Unit- 4

What is cryptography?

Cryptography is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data. Cryptography enables
you to store sensitive information or transmit it across insecure networks (like the Internet) so that it
cannot be read by anyone except the intended recipient. While cryptography is the science of securing
data, cryptanalysis is the science of analyzing and breaking secure communication. Classical
cryptanalysis involves an interesting combination of analytical reasoning, application of mathematical
tools, pattern finding, patience, determination, and luck. Cryptanalysts are also called attackers.

Types Of Cryptography:
In general there are three types Of cryptography:
1. Symmetric Key Cryptography: (secret key)
It is an encryption system where the sender and receiver of message use a single common key to encrypt and
decrypt messages. Symmetric Key Systems are faster and simpler but the problem is that sender and receiver
have to somehow exchange key in a secure manner. The most popular symmetric key cryptography system is
Data Encryption System(DES).
2. Hash Functions:
There is no usage of any key in this algorithm. A hash value with fixed length is calculated as per the plain
text which makes it impossible for contents of plain text to be recovered. Many operating systems use hash
functions to encrypt passwords.
3. Asymmetric Key Cryptography (public key)
Under this system a pair of keys is used to encrypt and decrypt information. A public key is used for
encryption and a private key is used for decryption. Public key and Private Key are different. Even if the
public key is known by everyone the intended receiver can only decode it because he alone knows the private
key.

Digital signatures (electronic signature)

A major benefit of public key cryptography is that it provides a method for employing digital signatures.
Digital signatures let the recipient of information verify the authenticity of the information’s origin, and
also verify that the information was not altered while in transit. Thus, public key digital signatures
provide authentication and data integrity. A digital signature also provides non-repudiation, which
means that it prevents the sender from claiming that he or she did not actually send the information.
These features are every bit as fundamental to cryptography as privacy, if not more. A digital signature
serves the same purpose as a handwritten signature. However, a handwritten signature is easy to
counterfeit. A digital signature is superior to a handwritten signature in that it is nearly impossible to
counterfeit, plus it attests to the contents of the information as well as to the identity of the signer.

Steganography is a means of concealing secret information within (or even on top of) an
otherwise mundane, non-secret document or other media to avoid detection. It comes from the
Greek words steganos, which means “covered” or “hidden,” and graph, which means “to write.”
Hence, “hidden writing.”

Steganography Techniques
Depending on the nature of the cover object(actual object in which secret data is
embedded), steganography can be divided into five types:

1. Text Steganography
2. Image Steganography
3. Video Steganography
4. Audio Steganography
5. Network Steganography

Cloaking is a search engine optimization (SEO) technique in which the content presented to

the search engine spider is different from that presented to the user's browser. This is done by
delivering content based on the IP addresses or the User-Agent HTTP header of the user requesting
the page. When a user is identified as a search engine spider, a server-side script delivers a
different version of the web page, one that contains content not present on the visible page, or that is
present but not searchable. The purpose of cloaking is sometimes to deceive search engines so
they display the page when it would not otherwise be displayed (black hat SEO). However, it can
also be a functional (though antiquated) technique for informing search engines of content they
would not otherwise be able to locate because it is embedded in non-textual containers such as
video or certain Adobe Flash components. Since 2006, better methods of accessibility,
including progressive enhancement, have been available, so cloaking is no longer necessary for
regular SEO.[1]
Cloaking is often used as a spamdexing technique to attempt to sway search engines into giving the
site a higher ranking. By the same method, it can also be used to trick search engine users into
visiting a site that is substantially different from the search engine description, including
delivering pornographic content cloaked within non-pornographic search results.
Cloaking is a form of the doorway page technique.

File Manipulation
File organization and manipulation is an essential skill for using a computer. We have
summarized below some of the basic operations that are used to perform these tasks.
Keep in mind that there are many ways to perform these operations, and we have
suggested one possible approach that is reasonably consistent among various versions
of the Windows operating system. If you know another approach from your previous
computer work, use that approach.
1. Data hiding in the NTFS file system
1. Software and its engineering
1. Software organization and properties
1. Contextual software domains
1. Operating systems
1. File systems management