Aerial Photography and Photogrammetry

Lecture 10 (24 July 2021)

Dr. Asib Ahmed

Department of Environmental Science

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF PROFESSIONALS
Aerial Photography

Aerial photography is to take photographs of the ground from an

elevated/direct-down posi9on.

Usually, in aerial photography, the camera is not supported by a
ground-based structure.

2
 Types of Aerial Photography

•  Ver0cal
•  Low oblique
•  High oblique
 Types of Aerial Photography

•  Ver9cal
•  Low oblique
•  High oblique
 Types of Aerial Photography

•  Ver9cal
•  Low oblique
•  High oblique
Terminology of Aerial Photography
i) Format: the size of the photo
ii)  Focal plane: the plane in which the film is
held in the camera for photography
iii)  Focal length (f): the distance from the lens
along the optical axis to the focal point
iv)  Plane of the equivalent positive: an
imaginary plane at one focal length from
the principal point, along the optical axis,
on the opposite side of the lens from the
focal plane
v)  Flying height (H): height of the lens above
sea level at the instant of exposure. The
height of a specified feature above sea
level is designated as “h”
Terminology of Aerial Photography (cont.)
Principal point (PP): the exact centre of the photo or
focal point through which the optical axis passes.
This is found by joining the fiducial marks which
appear on every photo;

Conjugate principal point: image of the principal

point on the overlapping photograph of a stereo pair;

Optical axis: the line from the principal point through

the centre of the lens. The optical axis is vertical to
the focal plane;

Plumb point (Nadir or vertical point): the point

vertically beneath the lens at the instant of
exposure;

Angle of tilt: the angle subtended at the lens by rays

to the principal point and the plumb point.
 Aerial Photograph Fiducial
axes

Fiducial
marks

Fiducial marks is a set of marks located in the corners or edge-centers, or both, of an

aerial photographic image. These marks are exposed within the camera onto the
original film and are used to define the frame of reference for spatial measurements
on aerial photographs.
Aerial Photograph (contd.)

Principal
point

Marginal
information
 Aerial Photograph (contd.)
An aerial photograph mission needs to be flown in strips.

• ShuGer 9ming set for 60% endlap (needed for parallax).

• Strips spaced for 30% sidelap (to avoid missing bits).

•  Endlap (or forelap) is important that ensures every
point on the ground appears in at least two photographs.


Basic image interpretation techniques

Unlike a map, features on an aerial photograph are not generalized or

symbolized. Air photos record all visible features on the Earth's surface from
an overhead perspective. Although the features are visible, they are not
always easily identifiable.

The process of studying and gathering information required to identify

various cultural and natural features is called photo interpretation. With
careful interpretation, air photos are an excellent source of spatial data for
studying the Earth's environment.

Elements/ Factors of interpretation
1.  Shape
2.  Pattern
3.  Size
4.  Tone/ Colour
5.  Shadow
6.  Texture
7.  Association/ Site
8.  Time
9.  Stereo Perspective
1.  Shape
The form of an object on an air photo helps to identify the object. Regular
uniform shapes often indicate a human involvement.
2. Pattern
Similar to shape, the spatial arrangement of objects (e.g. row crops vs.
pasture) is also useful to identify an object and its usage.
3. Size
A measure of the object's surface area (e.g. single-lane vs. multi-lane
highways).
4. Tone / Colour
The colour characteristics of an object, relative to other objects in the photo,
are used to identify the feature (e.g. sand has a bright tone, while water
usually has a dark tone; tree species can be determined by the colour of their
leaves at certain times of the year).
5. Shadow
A shadow provides information about the object's height, shape, and
orientation (e.g. tree species).
6. Texture
The physical characteristics of an object will change the way they appear on
a photo (e.g. calm water has a smooth texture; a forest canopy has a rough
texture).
7. Association/ Site
Associating the presence of one object with another, or relating it to its
environment, can help identify the object (e.g. industrial buildings often have
access to railway sidings; nuclear power plants are often located beside
large bodies of water).
8. Time
Temporal characteristics of a series of photographs can be helpful in
determining the historical change of an area (e.g. looking at a series of
photos of a city taken in different years can help determine the growth of
suburban neighbourhoods.
9. Stereo perspective
Seeing an area in stereo, or 3-D, is important for determining the
topographical relief of an area, as well as the height of objects such as trees
and building.
General rules for photographic interpretation
In general, photographs should be interpreted from the whole to the part, i.e. broad
distinctions defined first. Interpretation should be approached systematically:

i)  A literature review is a necessary part of any study and as much information as
possible should be obtained from these sources;

i)  The photograph should be orientated. This may be possible with the aid of
shadows. Many air photographs are taken near mid-day for optimum light
conditions resulting in the shadows pointing between north-east and north-west in
the northern temperate latitudes;

ii)  A pattern or shape should be selected on the photograph which will be easily
identified on the line map, e.g., coastline. An apparent match should be confirmed
by supporting evidence;

iii)  Photographic “keys” or file photos of significant features are extremely useful as
aids to current investigation and as “memory joggers” in complex situations.
 What are these features?

•  The clue: Size

 Which building is the tallest?

•  The clue: Shadows

 What are these features?

Which field is more

What is this feature? recently irrigated?

•  The clue: Tone/Color

What are these features?

Which is more recently

built?

•  The clue: PaGern

 What are these features?

•  The clue: Texture

Photo Scale

The scale of a photo affects its use in the revision of line maps, i.e. a photo
with a nominal scale of 1:50,000 should not be used to revise a map with a
scale of 1:10,000. Photos at the same scale or larger should be used to
ensure that the resolution of the photograph matches the degree of
precision required for the revised information.
Variations in scale in relation to aircraft attitude.
Determining the scale

There are four basic methods of determining the scale of an aerial photograph
which, in decreasing order of accuracy, are as follows:

1. the rela9onship between two points on the ground of known distance, and the
same two points on the photo. (Note that the scale may vary for other loca9ons on
the same photograph if there is significant relief varia9on);

2. the rela9onship between two points on the map and the same two points on the
photo;

3. the rela9onship between an object on the ground, whose dimensions are known
and the same object on the photograph;

4. the rela9onship between the focal length of the camera lens and the al9tude of
the camera lens,
 e.g., focal length (f) = 15 cms, altitude (H) = 1,500 m;

The effect of tilt and height displacement on scale

The scale of an aerial photo changes from point to point due to tilt of
the camera lens (i.e. aircraft attitude) and changes in height of the
terrain unless the terrain is absolutely flat. The top of a high mountain,
therefore, will be at a larger scale than a valley because it is nearer
the camera lens when photographed (unless the photo has been
rectified).
Plotting Techniques

The following simple techniques may be used for plotting details

from aerial photographs onto line maps without the use of
sophisticated equipment (e.g. use of software like Surface Magic,
PhotoModeler, DroneDeploy, Pix4D Mapper, SimActive and Erdas
Imagine etc. ):

1. Transfer-by-eye sketching: If the line map shows considerable

detail it may be possible to add further information by visual
referencing with a satisfactory degree of accuracy;
2. Direct transfer after reduction or enlargement of the
photograph to the line map scale: The photograph is projected
at the appropriate scale onto the line map to be revised; photo
detail is then drawn on the map. To minimize distortion, the
enlargement/reduction factors should be calculated only for small
areas at a time.

3. Transfer by grids, triangles, etc.: These are methods derived

from the basic principle that a straight line on the ground will
appear as a straight line on the photograph if the terrain is
relatively flat. Height distortion, however, will introduce small errors
in vertical photographs and excessive errors in obliques. All
methods require that at least four points be identified on both the
photograph and the existing line map.
Grid for transference of detail from an aerial photograph to a map: (a) polar grid;
(b) polygonal grids.
Polar grid: Identical grid constructions are drawn on the line map and the
photograph:

the four points used may be A, B, C and D;

AD and BC are extended to meet at E;
AB and CD are extended to meet at F;
Through G, the intersection of AC and BD are drawn EGH and
FGJ.

Detail can now be copied from any triangle on the photograph onto the
corresponding triangle on the map;

Polygonal grid: When more than four common points can be identified on the
photo and line map, extended points as in the polar grid need not to be drawn.
The points are simply plotted on both line map and photograph and the area
within the resultant polygon subdivided by joining each point to all the others.
Methods of Determining Scale

Scale for aerial photos is generally expressed as a representative

fraction (1 unit on the photo equals "x" units on the ground). If the scale
is known distances on the photograph can easily be transformed into
real-world ground distances.
Calculating Distance and Area

Distance and Length

If the scale of an aerial photograph is known distances lengths and
areas of features can easily be calculated. You simply measure the
distance on the photo (photo distance) and multiply the distance by the
scale factor. Remember that scale is always equal to the ratio of the
photo distance to the ground distance.
Example: The scale of an aerial photograph is 1:15,000. In the photo you
measure the length of a bridge to be 0.25 inches, what is the length of the
bridge in feet in real life?
Area
It is important to remember that area is measured in square units. To
determine rectangular area, it is length multiplied by width, so if you
measure both and convert these distances remember that if you are
multiplying them together the resulting units are squared.

For example, if an area is 100 meters by 500 meters, it is 50,000 square

meters.
Example: An aerial photograph has a scale of 1:10,000. On the
photo, the length of a field is measured as 10 mm and the width
7mm. How big (in Hectares) is the field in real-life? Note that 10,000
square meters = 1 Hectare.
Methods of Height Determination

As with calculating scale, there are multiple methods to determine the

height of tall objects (e.g. trees or buildings) in aerial photos. In single
aerial photos the two primary methods are the relief/radial displacement
method and the shadow methods.

Relief/Radial Displacement Method

The magnitude of the displacement in the image between the top and the
bottom of an object is known as its relief displacement and is related to
the height of the object and the distance of the object from the principal
point.

This method can only be used if the object that is being measured is be
far enough from the principal point to measure the displacement and the
top and bottom of the object are visible in the photo.
Example: The length of a displaced building is measured at 2.01 mm and the radial
distance to the principal point is 56.43 mm. If the the flying height about the surface is
1220 m, what is the height of the building?
Shadow Method

If you can measure the length of a shadow and know the angle of the sun,
the height of the object can be calculated using simple trigonometry. If you
know when and where the aerial photo was taken you can determine the
angle of the sun using the NOAA Solar Calculator. When using this calculator
you want to use the solar elevation angle (El) for your calculations.
Colour concept
§  The information content of aerial photographs and the possibility of interpreting such
photographs are enhanced because the colour differences in the terrain are captured on
colour aerial photographs.

§  Colour aerial photography may be carried out by taking pictures with multilayer aerial
film simultaneously in the blue, green, and red regions of the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

§  It may also be performed by using three separate aerial films and later combining the
monochromatic images obtained during processing to produce a full-colour image.

§  Multilayer negative and reversal aerial films are used for colour aerial photography.

§  Colour aerial photographs are taken with the same aerial cameras and from the same al
titudes as are black-and-white aerial photographs in plan and in perspective.
Sensing Color
CCD (Charge Coupled Device, which is a semiconductor element that
converts images into digital signals).

1. Three CCDs
Each of three CCDs has its own color filter for red-green-blue (RGB), and each CCD
images with a different perspective.

Figure: Three images are being produced, one by each of the 3 CCDs, and represent the
RGB-channels. These images must be co-registered.
2. CCD with Color Beam Splitter

Beam splitter to obtain color in one simultaneous step. There exists a single geometry.

Figure illustrates the use of a beam splitter to produce 3 images with the same geometry.
The issue is the reduced amount of light arriving at the sensor.
4. Bayer Pattern CCD for Color Information

As proposed by Bayer (1976), a single area array CCD is being used with a filter in front of
every CCD-element. Figure illustrates the basic concept and shows that green has twice
the number of red- and blue-pixels.

Figure: The Bayer pattern is obtained by placing red, green and blue filters over each
element of a CCD as shown. Green is being favored over red and blue.
5. Foveon X3 CCD Technology

Foveon has developed a digital analogy of color film. The largest CCD size currently is at
2268 × 1512 × 3 pixels. This may be too small to be very useful for aerial imaging.

Figure: Foveon-Sensor to produce color digitally with three layers .

Flight planning
§  A flight planning consists of a flight (navigation) map which shows-
1. where the aerial photographs are to be taken and
2. parameters (specifications) which outlines the specific
requirements such as-
aerial camera and film requirements
scale
flying height
end lap
side lap
tilt
swing round (yaw) tolerances, etc.
§  For the flight plan, drawing a good topographic map is to be
provided.

§  Flight planning must ensure photographic coverage of the

entire area to be mapped in a minimum air time.

§  Any obstacles to flying and any prohibited areas over which

flights are forbidden or only allowed under strict precautions,
such as military training areas, etc. are to be investigated.
Flight lines.

§  The photogrammetric survey should be aerial. Single flight lines (strips) of

photography usually are not acceptable. Photographic strips shall be flown East-
West or North-South direction.

§  All flight lines must be as straight and parallel as possible. The lack of parallelism
between adjacent strips has to be within 50 (difference between bearings of adjacent
strips).

§  Flight line deviation from straight path shall not exceed 2 % of the flight path length.
Allowed flight lines deviations from planned path measured on the aerial
photographs should not exceed 15 mm.

§  Tilt and drift of aerial photographs should not exceed ±20 and yaw – up to ±50 when
measured between the base line and the line parallel to the frame of the
photograph, nor create stereoscopic gaps in the photography.
Overlap

The photographs overlap shall be sufficient to obtain stereoscopic coverage.

The overlap in line flight shall be average 65 % (not less than 60 % and not
more than 70 %). The overlap of parallel strips of photography (side lap)
shall average 40 %.

where H – flying height (1050 m), h – maximal heights difference regarding

to mean object plane (10–40 m).

When side lap is specified, any side lap less than 25 % or more than 50 %
shall be considered sufficient grounds for rejecting all photographs on that
flight line.
Time of photography

Photography shall be undertaken only when lighting and weather conditions

are acceptable for photographs.

Photography is not to be attempted by haze, smoke or dust, or clouds.

Taking aerial photography in urban territories is better at midday, when

shadows are shortest.
Ground control
§  Photographic ground control can be accomplished by ensuring Ground Control Points
(GCPs).

§  GCP is any point whose positions are known in an object-space reference coordinate
system and whose images can be positively identified in the photographs.

§  Used for
Geo-referencing products
Accurate determination of processing parameters (intrinsics & extrinsics)

§  The accuracy of finished photogrammetric products can be no better than the ground control

§  3 Types of GCP
Horizontal Control Points
Vertical Control Points
Full Control Points
Direct Georeferencing

The images taken from drones are geotagged. (or separate log file
is provided).

Photogrammetry software packages, such as PIE-UAV, can function

without GCPs.

Instead they use GPS data collected by a GPS logger or by a GPS-

enabled camera to create a reasonably geographically accurate
image.

However aiding the model with accurate GCPs can increase the
accuracy up to sub meter level
 Why GCPs are crucial?

Direct Georeferenced
No GCP

Shift = 3.7m
Georeferenced with
GCPs
Placement of GCPs
Artificial and Natural GCPs
Stereovision and Stereoscope
Stereoscopic vision (or as it is more commonly known, stereovision or depth perception) is the ability
to see three dimensionally or to see length, width, and depth (distance) at the same time.

This requires two views of a single object from two slightly different positions. Most people have the
ability to see three dimensionally.

Stereoscopic Coverage: the three-dimensional view which results when two overlapping photos (called a
stereo pair), are viewed using a stereoscope. Each photograph of the stereo pair provides a slightly different
view of the same area, which the brain combines and interprets as a 3-D view.
Stereoscope
A device by which two photographs of the same object taken at slightly different angles are viewed
together, creating an impression of depth and solidity.

(1) Pocket stereoscope: The pocket stereoscope, sometimes known as a lens stereoscope,
consists of two magnifying lenses mounted in a metal frame. Because of its simplicity and ease of
carrying, it is the type used most frequently by military personnel.

(2) Mirror stereoscope: The mirror stereoscope is larger, heavier, and more subject to damage than
the pocket stereoscope. It consists of four mirrors mounted in a metal frame.
Stereogram
A stereogram is usually a “3D” picture hidden within a picture; they often appear
in Sunday newspaper comic strip supplements.

Aerial stereograms are created from pairs of aerial photographs that show the
same location but from slightly different angles.

By viewing the photo pairs through a stereoscope, the brain can be tricked into
seeing or perceiving an impression of heights and depths.
Stereoscopic Parallax / Displacement
The displacement of an object caused by a change in the point of observation is called Parallax.
Stereoscopic parallax is caused by taking photograph of the same object but from different point of
observation.

Shift in the location of an object in a photo, which does not change the perspective characteristics of the
photo.

Fiducial distance between an object's image and it's true plan position, caused by change in elevation.

Types of Displacement

1.Curvature of the Earth

2.Relief Displacement

3.Tilt Displacement
Relief displacement
Relief Displacement exists because photos are a perspective projection. This is the major cause of Non-
uniformity in scale within a Single Photograph.
Relief displacement
Error in the position of the point in a photograph because of relief

§  ?The position of a point in the photograph (which has a central projection) is different from
its corresponding position on the map due to relief

§ ?Radial from the nadir (assuming a vertical photograph, therefore, nadir = center of photo)
Relief displacement
Relief displacement
Relief displacement

Where:
r’ = erroneous radial distance
from the center of photo
h = height/elevation of the
point above/below the datum
plane
H = flying height above the
datum plane
Relief displacement
§  The higher the point is above the datum plane (or the lower it is below the datum plane), the greater the
relief displacement

§ The higher the flying height, the lesser the relief displacement

Corrected Radial Distance

§If the point on the ground is ABOVE the datum, the corrected position will be towards the center

§Otherwise, if the point is BELOW the datum, the corrected position will be away from the center
 Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is the art and science of making accurate measurements by means of

aerial photography:
n  Analog photogrammetry (using films: hard-copy photos)
n  Digital photogrammetry (digital images)

Aerial photographs were the first form of remote sensing imagery.

Differences between photogrammetry and Remote Sensing are that photographs are:
n  Black and white (1 band) or color (blue, green, red, and IR)
n  Wavelength range of 0.3-1.0 µm
n  Use cameras
n  One type of remote sensing imagery
Orthophotographs and Digital Orthoimagery

An aerial photograph that has all the distor9ons due to camera 9lt, scale,
oblique, and surface relief.

Photograph acer corrected by ground control points (x, y, z) or digital eleva9on
model (DEM), namely orthorec9fica9on, called orthophotograph, orthophoto,
or digital orthoimagery.

Not as photographs, they have different scales in different terrain relief,
orthophotos have only one scale, no distor9on, and have true distance, angle,
and area. Orthophotos can be directly input into GIS as basemap or for
interpreta9on.
 Geometry of Aerial Photographs

§  Based on the simple, fundamental condition of collinearity.

§  In photogrammetry, a single ray of light is the straight line; three fundamental points
must always fall on this straight line:
1. the imaged point on the ground,
2. the focal point of the camera lens, and
3. the image of the point on the film or imaging array of a digital camera
Vertical exaggeration (VE)

Is a scale that is used in raised-relief maps, plans and technical drawings (cross
section perspectives), in order to emphasize vertical features, which might be too small to
identify relative to the horizontal scale.
Vertical exaggeration (VE)

The vertical exaggeration is given by:

Where, VS is the vertical scale and HS is the horizontal scale, both given as
representative fractions.

For example, if 1 centimetre (0.39 in) vertically represents 200 metres (660 ft) and
1 centimetre (0.39 in) horizontally represents 4,000 metres (13,000 ft), the vertical
exaggeration, 20×, is given by:
Factors
Photographic factors
1.  Air base
2.  Camera height
3.  Tilt
4.  Optics
5.  Scale

Stereoscopic factors
1.  Eye to photograph distance
2.  Photograph separation
3.  Photograph rotation
4.  Movement of the stereoscope
5.  Eye base
Applications of AP in Environmental Studies and Case Studies

§  Landfill sites

§  Change detection

§  Vegetation studies

§  Coastal changes

§  Geomorphological studies

§  Pollution studies

§  Case studies on environmental issues