Technical University of Mombasa

Department of Building and Civil Engineering

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Teaching notes

University of Nairobi–FCE 511 Geotechnical Engineering IV -1-

University of Nairobi–FCE 511 Geotechnical Engineering IV -2-
Chapter One: Introduction to Earth Dams

3.1 Introduction
Advances in geotechnical engineering have enabled design and construction of high dams
impounding large amounts of water. The design and construction follows well documented
procedures gained over the last years from design construction and monitoring of both
successful and unsuccessful projects. The procedures now taken include

i) Thorough pre-design and preconstruction investigation of the dam foundation

conditions and of the construction materials and design of dams.
ii) Application of engineering skills and techniques to design
iii) Carefully planned and controlled construction
iv) Carefully designed and installed instrumentation and monitoring of the completed
dams
The design and construction of a dam is not complete without accomplishing its intended
purpose and has proved it safe over several cycles of the performance. Carefully designed
and constructional dams are in excess of three hundred meters high. Our own Thika dam
which supplies the Nairobi residents with water rises some sixty three meters above its
foundation.
Failures in dams have been occasioned by improper design, inappropriate
construction methods, including preparation of foundations, placement of the dam
embankment layers, without the necessary controls of compaction control and monitoring.
The design and construction should not be stereotyped on existing dams. Rather each dam
should be unique and dependent on the geology of the available materials. As one embarks
on the design of a dam it is prudent to study historical cases of similar dams which are
successful as well those dams which have failed of similar nature. The causes of failure of
dams has been listed by Singh and Prakash (1985) as shown on Error: Reference source not
found

University of Nairobi–FCE 511 Geotechnical Engineering IV -3-

 - 4- Introduction to dam design

Table 3.1 Causes of earth dam failures

Cause of Failure % Occurrence Type of failure

Overtopping 30 Hydrological

Seepage effects (piping, sloughing etc) 25 Geotechnical

Slope slides 15 Geotechnical

Conduit leakage 13 Geotechnical/Structural

Damage to slope protection 5 Maintenance

Miscellaneous 7 General

Unknown causes 5 General

Source: Singh and Prakash (1985)

The design and construction techniques covered in this chapter are applicable to all dams.
However the design and construction of small dams in Kenya is well covered in the manual
prepared by Ministry of Water (1985). Small dams are those whose height does not exceed
15 metres and or its impounded volume does not exceed one million cubic meters (Bureau
of reclamation 1985). The procedures covered in this chapter are inappropriate for the
design and construction of dam materials presenting the followings characteristics

i) Extremely soft, or dispersive or materials with high plasticity

ii) Exceedingly pervious foundations
iii) Exceedingly fractured foundations

These conditions require specialized testing and analysis of the presenting conditions in
order to arrive at an appropriate design

3.2 Selection of type of earth dam

The scope of dams covered is those dams where the major portion of the embankment is
constructed in successful layers compacted in layers. The layers are well bonded into one
another to achieve the necessary requirements of the particular layer. The materials are
borrowed from borrow pits and from the reservoir area of the dam. Earth dams fall into
three categories namely, diaphragm, homogenous and zoned
 - 5- Introduction to dam design

3.2.1 Diaphragm types

This type of dam is constructed with pervious materials namely sands, gravels and or rock.
An impervious diaphragm is constructed to act as the main barrier to seepage. The
diaphragm is usually made of concrete, or bitumen. Alternatively they are made of thin
compacted earth. In this case the width of the diaphragm at any depth is either less than
three meters or its thickness at any elevation is less than the height above that elevation.
Error: Reference source not found shows typical diaphragm type dams
As with all dams the diaphragm dam should be designed and constructed with care
and precision. All internal diaphragms whether made of rigid materials like concrete or
even compacted earth have potential of cracking caused by differential movement of
induced during consolidation of the dam embankment materials, fluctuating water levels or
settling foundations. Internal concrete diaphragms cannot be readily inspected. Earth
diaphragms on the surface require protection with filters, protection against erosion and
wave action. These types of diaphragms are unusually protected by rock fill and rock riprap.
The earth diaphragm is also not readily inspected during routine or emergency inspections.
The earth diaphragms are usually protected from internal erosion by filters usually in the
form of geo-textiles.
If most of the material in a diaphragm dam is rock, then this type of dam is referred
to as a rock dam discussed below.
 - 6- Introduction to dam design

Figure 3.1 Diaphragm dam

3.2.2 Homogenous types

These types of dams are made up of single kind of material save for the slope protection.
The material in this type of dam must be sufficiently impervious to act as the barrier for the
seepage. Because the impervious materials are inevitably clays which are weak in stability
but good as barrier to the seepage the slopes tend to be rather flatfish. The usual slopes on
the upstream side of the dams are 1:3.5 to 4 while for the down slope slopes need slopes of
1:2.5 to 1:3. Error: Reference source not found shows a typical homogenous slope with
three flow lines. As can be seen, seepage inevitably appears on the downstream side at a
height of about 1/3 of the height of the dam.
Rock toes and horizontal blankets are usually used to avoid the seepage breaks on
the down slope side of the dam. Riprap protection is also used on the upstream side to
arrest erosion occasioned by the waves on the upstream side of the dam. Drainage and
filter layers are designed to meet filter requirements. Inclined filters in combination with
horizontal filters built with well graded sand and surrounded by geo-textiles have become a
normal practice. Because modification of the homogenous dams has led to successful dams
the use of completely homogenous dams is now not allowed. The homogenous dams are
preferred where other materials of contrasting permeability are unavailable. Alternatively
they should be used where impervious material forming the embankment is abundant and
available principally in the dam area and within the vicinity of the dam.

Figure 3.2 Homogeneous dam

 - 7- Introduction to dam design

3.2.3 Zoned types

In these dams, a central core is of impervious material is flanked by more pervious
materials. The design of these dams requires that the permeability of dam embankment
materials increases from the core to the outside franking shells. The materials enclose
support and protect an internal impervious core. The upstream sections provide stability
during rapid drawdown. The downstream pervious materials act as drainage to control the
line of seepage. It is usual to place a filter material between the impervious material and
the downstream pervious materials.

The impervious inner layers are basically clays typically the red coffee soils. The
pervious layers are sands, gravels, cobbles, boulders and rocks. If a variety of soils are
available the type of dam of choice is the zoned dam (Bureau of reclamation 1985). It has
inherent advantages of stability and reduced seepage across the dam wall. Error: Reference
source not found shows a typical zoned earth dam

Figure 3.3 Zoned earth dam

3.3 Design Principles

The dam should be constructed so that a satisfactory performance at minimum cost is
attained. The maintenance costs should also be factored to ensure a facility with the least
maintenance of the upstream, downstream and the apartment structures and the electro
mechanical structures. An earth dam must be stable during all phases of the construction
and the operation of the reservoir. To accomplish this, the following criteria must be met:
i) The embankment, foundation, abutments, and reservoir sides must be stable and
should not develop unacceptable deformations during construction or during the
usage of the structure
ii) Sufficient seepage control must be ensured to ensure that excessive piping,
instability; sloughing, material erosion is under control. Additionally the loss should
be such that it does not impair the intended usage of the facility by excessive loss of
water.
 - 8- Introduction to dam design

iii) The reservoir sides should be stable under all operating conditions to prevent
landslides into the reservoir. It is to be noted that a landslide into the reservoir
could cause large wave to overtop the dam
iv) The embankment must be provided with adequately sized spillway which allows
design flow floods to pass without overtopping the embankment.
v) Free board allowance should be sufficient to prevent waves from overtopping the
dam.
vi) The dam should be provided with camber which allows settlement of the foundation
and the abutment to take place. This camber is not included in the freeboard
calculations.
vii) The upstream slope must be protected against the wave action while the down slope
is protected against rain erosion and animal grazing

3.3.1 Foundation design

Foundations of dams refer to the dam embankment wall floor and the sides of the
embankment in touch with the original ground of the dam. Foundations are usually not
designed but they require attention to ensure satisfactory performance. The requirement
of the foundation is to be stable under all conditions and to offer sufficient resistance to
seepage to prevent loss of water.
To determine the seepage and stability conditions of foundations the permeability of
the foundations strata in various directions and at various depths need to be determined. In
addition the strength of the strata should be determined by use of appropriated field testing
accompanied by laboratory testing. For small dams however it is normal to use empirical
approach in the treatment of the foundations. Because the foundations of different
materials demand different treatments the foundations are grouped into three different
classes. These classes can be grouped into
i) Rock foundations
ii) Foundations of coarse grained materials (sand and gravel)
iii) Foundations of fine grained materials (silt and clay)

Rock foundations
Ordinarily the rock foundations do not present any bearing capacity problems. Instead it is
the seepage problems which have to be addressed A thorough site investigation should be
undertaken to establish faults and any areas of excessive weathering which could lead to
loss of water. The procedure would be usually to perform in-situ tests to determine the
permeability of the rock structure. This is undertaken together with a site survey of the
fissures of the rock. If excessive erosive leakage , uplift pressures, high water pressures can
occur though rock crevices, fissures, permeable strata, and/or fault planes, consideration
should be made to grout the foundation.
The foundation grout is basically injection of a sealing material under pressure into
underlying formations through grout holes. Grout ordinarily consists of cement water
 - 9- Introduction to dam design

mixture in the ration of 10:1 in the case of rich mix to 0.8:1 in the case of a lean mix. Some
additives to the cement water mix is usually done to improve the pumping. The most used
additive is bentonite.
The injected grout eventually fills the cavities and potential avenues of water.
Grouting is a procedure requiring specialized personnel and equipment to effectively carry
out the operations. In general a centerline curtain of grout of holes spaced at three to six
meters is adequate. Where large zones of fracture occur below the dam wall and in the
immediate upstream of the dam a blanket grout on grid is desirable. The depth of the
grouting is usually in the region of three to ten metres. In most cases a blanket grouting of
the foundation directly below the impervious zone is desirable.

Sand gravel foundations

Generally these foundations have sufficient strength to adequately support the loads
induced by the embankment and the reservoir. Nonetheless exploratory and analysis of the
strata must be carried out as a matter of routine. The main problems of these foundations
are under seepage and subsequent forces exerted by this seepage. These undesirable
effects should be analyzed and mitigated in design and construction.

Foundations on loose sands are suspect and should generally be avoided as the sand
has the potential of collapse under load. These type of foundations should be avoided or
specialized advice sought.

The amount of under seepage should be estimated from values of coefficient of

permeability of the strata. The coefficient of permeability of the strata should be
determined by established methods including pump out tests, tests conducted by
observation of boreholes when pumping is performed in a test borehole or pump in tests as
described in FCE 311. The magnitude of the seepage forces should also be determined by
analyzing the flow net of the water flow under the dam. This topic has been covered in FCE
411.

The various methods of treatment of the foundations of sands and gravel should aim
at economical control of the under seepage and the control of the subsequent seepage
forces to prevent the undesirable effect of foundation erosion and piping at the exit of the
dam. Excessive treatment of a detention dam might not be necessary while treatment of
foundation of a water supply dam might be prudent. The various treatment techniques are
now presented.

a) Cutoff Trenches
Where possible this is usually the treatment of choice. The cut-off should extend down to
bedrock or to other impervious strata. This treatment ensures no future difficulty will be
experienced in piping and or uplift of the dam. The width of the cut-off trench is shown on
 - 10- Introduction to dam design

Error: Reference source not found. A minimum bottom width of 1.5 times the excavation
width of the equipment being used for excavation

h w=h−d

d Sand gravel

w Rock
Figure 3.4 Cutoff trench
ii) Partial cutoff
A cut-off that does not go all the way to the foundation, rather it is designed to a proportion
of the depth to the rock or to impermeable layer, the reduction in area is not proportional
to the reduction in the flow. Thus the reduction cannot be estimated from the flow
equation

Q=k .i . A

The action of the partial cut off is similar to that of an obstruction in a pipe. The reduction in
flow is not proportional to the reduction in the area of the pipe. Experiments have shown
that a 50% cut-off results in 25% reduction of the seepage while an 80% cut-off results in
50% reduction in the seepage.

iii) Sheet piling

This is an expensive method of cutting of the seepage through the foundation of an earth
dam. Additionally the seepage continues to pass through the sheet pilling interlocks. It has
been used sometimes in conjunction with the cut-off trenches. The sheet piles cannot be
performed in cobbles and boulders

iv) Slurry trench

This is a trench excavated and filled with concrete below the impervious layer. The trench is
kept in position by placing bentonite before concreting to form

v) Grouting
Various materials have been used to develop grouting procedures to improve the stability
and reduce the permeability of pervious foundations under dam walls. These materials
include,

a) Cement – water
b) Cement – bentonite – water
 - 11- Introduction to dam design

c) Bentonite
It is to be noted that grouting is usually an expensive process and it should be allowed after
extensive testing and evaluation.

vi) Upstream blankets

These are usually made of same material as the impervious core material. In effect the path
of the under-seepage is increased and hence the loss of water is reduced.

vii) Downstream embankment toes

The aim of these blankets

a) To reduce uplift pressures at the exit of the dam

b) To readily permit discharge
c) To prevent piping of the fines
d) To convey the discharge
Achieved by

a) Extending the downstream zones

b) Pervious downstream shells or by use of horizontal blankets
c) By use of toe drains

1.3.2 Embankment Design

Embankment slopes

The design of and earth fill dam embankment needs combination of many parameters.
Many of these parameters are difficult to determine accurately. These parameters include
gradation, composition and corresponding behaviour of the soils under different conditions
of saturation and loading. The stress – strain relationships can be very complex. The result
of these difficulties is that the design of earth fill dam embankment depends largely on
successfully designed, constructed and well performing dams.

Notwithstanding these acknowledged difficulties it is now possible to model out complex

conditions of an earth fill dam embankment. The design of any earth fill dam is preceded by
extensive site investigation to determine the strength and permeability characteristics of
the embankment materials. This enables the design of the slopes to the embankments to
be checked under the follow conditions.

i) Stability during construction and end of construction. In this condition the

embankment has not had the time to have the pore water in the foundations and
the embankments drained. The pore water pressures are highest in the
embankment materials. The strength parameters applicable are the undrained
parameters.
 - 12- Introduction to dam design

ii) Steady seepage conditions. The core of the dams act as the water barrier of the earth
fill dam. However even the tightest of the clay cores will allow some water
penetration. The rate of penetration will depend on the permeability of the core
material and in due time will reach steady seepage condition where a phreatic
surface will be developed at the highest level in the embankment. The steady
seepage condition is critical for the downstream slope. Under these conditions the
water has been impounded the seepage has stabilized through the embankment.
The flow net has been established. All the excess pore water pressures have
dissipated. The slopes of the dam are checked using drained parameters of the
foundations and the embankment materials. The downstream slope is in critical
condition during the steady seepage. Error: Reference source not found shows a
homogenous dam under steady seepage.

Figure 3.5 Steady seepage condition of a homogenous dam

iii) Rapid drawdown conditions. Under these conditions the stabilizing effects of the
water in the reservoir has been removed on the upstream slope. The rapid
drawdown leaves high pore-water pressure in the embankment. The upstream
slope is usually in its weakest state. The upstream slope of the dam is checked using
drained parameters of the foundations and the embankment materials. It is to be
noted that a drawdown of up to 40 meters per day is considered as rapid. Error:
Reference source not found shows a homogenous dam under rapid drawdown
conditions.

Figure 3.6 Rapid drawdown condition of a homogenous dam

 - 13- Introduction to dam design

iv) Stability under severe seismic conditions. The above conditions should be subjected
to acceleration of the embankment occasioned by seismic activities

v) Protection against erosion. The upstream slope is likely to be subjected to erosion

arising out of the wave action and sloughing as the level of the water fluctuates. This
is mitigated by use of appropriate upstream protection by use of stone riprap. The
downstream slope is subjected to erosion a result of the precipitation and made
worse by grazing in some dams in communities in need of pasture. The usual
practice is to fence off the dam area and to plant grass and appropriate trees.

The stability check is usually to ensure that the shear stresses induced in the embankments
are resisted by the mobilized shear strength. The shear stresses are from the externally
applied loads which include reservoir weight and earthquake forces. Additionally internally
generated forces from the self weight of embankment. The shear stresses at the slopes
being checked are shown on Error: Reference source not found below the shear stresses to
be resisted is shown on Equation 3.1
σ1

τ
σ σ3
s/F

Figure 3.7 Stresses mobilized on a failure surface

σ =σ +u

τ =¿ ¿ ¿

σ 1−σ 3
τ= sin 2 θ 3.4
2
The external and internal forces produce a compressive stress along the sliding surface. This
mobilizes the shearing strength which resists shearing along the surface being checked. The
shearing strength is given by Equation 3.2

s=c+σ tan ∅
s=c+(σ −u) tan ∅ 3.4
The slope stability factor of safety is given in Equation 3.3
 - 14- Introduction to dam design

s c+(σ −u) tan ∅

F= =
τ σ 1−σ 3 3.4
sin 2θ
2
It is to be noted that while the shear strength is reduced by the increase in the pore water
pressure the shear stress remains the same. This shows the need of understanding and
taking care of the changes in the pore water regime. In practice the design involves the
checking of the slope stability and application of a suitable factor of safety

Compaction

Compaction of earthworks is a key activity to ensure that the envisaged strength and water
tightness is achieved. When the compressibility and loading of the embankment are
constant the more saturated the soil is the higher the likely hood of developing high pore-
water pressures. To minimize the development of high pore-water pressures it is compact
the earthworks just dry of optimum. However for low dams it has been found satisfactory to
compact earthworks at MDD and OMC. At this moisture content the material is able to
conform to the shape of the foundation and the abutments.

3.4 Embankment Settlement

All dams in service deform and settle and deform to some extent. This can lead to

 Reduction and loss of freeboard

 Longitudinal and transverse cracks
 Either of these two consequences can lead to dam failure
The settlement is caused by Construction of dams on compressible foundations and or
geologic discontinuities can lead to dam deformation and settlement which include:

 Vertical movement – this is settlement and heave if it is upward

 Upstream /down stream movement - Also called lateral movement
 Cross valley movement Parallel to the dams axis –longitudinal internal deformation
These deformations can be split into elastic defamation and consolidation settlement.
Elastic defamation is the immediate settlement and takes place during and immediately
after construction. This deformation is small and ignored. It is the consolidation settlement
which takes much longer time and is dependent on the permeability of the materials which
is the result of undesirable effects. In other words the permeability is a measure of the rate
at which water is able to leave the soil matrix for the dissipation of the excess pore pressure
generated by the induced load.

Deformations of Interest

The deformations of interest include

 Uniform settlements do not usually cause internal straining or cracking. They

however reduce the dam freeboard
 - 15- Introduction to dam design

 Sharply non-uniform or differential settlements are relative movements between

neighbouring points in the embankment to/in the foundation. Excessive differential
settlement can lead into failure of the dam
 Lateral movements: Are a result of spreading of an embankment and/or settlement
of the foundation. This can cause longitudinal cracking which can lead into slope
instability through introduction of water through the cracks
In general, Uniform settlements, differential settlements and Lateral movements occur
simultaneously. It is however the component of differential settlements which causes most
damage. Further it is the compression of the foundation which causes most settlements in
embankment dams. Error: Reference source not found shows an illustration of
embankment deformations

Investigation and data collection

At the time of design it’s important that estimates of deformation are made. During usage
of the dam a monitoring regime is made to check field monitoring. If the recorded
settlements are more than those got during the design, it is important to review the cause
of the settlement and take remedial measures. A program for review would generally

 Field exploration for more geologic data and sample collection

 Laboratory testing of soils and rocks
 Installation of instrumentation for addition data and/or more frequent monitoring
 The investigation should be directed to softer portions of the dam embankment and
or foundation which would be responsible for excessive deformation.

Near Uniform settlement Differential Settlement of a zoned dam

Differential Settlement along the Differential Settlement occasioned by sharp

longitudinal length change in rock surface profile
 - 16- Introduction to dam design

Differential Settlement due to geologic

discontinuity across the valley

Lateral spreading of a dam Settlement of the foundation

Figure 3.8 Embankment deformations

Problem identification

When the deformation becomes excessive they may cause

 Visible cracks on the crest and/or the faces of the dam

 Hidden cracks in the body of the dam. These cracks may remain hidden in the body
of the dam.
 Error: Reference source not found below shows some of observations possible
causes seriousness and remedial action needed

Table 3.2 Possible observations and causes of settlement

s/no Observation Possible cause Seriousness Remedial action

a Transverse vertical cracks Excessive differential
Very serious. Impose level
at the crest extending settlement. Could be Water can easily restrictions.
from upstream to due to abrupt change in pass through the Investigate design
downstream abutment slopes cracks and cause and rectify
failure
b Longitudinal vertical Settling and tilting of Potentially can Impose level
cracks at the crest or the upstream shoulder cause hydraulic restrictions.
above the water level on towards the reservoir fracturing Investigate and
the upstream face and/or differential rectify. Check
settlement between the routine
core and shoulder maintenance of the
materials surface
 - 17- Introduction to dam design

c Transverse hidden vertical Differential settlement. Very serious. Impose level

cracks possibly extending And longitudinal Water can easily restrictions.
from upstream to arching in steep canyons pass through the Investigate design
downstream. Excessive cracks and cause and rectify
leakage through the dam. failure
d Transverse hidden vertical Differential settlement. Very serious. Impose level
cracks in thin core Between core and Water can easily restrictions.
extending from upstream shoulder materials pass through the Investigate design
to downstream. cracks and cause and rectify
Excessive leakage failure
through the dam.
e Horizontal upstream to Saturation collapse Very serious Impose level
downstream. Hidden settlement. As a result restrictions.
cracks in a homogenous of filling. Dry Investigate design
dam placement of the and rectify
material and poor
compaction control
`f Horizontal upstream to Consolidation or wetting Very serious Impose level
downstream. Hidden compression restrictions.
cracks adjacent to Investigate design
abutments and rectify
g Loss of drilling fluid in Suspected crack Serious Stop drilling with
boreholes fluid under
pressure

Principal steps in settlement analysis

Settlement theories are used. In brief the prediction of settlement requires

 A model to describe the soil behaviour

 Suitable methods to evaluate the needed soil parameters
 Computational procedure
Determination of the subsoil condition

 Vertical and lateral extent of soils, location of compressible soils, drainage conditions
and any conditions which could lead to settlement
 Determination of the water table for the determination of the initial pore water
pressure
Stress analysis

 Initial effective stress variation with depth

 Magnitude, distribution and time rate of application of surface load
 Stress distribution theory consistent with boundary conditions such as firm areas
such as rigid sections of the foundation
 - 18- Introduction to dam design

 Variation of the principle stresses σ 1, σ2,and σ3, considering consolidation and ohtrer
effects such as poisons ratio
Selection of soil parameters for purposes of settlement estimation

 (mv – Coefficient of volume change, c c Compression index, cr – recompression index, cα, Coefficient of
secondary compression, σ’vc, - pre-compression pressure - k, Coefficient of permeability, E u, Elastic
undrained Young’s modulus, E’- drained Young’s modulus , v’ – drained Poisson’s ratio K o –
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest, Cv – coefficient of consolidation)
 Representativeness of the samples
 Sample disturbance
 Environmental Factors
 Accuracy of the testing techniques
Estimation of Settlement and pore pressures

 Method of analysis
 Direction of the principal planes
 Variations of mv, k and cv with consolidation
 Secondary compression
 - 19- Introduction to dam design

Conventional one dimensional method

Conventional one dimensional method as taught in FCE 411

Remedial measures

There are no quick fix solutions. Dams which suffer damage were initially deficient in certain
of design and/or construction. Major cracks will need modification to introduce adequate
transition and filter zones to prevent erosion through cracks. Once a through crack is
formed it is virtually impossible to contain the resulting seepage without lowering the dam
to a level below the base of the crack
 - 20- Introduction to dam design

3.3.3 Spillways

Spillways are intended for storage and detention dams to release surplus or flood water
which cannot be contained in the allotted storage space. At diversion dams they bypass
flows exceeding those which are turned into the diversion dam.

The primary function of spillway is to release surplus waters from the reservoir in order to
prevent over-topping and possible failure of the dam. The water discharged over the
spillway of a dam attains a very high velocity due to its static head, which is generally much
higher than the safe non-eroding velocity in the downstream. This high velocity flow may
cause serious scour and erosion of river bed downstream. To dissipate this excessive energy
and to establish safe flow conditions in the downstream of a dam spillway, energy
dissipaters are used as remedial devices.

As the spillway spills the design flood a freeboard must be left in place to have the dam not
exposed to possible over-topping. The Freeboard is the vertical distance from the water
surface to the lowest elevation at which water would flow over the dam at a section not
designed to be overflowed.
Design Flood

The criteria for inflow design flood are governed by the classification of the dam. The dams
may be classified according to size by using the hydraulic head (from normal or annual
average flood level on the downstream to the maximum water level) and the gross storage
behind the dam as shown on Error: Reference source not found. The overall size
classification for the dam would be greater of the following two parameters;-

Table 3. 3 Classification of dams

a) Gross storage and hydraulic head criteria

Classification Gross Storage Hydraulic Head
Small Between 0.5 and 10 million m3 Between 7.5 m and 12 m
Intermediate Between 10 and 60 million m3 Between 12 m and 30 m
Large Greater than 60 million m3 Greater than 30 m

a) The inflow design flood for safety of the dam would be as follows:

Size Inflow design flood for safety of dam

Small Generally 50 years return period flood
Intermediate Standard project flood (SPF) This is the flood resulting from the most sever
combination of meteorological and hydrological conditions considered
reasonably characteristic of the region.
Large Probable maximum flood (PMF)
This is the flood resulting from the most severe combination of critical
meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonably possible in the
 - 21- Introduction to dam design

region.

Type of spillways

Spillways are classified according to their most prominent feature either as it pertains to the
discharge carrier or some other component. These may be gated or ungated. Common
types, which are generally:

 Free overfall or straight drop spillways broad crested

 Overflow or ogee spillways.
 Chute spillways
 Saddle spillway

Free Overfall (Straight Drop) Spillway:

In this type of spillway, the water freely drops down from the crest, as for an arch dam
(Figure 1). In free falling water is ventilated sufficiently to prevent a pulsating, fluctuating
jet.

Ogee or overflow spillway

 - 22- Introduction to dam design

This type comprises a control weir, which is ogee or 'S' shaped. The ogee shape conforms
closely to the profile of aerated lower nappe and falling from a sharp crested weir. An ogee
crest apron may comprise an entire spillway such as the overflow of a concrete gravity dam
(Figure 7), or the ogee crest may only be the control structure for some other type of
spillway (Figure 8).

Chute Spillway:

A chute spillway, variously called as open channel or trough spillway, is one whose discharge
is conveyed from the reservoir to the downstream river level through an open channel,
placed either along a dam abutment or through a saddle. The control structure for the chute
spillway need not necessarily be an overflow crest, and may be of the side-channel The
chute spillway has been mostly used in conjunction with embankment dams. Chute
 - 23- Introduction to dam design

spillways are simple to design and construct and have been constructed successfully on all
types of foundation materials, ranging from solid rock to soft clay.

Saddle spillways

In some basins formed by a dam, there may be one or more natural depressions or saddles
in the rim of the basin, which can be used as spillway. It is usually necessary for the saddle
to be on firm rock.

Shaft Spillway:

A Shaft Spillway is one where water enters over a horizontally positioned lip, drops through
a vertical or sloping shaft, and then flows to the downstream river channel through a
horizontal or nearly horizontal conduit or tunnel (Figure 13). The structure may be
considered as being made up of three elements, namely, an overflow control weir, a vertical
transition, and a closed discharge channel. When the inlet is funnel shaped, the structure is
called a Morning Glory Spillway. The name is derived from the flower by the same name,
which it closely resembles especially when fitted with anti-vortex piers (Figure 14). These
piers or guide vanes are often necessary to minimize vortex action in the reservoir, if air is
admitted to the shaft or bend it may cause troubles of explosive violence in the discharge
tunnel-unless it is amply designed for free flow.
 - 24- Introduction to dam design

Siphon Spillway

Another type of siphon spillway consists of a vertical pipe or shaft which opens out in the
form of a funnel at the top and at the bottom it is connected by a right angle bend to a
horizontal outlet conduit.

3.3.4 Factors affecting selection of dam site

Whenever it is decided to construct a dam, the first question that one faces is which type of
dam will be most suitable and most economical? Following are the factors affecting
selection of dam site by dam type.

1. Topography
2. Geology and Foundation Conditions
3. Availability of materials
4. Spillway size and location
5. Earthquake zone
6. Height of the Dam
7. Other factors such as cost of construction and maintenance, life of dam, aesthetics
etc.

Topography

Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam.

a) The site should provide a large area for storage of the water. Also, there should be
suitable routes available for pipelines. Narrowing valley behind wide areas which can
be submerged with low height dam.
b) A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high rocky walls, would
suggest a concrete overflow dam.
c) A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill dam with separate spillways.
 - 25- Introduction to dam design

d) A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an Arch dam

Geological and Foundation Conditions

Geological and Foundation conditions should be thoroughly surveyed because the

foundations have to carry the weight of the dam. Various kind of foundations generally
encountered are;-

Solid rock foundations have strong bearing power and almost every kind of dam can be built
on such foundations.

Gravel foundations are suitable for earthen and rock fill dams.

Silt and fine sand foundations suggest construction of earth dams or very low gravity dams.
These also need specialized treatment due to under-seepage

Clay foundations are likely to cause enormous settlement of the dam. Constructions of
gravity dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on such foundations. Earthen dams after
special treatments can be built.

Availability of materials

Availability of materials is another important factor in selecting the type of dam. In order to
achieve economy in dam construction, the materials required must be available locally or at
short distances from the construction site. These must water tightness against seepage
besides having the strength and sufficient factor or safety against slope failure bearing
failure. The construction material such as stones, binding material etc. should be locally
available, so that the cost of the project may be reduced.

Spillway Size and Location

Spillway disposes the surplus river discharge. The capacity of the spillway will depend on the
magnitude of the floods to be by-passed. The spillway is therefore much more important on
rivers and streams with large flood potential.

Earthquake Zone

If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include earthquake forces. The
type of structure best suited to resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams
and concrete gravity dams.

Social issues

The land should be cheap and there should be less population. There should not be any
soluble material present at site which could cause change in odour, taste and colour of
water, as it may be harmful for people.
 - 26- Introduction to dam design

Environmental impact for the dam

Effect during construction and after commissioning

3.3.5 Other Basic Terms of Dam Characteristics

WATER SPREAD: Water spread of a dam refers to the area submerged in the impounding of
the dam

FETCH: For the purposes of determination of wave height. Fetch is continuous straight
distance over which the wind blows. Fetch length is the horizontal distance over which the
wind blows. The wave height can be estimated from the formula
U∗F 0.5
Hs=
1760
Hs is the height of the wave in metres
U is the speed of the wave in meters per second
F is the fetch of the dam in metres
Other factors not considered in the above formula and which also affects wave height
includes wind direction with respect to the dam axis and dam depth in the vicinity of the
dam axis

ABUTMENT: The part of the valley side against which the dam is constructed. May also refer
to an artificial abutment sometimes constructed as a concrete wall. Right and left
abutments are those on respective sides as an observer when viewed looking downstream.

CREST LENGTH: The developed length of the top of the dam. This includes the length of the
spillway, powerhouse, navigation lock, fish pass, etc., where these structures form part of
the length of the dam. If detached from the dam, these structures should not be included.

CREST OF DAM: The term crest of dam is often used when top of spillway and top of dam
should be used for referring to the overflow section and dam proper, respectively.

CUTOFF: An impervious construction by means of which seepage is reduced or prevented

from passing through foundation material.

FREEBOARD: The vertical distance from the water surface to the lowest elevation at which
water would flow over the dam at a section not designed to be overflowed.

GATE: In general, a device in which a leaf or member is moved across the waterway from an
external position to control or stop the flow.
 - 27- Introduction to dam design

CREST GATE (SPILLWAY GATE): A gate on the crest of a spillway that controls overflow or
reservoir water level.

HEEL OF DAM: The junction of the upstream face of a gravity or arch dam with the
foundation surface. In the case of an embankment dam the junction is referred to as the
upstream toe of the dam.

INTAKE: Any structure in a reservoir, dam, or river through which water can be drawn into
an outlet pipe, flume, etc.

LOW LEVEL OUTLET (BOTTOM OUTLET): An opening at a low level from the reservoir
generally used for emptying the impoundment.

OUTLET: An opening through which water can be freely discharged for a particular purpose
from a reservoir.

SEEPAGE COLLAR: A projecting collar usually of concrete or steel built around the outside of
a pipe, tunnel, or conduit, under an embankment dam, to lengthen the seepage path along
the outer surface of the conduit.

STRUCTURAL HEIGHT: The vertical distance from the lowest point of natural ground on the
downstream side of the dam to the highest part of the dam which would impound water.

TOE OF DAM: The junction of the downstream face of a dam with the natural ground
surface. This is also referred to as the downstream toe. For an embankment dam the
junction of the upstream face with ground surface is called the upstream toe.

TOP THICKNESS (TOP WIDTH): The thickness or width of a dam at the top of the dam. In
general, the term thickness is used for gravity and arch dams, width is used for other dams.

3.3 Inspection of existing dams

General appearance

i) Sagging crest
ii) Slope failures
iii) Wet patches
iv) Slope protection
v) Soil erosion – gullies
vi) Loss of riprap
vii) etc

Spillway

i) You might wish to recalculate the adequacy of the spillway. This topic is
covered separately above and under hydrology
 - 28- Introduction to dam design

ii) Check field indicators of adequacy of the spillway – water marks

iii) Blockages
iv) Is the gear control working
v) Structural failures in the concrete
vi) Note any cracks

Gauge house

i) Are the instruments in good working order

ii) Have they been vandalized
Reservoir area

i) Assess the siltation

ii) Assess the conservation measures being undertaken in the neighborhood of
the dam
iii) What is the state of the fence of the reservoir fence for the fenced
reservoirs?

3.4 Examples of earth dams in Kenya

In general the dam axis should be chosen in such a way as the material required for the
embankment is minimal while getting the maximum storage. Usually this is so where the
contours are narrowing downstream of a wide valley. The dam axis should be designed as
straight as possible unless the topographical features dictate otherwise

The height of the embankment should be determined in order to achieve the desired
storage with an increased gross freeboard. The gross freeboard is the height between the
spillway crest and the embankment crest and takes account of the design flood and the
wave height

The crest width should be such that earthmoving equipment can be able to work on
the crest. In many cases a road should cap the embankment. In any case a minimum width
of four meters should be observed.
 - 29- Introduction to dam design

Table 3.2: Design statistics for Ndakaini dam  Slope protection Riprap
1 Description 4 Core
 Dam name Ndakaini (Thika)  Depth (m) 2
 Side slopes 1:1.5u/s ,1:5d/s
 District Thika  Core slope protection Filter drains
 Dam type Zoned embankment 5. Foundations
 Designer/Engineer Howard & Humpreys
Soil type Weathered rock
1. Catchment area
6. Reservoir
 Catchment area (km2) 71
 Fetch (m) 4250
 Altitude at dam site (masl) 2000
 Depth (m) 41
 Mean annual rainfall (mm) 1500
 Area (m2) 2900000
 General soil types Grade IV to VI  Capacity (Mm3) 70
3. Embankment
7. Bellmouth Spillway
 Crest length (m) 420  Crest diameter (m) 15
 Crest height (m) 65  Shaft diameter (m) 2
 Crest width (m) 11  capacity (m3/s) 417
 Bottom width (m) 8. Draw off system
 Upstream side slope 3:1  Height of stand pipe(m) 20
 Dow stream side slope 2.5:1  Pipe Diameter (mm) 5500
 Freeboard (m) 2  Height of tower (m) 70
 Embankment volume(Mm ) 2.53

Crest 2045 masl

11000
Full storage level 2041 masl
2030 masl 2.25
3000 1 2025 masl
Draw-off tower 4000
2015 masl 1
3
1.5
1 Downstream shoulder
3000 5
2.25
upstream shoulder 1 1 2005 masl
2000 masl
70000
1
3.5
Core 4000
10000 Filter drain
2.75
1
Drainage layers
culvert 2.25
1 1985
intake Drainage blanket 5000 masl
2.2
1
outlet
Original Ground level

Draw-off pipe

70 m deep grout curtain

(a): Embankment details

 - 30- Introduction to dam design

16m diameter belmouth

embankment

5.5m pipe

(b) Bell-mouth spillway

Figure 3.2(a): Embankment details of Ndakaini Dam

 - 31- Introduction to dam design

Table 3.3: Design statistics for Kwa Tabitha dam, Kitui district

1. Description 4 Core
 Dam name
Kwa Tabitha
 Width (m) 5
 Depth (m) 1
 District Kitui
 Side slopes 1:2 u/s, 1:2d/s
 Dam purpose Domestic water
 Core trench volume 200
 Designer/Engineer supply
NWCPC 3
(m )
5. Foundations
1. Catchment area
General soil type Rock
 Altitude at dam site (masl) 1094
6. Reservoir
 Mean annual rainfall (mm) 720
 Depth (m) 7.1
 General soil types Not available
7. Spillway
3. Embankment
 Width at sill (m) 15
 Crest height (m) 10.5
 Depth (m) 2
 Crest width (m) 5
 Excavation (m3) 25000
 Bottom width (m) 38
8. Draw off system
 Upstream side slope 3:1
 Height of stand pipe(m) 10
 Dow stream side slope 2:1
 Pipe Diameter (mm) 200
 Freeboard (m) 1.5
 Embankment volume(m3) 12000
 Slope protection Hand placed
riprap
 Crest 1101 masl
Gross freeboard 5000 crest protection murram

1500
500 Normal water level ( 1100 masl)
2300 Grassing
3
1 Protective Core 2
gravel 300mm 1
10m stand off pipe Hand placed
Draw off riprap300mm sand filter
pipe Toe drain

Cattle

1000
5000 1000
trough
5000

Figure 3.3: Embankment details of Kwa Tabitha Dam, Kitui district Dam

University of Nairobi–FCE 511 Geotechnical Engineering IV -32-