Electrodynamics and Relativity

2. Lorentzian Relativity
Dr. Sebastian Koothottil
Contents

□ Maxwell’s Equations.
□ Lorentz Transformations.
□ Einstein’s Velocity Addition Rule.
□ Einstein and the Special Theory of Relativity.
□ Postulates of Special theory of Relativity.
Maxwell’s equations
▶ Maxwell’s equations Govern the behavior of Electric and Magnetic fields.
ρ
∇·E=
ε0
∇·B=0
∂B
∇×E=−
∂t
1 ∂E
∇ × B = µ0 j +
c 2 ∂t
▶ The equations governing electromagnetic phenomena do not obey the
Galilean principle of relativity. That is, Maxwell’s equations change when
effecting a Galilean transformation.
Maxwell’s equations
▶ This can be seen from the above equations. For example let us examine
the law of propagation of light. Maxwell’s equations imply that empty
space supports the propagation of electromagnetic waves, travelling at the
speed
1
c=√ = 3.00 × 108 m/s. (1)
ϵ0 µ0
▶ Clearly, this is a constant and does not obey the Galilean transformation
rule. So we can say that the laws of electromagnetism do not have the
symmetry under Galilean transformations.
▶ At the time people accepted that the laws of electromagnetism do not
obey the Galilean principle of relativity.
▶ It was believed that the speed c in vacuum is with respect to an absolute
reference frame called ether.
Maxwell’s equations
▶ Accordingly the laws of electromagnetism would hold only for observers
who are at rest with respect to the ether medium and it seemed that
motion can be distinguished from rest by performing electromagnetic
experiments.
Lorentz Transformations
▶ H. A. Lorentz, figured out that the laws of electromagnetism had a
different symmetry transformation similar to the Galilean symmetry of
Newton’s equations. He showed that Maxwell’s equations remained the
same under the following transformations.

x̄ = γ (x − vt)
ȳ = y
z̄ = z
 v 
t¯ = γ t − 2 x
c
where,
1
γ=q
v2
1− c2
Lorentz Transformations
The inverse transformations are given as,

x = γ (x̄ + v t¯)
y = ȳ
z = z̄
 v 
t = γ t¯ + 2 x̄
c
Lorentz Transformations
▶ The corresponding transformation of the differences in two different x and
t can be readily written. The Lorentz transformation equations are
particularly useful in this form.

∆x̄ = γ (∆x − v ∆t) (2)

∆ȳ = ∆y (3)
∆z̄ = ∆z (4)
 v 
¯
∆t = γ ∆t − 2 ∆x (5)
c
▶ At this point these are purely mathematical. Lorentz did not have a
physical interpretation for this symmetry. He just observed that Maxwell’s
equations also have some sort of symmetry which looked similar to the
Galilean symmetry of mechanics.
Lorentz Transformations
▶ It was Einstein who understood the Lorentz symmetry of Maxwell’s
equations from a physical perspective.
The inverse Lorentz transformation is obtained by replacing v by −v and
interchanging primed and unprimed coordinates. The co-ordinate
differences transform from primed to unprimed as,

∆x = γ (∆x̄ + v ∆t¯) (6)

∆t = γ ∆t¯ + v ∆x̄/c 2


(7)
∆y = ∆ȳ (8)
∆z = ∆z̄ (9)
Lorentz Transformations
The Lorentz transformations exhibit a nice symmetry between x and ct.
With β = vc , the Lorentz transformation equations are,

x̄ = γ (x − βct) (10)
ȳ = y (11)
z̄ = z (12)
c t¯ = γ (ct − βx) (13)

where,
1
γ=p (14)
1 − β2
Einstein’s Velocity Addition Rule
▶ Longitudinal Velocity Addition Rule.
Suppose a particle moves a distance dx (in S ) in a time dt. Its velocity
ux is then
dx
ux =
dt
In S̄, mean while, it has moved a distance

d x̄ = γ(dx − vdt)

(see (2)) in a time given by, see (5).

 v 
d t¯ = γ dt − 2 dx
c
Einstein’s Velocity Addition Rule
The velocity in S̄ is therefore
d x̄ γ(dx − vdt) (dx/dt − v ) ux − v
ūx = = = =
d t¯ γ (dt − v /c dx)
2 2
1 − v /c dx/dt 1 − ux v /c 2
This is Einstein’s velocity addition rule. Often, it is given in a more
transparent way as follows. Let A be the particle, B be S, and C be S̄;
then u = vAB , ū = vAC and v = vCB = −vBC , so we can write the
transformation rule for velocities as,
vAB + vBC
vAC =
1 + (vAB vBC /c 2 )
Einstein’s Velocity Addition Rule
▶ Transverse Velocity addition Note that the y and z components of the
velocity also change under Lorentz transformations.
p
uy uy 1 − v 2 /c 2
ūy = = (15)
γ (1 − vux /c 2 ) 1 − (ux v /c 2 )
p
uz uz 1 − v 2 /c 2
ūz = = (16)
γ (1 − ux v /c 2 ) 1 − (ux v /c 2 )
Einstein and the Special Theory of Relativity
▶ Einstein, through theoretical arguments and thought experiments, was
convinced that the principle of relativity must be valid. The laws of
physics must have the same form in all inertial reference frames.
▶ In other words, every inertial observer has the right to consider herself at
rest. The apparent inconsistency of Maxwell’s equations with the principle
of relativity troubled Einstein.
▶ His first attempt was to modify the laws of electromagnetism in such way
to make it consistent with Galilean relativity.
▶ However, all attempts at modifying Maxwell’s equations failed. The laws
of electromagnetism were highly successful and no other consistent
formalism of them seemed possible.
Einstein and the Special Theory of Relativity
▶ Einstein also observed that the applying Maxwell’s equations to a
‘moving’ frame also predicted exactly the same numerical results.
Different observers would agree on measured values although they may
provide different explanations for the effect.
▶ That is, even though the laws themselves were thought to hold only in a
specific reference frame, no experiments involving electromagnetic
phenomena would distinguish between rest and uniform motion.
▶ This fact was dramatically made clear by the negative result of
Michelson-Morley experiment where they intended to detect the motion of
the earth through ether by measuring the speed of light.
▶ Note: The Michelson-Morley Experiment does not seem to have been
important to Einstein’s thought process. For him the theoretical reasoning
was sufficient.
Einstein and the Special Theory of Relativity
To summarize,
▶ No other consistent formalism is possible for the laws of electromagnetism.
▶ The laws predicted correct experimental result even when applied to the
’wrong’ frame.
▶ External empirical evidence suggests that results of electromagnetic
experiments do not distinguish state of rest from state of uniform motion
eg: Michelson Morley.
Postulates of Special theory of Relativity
▶ Inspired by the above, Einstein proposed his famous postulates
1. The same laws of physics apply to all inertial reference systems.
2. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all inertial observers,
regardless of the motion of the source.
▶ The Lorentz transformation equations can be derived by demanding that
the transformation equation between inertial frames must be such that
they leave the speed of light invariant.
▶ Thus Maxwell’s equations are really relativistically correct and it is the
laws of mechanics that need modifications.