REVIEW

ON
CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Claudine Joy J. Tolentino

Instructor
CELL THEORY
 CELL THEORY
-states that all organisms are composed of similar units of organization, called cells. The concept
was formally articulated in 1839 by Schleiden & Schwann and has remained as the foundation of
modern biology.
CELL THEORY states that:
• All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
• All the life functions of an organism occur within cells.
• All cells come from preexisting cells.
 History of Cell Theory
◦ The word cell was first used by Robert Hooke, a British biologist, looked at
thin slices of cork( under a microscope. The structure he saw looked like a
honeycomb as it was made up of many tiny units.
◦ In 1665 Hooke published his book Micrographia, in which he wrote:
“I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a
Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular.... these pores, or cells, ...
were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever
seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of
them before this”
Hooke called cells- looked like the cubicles where monks studied and prayed.
 History of Cell Theory
Microscope continue to improve into the 19th century.
Mathias J. Schleiden and Theodor Schwann used their observation of many
different plant and animals to formulate the cell theory.
1. All organisms are made up of one or more cell
2. Cell is the fundamental unit of life.
In 1855, when the third component was introduce by Rudolf Virchow. He
stated:
3. Cells come from pre existing cells.
 History of Cell Theory
HANS AND ZACHARIAS (1500’s)
- Both invented the compound optical microscope
GALILEO GALILEI (1609)
-credited with building the first microscope in 1625. He was the reason why
there is a discovery of study in minute organisms
ANTON VAN LEUWENHOEK (1674)
- First scientist to observe live cells
- He observed protist, spirogyra or green algae which he called animalcules
CELL AND ITS
FUNCTION
 Animal Cell Organelles
Cell membrane- controls the flow of material in and out of the cells
Cytoplasm- surrounds and protects the organelles of the cell so organelles
can perform their respective cellular processes.
Nucleus – guards the genetic information or the DNA. Manages the over all
cellular processes including the cell division, growth, protein synthesis, and
cell death.
Ribosomes- responsible for the reproduction of Proteins by putting
together the amino acid sequences that corresponds to the genetic ode’s
instruction. This is the site of the protein synthesis.
Mitochondria- is the powerhouse of the cell and the site of cellular
respiration.
 Animal Cell Organelles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – production and folding of proteins and
also aids in transport of fresh materials.(studded with ribosomes)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – synthesize lipids and help detoxify the
cell. Site of lipid synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus – after the synthesis of substances from the ER, the golgi
bodies now process and packages protein and lipid molecules to their
designated place/area.
Lysosomes- recycle and break down unwanted materials( old and damage
cell, bacteria and viruses) of the cell. Also known as the digestive system of
the cell.
Centrosomes- regulates the motility of cell and facilitates the organization
of the spindle poles.
 Plant Cell Organelles
Chloroplast – contains the green pigment called chlorophyll , which plays a
vital role in harvesting light energy to be used in creating glucose which I the
food of plants and serves as the site for photosynthesis.
Cell Wall – provide a rigid structure made of cellulose that provides
protection against mechanical and osmotic stress.
Vacuole- storage of water and some proteins, sugar and other molecules.
Also maintains the turgor pressure which helps the plant keeps its shape and
prevents wilting and bursting.
UNICELLULAR
VS
MULTICELLULAR
◦ Unicellular organisms are organisms consisting of one cell. It only performs all vital functions including
metabolism, excretion, and reproduction.

◦ Examples are bacteria, yeast,amoeba, euglena.

◦ Unicellular organisms are organisms consisting of one cell. It only performs all vital functions including
metabolism, excretion, and reproduction.

◦ Examples are bacteria, yeast,amoeba, euglena.

PROKARYOTES
VS
EUKARYOTES
PROKARYOTES
◦ THE SIMPLEST AND THE MOST ANCIENT FORM OF LIFE
◦ ARE OGANISMS WHOSE CELLS LACK A NUCLEUS
◦ (PRO= BEFORE; KARYON=KERNEL, REFERRING TO THE NUCLUES)

EUKARYOTES
◦ HAVE CELLS THAT CONTAIN A NUCLEUS AND OTHER MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
◦ ARE OGANISMS WHOSE CELLS LACK A NUCLEUS
◦ (EU= TRUE ; KARYON=KERNEL, REFERRING TO THE NUCLUES)
 Types of Plant Cells
Parenchyma Cells
◦play a significant role in all plants.
◦considered the living cells of plants also involved in the
production of leaves.
◦Facilitate the exchange of gases, production of food, storage
of organic products and cell metabolism.
◦These cells are typically more flexible than others because they
are thinner.
 Types of Plant Cells
Collenchyma Cells
◦They are hard or rigid cells, which play a primary role in providing
support to the plants when there is restraining growth in a plant due to
lack of hardening agent in primary walls.

Sclerenchyma Cells
◦These cells are more rigid compared to collenchyma cells and this is
because of the presence of a hardening agent. These cells are usually
found in all plant roots and mainly involved in providing support to
the plants.
 Types of Plant Cells
Xylem Cells
◦ Xylem cells are the transport cells in vascular plants. They help in the
transport of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts
of the plants.

Phloem Cells
◦ Phloem cells are other transport cells in vascular plants. They transport food
prepared by the leaves to different parts of the plants.
What is a plant cell?
◦ A plant cell is a eukaryotic cell that contains a true nucleus and certain organelles to perform specific
functions. However, some of the organelles present in plant cells are different from other eukaryotic cells.
What are the different types of plant cells?
◦ The different types of plant cells include- collenchyma, sclerenchyma, parenchyma, xylem and phloem.
Which organelles are found only in plant cells?
◦ The organelles found only in plant cells include- chloroplast, cell wall, plastids, and a large central vacuole.
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment chlorophyll that is responsible for the process of photosynthesis.
What is the composition of a plant cell wall?
◦ The cell wall of a plant is made up of cellulose. Cellulose is a long, linear polymer of several glucose
molecules.
Where does photosynthesis occur in plant cells?
◦ Photosynthesis occurs inside the chloroplast of the plant cells. Chloroplast consists of a green pigment called
chlorophyll. The light reactions occur within the thylakoids of the chloroplast where the chlorophyll pigment
is found.
 WATER- THE
CRADLE OF LIFE
Water is life
A.Water is cohesive and adhesive
◦ Water molecules stick together (cohesion) and to other substances(
adhesion).
B. Many substances Dissolves in water
◦ A solution consists of a solute dissolves in a solvent
◦ Water dissolves hydrophilic (polar and charged) substances but
not hydrophobic (non polar) substances.
C. Water regulates temperature
BIOMOLECULES
BIOMOLECULES
◦ Consists of entirely of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons)
◦ These build up living organisms and are also required for their growth
and maintenance
◦ Polymers – chains of small molecular sub units of monomers

A. Dehydration synthesis – joins monomers into polymers

B. Hydrolysis- breaks polymers into monomers
 Carbohydrates
- are a vital part of a healthy diet.
- They provide the energy required to do work.
- Scientifically, it’s a polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on earth.
Three categories of Carbohydrates:
◦ Monosaccharides: These are composed of a single unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or
ketone. Monosaccharides are colorless, crystalline solids that are completely soluble in
water.[1] They are involved in generating energy for the body. Examples include glucose,
fructose, ribose, and arabinose.
◦ Disaccharides: These are composed of two units of sugars joined by O-glycosidic
bonds.[1] A list of disaccharides with their monomer units and functions is given below.[1]
◦ Polysaccharides: These consist of more than two sugar monomer units. They are also
known as glycans
 Proteins
- are unbranched polymers of amino acid residues.
- There are about 22 amino acids that are involved in the synthesis of proteins
according to their location and function.
Proteins are categorized into four groups depending on their structural
organization:
Primary structure
It is formed by the formation of a peptide bond between amino acids.
Secondary structure
It is a folded structure within a polypeptide that’s due to the formation of
hydrogen bonds between amide hydrogen and the carbonyl oxygen of the peptide
backbone.. It includes structures like alpha-helix and beta-sheet.
 Proteins
Tertiary structure
It is a three-dimensional conformation that’s formed due to the
interaction between R-groups or side chains of the amino acids that make up the
proteins. Bonds that contribute to the formation of this structure include
hydrophobic interaction, electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonds, and Van der
Waals forces of interaction.
Quaternary structure
This structure forms between two or more polypeptide chains. Each
polypeptide chain is called a subunit.[1] The quaternary structures may occur
between identical or different polypeptide chains. The bonds involved in the
formation of these structures include hydrophobic bonds, electrostatic bonds,
hydrogen bonds, and covalent cross-links.
 Functions of Proteins
Proteins are essential components of organisms. It participates
in almost every process within cells. It is involved in the processes of
DNA replication, cell signaling, catalyzing metabolic reactions,
construction of cell and tissue structures, and transportation of
molecules from one place to another
 Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are macromolecules present in cells and viruses, and they are involved in the storage and
transfer of genetic information. The nucleic acid was first discovered by Friedrich Miesher in the nuclei of
leukocytes. Later, further studies showed that it’s a mixture of basic proteins and phosphorus-containing
organic acid.
Structurally, nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides (or polynucleotides) which are phosphate esters of
nucleosides. The nucleotides are comprised of three components:
◦ Nitrogenous base: These are heterocyclic, planar, and aromatic molecules. It is of two types: purines and
pyrimidines. Purines include adenine and guanine, both of which are found in both DNA and RNA.
Pyrimidines include thymine (found only in DNA), cytosine (found in both DNA and RNA), and uracil
(found only in RNA).
◦ Five carbon sugar: The two types of pentose sugar are ribose (present only in RNA) and deoxyribose
(present in DNA). These sugars in nucleic acids have the D-stereoisomeric configuration.[1]
◦ Phosphoric acid ion: It’s a phosphate group involved in the polymerization of the nucleotides. A
phosphodiester bond links two or more nucleotides leading to the formation of polynucleotides.
Types of Nucleic Acids and Their Functions
A. Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
◦ DNAs are the hereditary material that resides inside the nucleus. In
1953, the first structure of DNA double helix (B-form of DNA) was
discovered by Watson and Crick. The conformation DNA will adopt
depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, chemical
modification of the bases, the type, and concentration of a metal ion
in the solution.
◦ The double helix structure represents two polynucleotides DNA
coiled around a central helix. The two strands are antiparallel and
interact by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs
 Types of Nucleic Acids and Their Functions
◦ B.Ribonucleic acids (RNA)
RNA is present in all living cells. It has different roles to play in different
organisms. It acts as genetic material in some viruses and has enzymatic activity in
other organisms (where it is called ribozyme). Three types of RNA are present
among organisms: rRNA, mRNA, and tRNA. All three have essential roles in the
development and maintenance of life.
The importance of RNA and DNA is incomparable. DNA carrying the
genetic information can’t leave its home, the nucleus, and this is why RNA exists.
They are involved in the transfer of genetic information for protein synthesis via
the processes of transcription and translation (outside the nucleus), and they
control gene expression as well
 Lipids
Lipids are organic compounds that are insoluble or poorly soluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents (like dissolves like) such as ether, benzene, or chloroform.They
are hydrophobic and structurally composed of a chain of hydrocarbons. They are
chemically more diverse than other biomolecules, and they are primarily involved in
membrane structure and energy storage.
◦ Classes of Lipids and Their Functions
◦ Different classes of lipids include:
◦ Fatty acids: These are the simplest forms of lipids. They are composed of hydrocarbon
chains of 4-36 carbons and one acidic group.[9] They can be linear or branched. Moreover,
fatty acids are the building blocks of other types of lipids.
◦ Waxes: These are esters of fatty acids and long-chain alcohols. They are composed of
hydrocarbon chains of 14-36 carbons. They are synthesized by many plants and animals.
However, the best-known wax is bee wax which is composed of an ester of palmitic acid
with triacontanol alcohol
◦ Phospholipids: These are composed of fatty acids, an attachment platform
for fatty acids, a phosphate, and an alcohol attached to phosphate. They are
part of the cell membrane of the organisms.
◦ Glycolipids: These are lipids containing saccharide groups. They are
constituents of the cell membrane and are involved in signal transductions.
◦ Steroids: These are complex derivatives of triterpenes. For example,
cholesterol is a constituent of the cell membrane and acts as a precursor for
the biosynthesis of steroid hormones and bile acids.
◦ Eicosanoids: They arise from the 20 carbons of polyunsaturated fatty
acids.They perform several functions. For example, prostaglandins stimulate
uterine contraction and lower blood pressure, leukotrienes are involved in
chemotaxis and inflammation, and thromboxanes act as vasoconstrictors
and stimulate platelet aggregation
 Cell Methods and
Techniques
in the Study of Cell
 Cell Methods and Techniques
in the Study of Cell
1.Cell microscopy
2.Confocal Microscope
3.Spectrophotometry
4.Cell Fractionation
5.Flourescence Microscope
Plasma Membrane
 Nature of the Plasma membrane
it is a selectively permeable membrane meaning that not all
molecules can pass through it.
Function of PM
1.Passive Transport – the movement of ions and molecules
across the cell membrane without requiring energy
a. Diffusion
b.Osmosis
c. Facilitated Diffusion
 Nature of the Plasma membrane
2. Active Transport- the movement of molecules across
membrane from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration against concentration
gradient requiring energy and often assisted by enzymes
3. Bulk Transport – the process of which large substances
enter and exit the cell without crossing the membrane