ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR

 What is instrumentation??
Art and science of measurement and control of
process variables within a production or manufacturing
area.
Principles and operations of measuring
instruments used in the design and configuration of
automated systems.
 MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR: DEFINITIONS

 Measurement: The act or result of a quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and an
unknown quantity to be measured.
 Measuring instrument: A device for determining the
value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
 Electronic instrument : Instrument based on electronic or
electrical principles for its measurement function. The
measurement of any electronic and electrical quantity or
variable is termed as an electronic measurement.
 Measurand: The physical, chemical, electrical quantity,
property, process, variable or a condition to be measured
 MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR: DEFINITIONS

 Advantages of electronic instrumentation :
 Most of the quantities can be converted to
electrical/electronic signals by transducers
 An electronic/electrical signal can be amplified, filtered,
multiplexed, sampled and measured.
 Measurement can be used in digital form easily
 Measured signals can be transmitted over long distances.
 Simultaneous measurements can be done
 Higher sensitivity, lower power consumption, higher
degree of reliability
 Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak
signals
 MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR: DEFINITIONS

 Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output of the
instrument to a change of input or measured variable
 Expected value: Design value or the most probable
value that calculations indicate one should expect to
measure.
 Error: The deviation of indicated value from true
value
MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

 Absolute errors and relative errors:
 If a resistor is known to have a resistance of 500Ω with a
possible error of ±50 Ω, the ±50 Ω is an absolute error. Absolute
error will be stated as an absolute quantity.
 When the error is expressed as a percentage or as a fraction of
the total resistance, it becomes relative error. Thus the ±50 Ω is
±10% relative to 500 Ω or ±1/10 of 500 Ω. R=500 Ω±10%.
 A resistor with possible error of ±10% is said to be accurate to
±10%, or to have a tolerance of ±10%.
 Another method of expressing an error is to refer to it in parts
per million(ppm) relative to the total quantity. Example, the
temperature coefficient of 1M Ω resistor might be stated as
100ppm/degree Celsius.
 MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR: DEFINITIONS

 Accuracy: Closeness with which the instrument
reading approaches the true value of the quantity to
be measured.
 Accuracy as percentage of full scale reading
 Accuracy as percentage of true value
 Accuracy as percentage of scale span
 Point accuracy
 MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR: DEFINITIONS

 Precision: The measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurements
 Significant Figures: Convey the actual information
about the magnitude and the measurement precision
of the quantity
 Resolution: Smallest change in measured quantity
that can be observed
MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR: DEFINITIONS

 MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR: DEFINITIONS

 SOURCES OF ERROR
 limitations in the sensitivity of the instruments
 imperfections in experimental design or measurement
techniques
 poor design, poor maintenance
 change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets etc.
 errors caused by person operating the instrument
MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

 Static error: The difference between the true value of
the variable and the value indicated by the
instrument. Classification
 Goss errors
 Systematic errors
 Random errors
MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

 GROSS ERRORS: Human errors that are the result of
carelessness or lack of experience of human being
 Also called personal errors

MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: Errors due to measurement
system
 Three types are: Instrumental errors, environmental
errors and observational errors
MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
 the shortcomings of the instruments
 misuse of the instruments
 loading effects

MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS
 Environmental errors: Errors due to the conditions external to
the measuring instrument like temperature changes, pressure
changes, thermal emf, stray capacitance etc. They can be
reduced by:
 Using proper correction factors
 Using arrangements that will keep the surrounding conditions
constant
 Reducing the effect of dust, humidity etc. by hermetically
sealing the components in the instruments
 The effects of external fields can be minimized by using the
magnetic or electrostatic shields
 Using equipment which are immune to environmental effects.
MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS
 Parallax error while reading a meter, wrong scale
selection, habits of individual observers etc. are the
reasons.
 To eliminate these errors, use the instruments with
mirrors, knife edged pointers etc.

MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

 Random errors: The errors, the causes of which are
unknown
 Can be analyzed statistically and treated
mathematically.
 The only way to reduce these errors is by increasing
the number of observations and using statistical
method to obtain the best approximation of the
reading.
MEASUREMENT AND
ERROR:TYPES OF ERRORS

 Ammeters

 DC meter working principle—D’Arsonval
principle—flow of current through a coil placed in a
magnetic field
 PMMC- low level dc ammeter; range extension with
parallel-connected resistors
 PMMC- voltmeter with series connected resistor
 DC AMMETER

 PMMC along with shunt resistance– when large
currents are to be measured

Rsh=(ImRm)/(I-Im)
 MULTIRANGE
AMMETERS
 Current range extended by a number of shunts

selected by a range switch
 Switch- multiposition switch-protects meter movement
from being damaged during range changing
 First use highest scale range
 Cost of meter increases
REQUIREMENTS OF A
SHUNT
 Minimum thermo

dielectric voltage drop
 The temperature coefficient of shunt and meter
should be low and should be as equal as possible.
 The shunt resistances should be stable and
constant with time
 The shunt resistances should not carry currents
which will cause excessive temperature rise.
 The type of material used to join the shunts
should have low thermo dielectric voltage drop
i.e. the soldering of joints should not cause a
voltage drop.
 Solderability
 DC VOLTMETER

 To use a basic meter as voltmeter, a resistance is
required to be connected in series with it which is
called as multiplier.
 The voltmeter measures the voltage across the two
pints of a circuit or a voltage across a circuit
component.

Rs= V/Im - Rm
MULTIRANGE
VOLTMETERS