems which are crucial for commercialization.
e-
The protein extracted from the byproducts of corn can be used in the production of
feed, medicine and bioactive peptides, as well as in food preservation. Due to its
Pr

special molecular structure and shape and unique solubility, corn protein can form a
uniform, transparent and soft film, with good oil retention and water retention. Corn
al

protein can also play an important role in the gelling stage, coating stage of paper
manufacturing process to produce lustrous and oil-proof paper.
rn

3.7. Micro-functional component extraction

u

Corn is also reported to contain non-nutrient phytochemicals such as carotenoids,

Jo

phytosterol phenolic acids, and anthocyanins. The content of these phytochemicals in

corn varies according to genetic and environmental factors. Plant sterols (phytosterols)
were generally found to be a minor unsaponifiable chemical component of plant seed
oil in two forms including free and esterified with fatty acids. Corn oil usually comes
from corn germ and contains phytosterols of more than 8 mg/g oil (Table 5), which
represents a higher content than other common vegetable oils [141]. The several main
phytosterols types of corn germ oil were shown in Fig. 5. Furthermore, the content of
phytosterols can be affected by the varieties of corn and the extraction parts.
Following Harrabi’s report [163], the crude oil content of corn germ (24.2%–30.7%)
is much higher than that of endosperm and pericarp fractions (0.4%–1.2%). While
endosperm oil contained the greatest amount of phytosterols and 4,4-dimethylsterols;
 Journal Pre-proof

pericarp oil had the highest levels of 4-desmethylsterols and 4-monomethylsterols.

Study [164] have shown that phytosterols can affect the absorption of cholesterol in
the intracellular and intestinal lumen, and reduce serum cholesterol levels. Moreover,
the cholesterol-lowering effect of phytosterols occurs even when had a high-fat diet.
Reducing plasmatic cholesterol levels is the major factor for the prevention of
cardiovascular diseases and some chronic diseases.
Plant pigments, a kind of bioactive substance and functional effective ingredients in
the plant can also be found in corn, including carotenoids and flavonoids. However,
these plant pigments are mostly extracted from corn bran. It is reported that high
levels of carotenoids (zeaxanthin etc.) were contained in corn bran [125]. As a

f
mixture of carotenoids, maize yellow pigment consists of β-carotene, zeaxanthin,

oo
cryptoxanthin and lutein. The carotenoid content of corn is 0.6–57.9 mg/kg
(depending on the cultivar), with lutein and zeaxanthin as the major chemical
pr
components [165]. Maize yellow pigment, a category of isoprene pigments, has
e-
important physiological functions which coexert effects on the protection of vision
and epithelial tissue and enhance the body’s immunity. Furthermore, many studies
Pr

[166–168] confirmed that corn bran had a variety of flavonoids, especially ferulic acid
and anthocyanins. Generally, ferulic acid is linked to macromolecular polymers by
al

ester bond in the plant cell wall, hence corn bran is the ideal raw material to extract
ferulic acid with its highest content (3%) in comparison with other plant by-products
rn

[167]. Ferulic acid could provide plenty of beneficial effects including anti-
inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer [168–170]. It can also lower
u

the risk of coronary disease, reducing the liver cholesterol level and increase sperm
Jo

viability [171, 172]. Purple corn is an important source of anthocyanins. Like the
other type of flavonoid pigment, anthocyanins have lots of physiological functions,
such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, and anti-diabetic
properties [173, 174].
Additionally, some minerals, phenols and flavan-3-ol can also be found in a corn
hull. According to Duru’s study [175], some essential mineral elements in human and
animal nutrition including calcium, sulphur and potassium were the most abundant
minerals in corn hull. Besides, some phenols and flavan-3-ol were in concentrations
of 12.35 mg/g and 10.74 mg/g, respectively. Phenolic compounds can be used as
antioxidants to protect cell components from damage and extend food shelf-life by
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mediating stress responses due to their capacity to scavenge free radicals produced in
stress-induced oxidative reactions [176].

A B

C D

f
oo
Fig. 5. The chemical structure of β-sitosterol (A), campesterol (B), stigmasterol (C) and Δ-5-
avenasterol (D). pr
These micro-functional components have been regarded as being associated with
e-
the health effects of preventing cancer, obesity, hypertension, and inflammation.
However, the content and availability of these phytochemicals are not satisfactory.
Pr

Some processing, such as heating, will lead to the loss of vitamins and
phytochemicals because of the poor heat stability, hence more study needs to be
al

conducted.
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4. Conclusion
u

Corn starch processing comprises a major part of the grain processing chain. The
Jo

increasing quantity of corn cereal and starch, especially in developing countries, have
produced a mass of by-products that have received wide attention. Proverbially,
sustainable methods for utilizing these by-products are very necessary for food
industrial waste management. Nowadays, many by-products have been used as raw
materials for value-added products in many industrialized countries. Research on the
utilization of corn starch processing by-products has also advanced significantly over
the last few decades, particularly the development and optimization of the production
of feed, functional foods, lipids, protein, bioactive compounds, fuel and so on.
Commercialization applications always need to be considered in terms of security,
environmental protection and economic cost aspects. Because of the potential health
hazards, the high cost of the value-added products and the high pollution of the
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production process may limit its development. At present, much high-value research
of corn deep processing by-products has not been invested in commercial products,
and most of them are still in the research stage. For instance, corn steep liquor can be
used in the fermentation industry to replace antibiotics and prepare microbial fuel
cells. It can also be used in the production of poly (L-lactic acid), a green and
degradable medicinal repair material. Corn germ and corn gluten are raw materials for
producing high-quality protein food and bioactive peptide. Corn bran is used in some
of the latest research to prepare dietary fibre, ferulic acid and active polysaccharides
that have applications in medicine and human health. Predictably, the innovations in
processing technology will likely contribute to the comprehensive utilization of starch

f
processing byproducts. The availability and high-value application approach of these

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by-products will largely increase in the future.

Authors’ Contribution
pr
e-
Runyang Zhang: Writing original draft (Section 1, 2, and 3.2), providing literature
source, modifying the document format; Sen Ma: Writing original draft (Section 3.4);
Pr

Li Li, Minghui Zhang: Writing original draft (Section 3.1); Shuangqi Tian: Writing
original draft (Section 3.3 and 3.5). Dongying Wang: Writing original draft (Section
al

3.5 and 3.7); Kunlun Liu: Writing original draft (Section 3.6). Huamin Liu: Improving
the grammar, writing original draft (Abstract and Section 4); Wenxue Zhu, Xuede
rn

Wang: Reviewing and editing.

u

Conflicts of Interest
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The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Doctor
Research Fund of Henan University of Technology (2020BS009) and Science,
technology and innovation in the soybean and its alternative crops chain
(SQ2019YFD100114).

Conflict of interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
 Journal Pre-proof

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