Population is defined as the total number of individuals ofa species in speific geographcal

a area,
which can interbreed under natural conditions
of biotic community.
toproduce fertile offsprings and function as a
u
Population ecology links ecology to population genetics and evolution.
Characteristics of a population:
( Population size or density of a species is the number of individuals of a unit area
volume species per
individuals
of in region (N)
Population Density (PD) =umber
Number of unit area in
a

a region (S)
N
PD =
(i) Birth or natality rate: It is expressed as the number of births per 1,000 indivíduals of a
population per year
(ii) Death or mortality rate: It is expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000 individuals of a
population per year.
(iv) Sex ratio: It is expressed as the number of females per 1,000 males of a population in given time.
A population at any given time is composed of individuals of different ages. When the age
distribution (per cent individuals of a given age or age group) is plotted for the population, the
resulting structure is called age Pyramid.
For human population, the age pyramids generally show age distribution of males and females in
a combined diagram.
I The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population and is of three types:
(a) Expanding (Triangular shaped pyramid) (6) Stable (Bell shaped pyramid)
c) Declining (Urn shaped pyramid).
IThe pyramids also indicate the ratio of pre-reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive
individuals in a population.

Post-reproductive

Reproductive
Pre-reproductive
Expanding Stable Decining
Fig. 13.3 Representation of age pyramids for human population

amidea
400 Xam idea Biology-XI
10. Population Growth
The size of a population depends on food availability, predation pressure and weather

Size of the population is not a static parameter Therefore,

The population density depends on few basic processes:
(0) Natality: It is the number of births during a given period of tume. lt
the tpopulatior
increases the

density.
(ii) Mortality: It is the number of deaths in a given time period. It decreases the population d
(ii) Immigration: It is the number of individuals of same species added to a habitat in a oiva density
time
period. It increases the population density.
(1) Emigration: It is the number of individuals of same species that move to a different hahit.
t in
a given time period. It decreases the population density.

Immigration

Natality (B) Population Mortality (D)

Density (N)

Emigration
(E)

The population density is given by the following equation:

N, = No + [(B + I) - (D + E)]

where N = population density at time t, B = birth rate, I = immigration, D = death rate,

E emigration, and No =
population in thebeginning.
This equation shows that the population density will increase, if the number of births plus the
number ofimmigrants (B+I) is more than the number of deaths plus the number of emigrants, ie.,
(D+E), otherwise it will decrease.

11. Population Growth Models

There are two models of population growth:
) The exponential growth
Gi) Logistic growth i dN
dt
= rN
() Exponential Growth
The exponential or geometric growth
IS common where the resources (food +
space) are unlimited. b

The equation for exponential growth can

be derived as follows:
dN
dtr (b-d) x N,
Let (b-d) =1, then Time (t)
dN
dtrN Fig. 13.4 Population growth curve ponential

(a) vhen resources are notlimiting the growth, plot is istic,

Or N, = Noe" ( ) When resources are limiting the growth, plot is lo3

carrying capacity.

Xamidea
 Organisms and Populations 39

n Adaptatio
on in mammals in cold imate
minimise heat limbs to loss. This is called Allen's rule.
have shorter ears and that acts as an insulator
atic mammals) have thick
a layer of fat (blubber) below their skin
MamS e a l s( a q u a t

loSs of
i c

heat. body
cessive
ndreducesexces

in desert lizards
the comfort zone.
A d a p t a t i c

when the temperature drops below

body
at from the
sun
levels.
ambient temperature rises above the comfort
T h e ya b s o r b

T h e y move i n t o into shade when

at high altitude in humans of red blood
by increasing production
Adaptatio

altitudes compensate low oxygen

(W
The people pole living in high
increases.
haemoglobin decreases and breathing rate
cells (RBCs).

of
capacity
count o r total Hb.
than people iving
itudes of Himalyas have higher RBC
binding
T The at high altitu
People
living
in p l a i n s .

Population Attributes
area,

the total number of individuals of a species in a specific geographical unit

Dnlation is defined under natural
as and function as a
conditions to produce fertile offsprings
hich can interbreed
o fbioticcommunity. evolution.
links ecology to population genetics and
Population ecology
Characteristics of a population: is the number of
individuals of a species per unit
area or

of a species
Population size or density
volume Number of individuals in a region (N)
Population Density (PD)
=
Number of unit area in a region (S)
N
PD S
1,000 individuals of a

rate: It is expressed as the number of births per

(Gi) Birth or natality
population per year individuals of a

rate: It is expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000

(ii)Death or mortality
population per year. time.
of a population in given
expressed the number of females per 1,000 males
(iv)Sex ratio: Itis as
of individuals of different ages.
When the age
time is composed
IApopulation at any given of a given age o r age group) is plotted
for the population, the
distribution (per cent individuals
resulting structure is called age pyramid. distribution of males and females in
For human population, the age pyramids generally show age
a combined diagram.
population and is of three types:
of the
The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth
status

(o)EXpanding (Triangular shaped pyramid) (b) Stable (Bell shaped pyramid)

) Declining (Urn shaped pyramid). and post-reproductive
also indicate the ratio of pre-reproductive, reproductive
pyramids
individuals in a populatior

Post-reproductive

Reproductive
Pre-reproductive
Stable Decining
Expanding
Fig. 13.3 Representation of age pyramids for human population

Xamidea
 Z
Z

Population density (N)-

 Organisms and Populations 401
N #population size, N, =

population density after time t,

where,
t population density at time zero,
intrinsic rate of natural increase,
r =

-the base of natural logarithms

e
(2.71828), b
rtant parameter assessing impacts of biotic and birth rate, and d death rate.
r i sa ni m p o r t
=

abiotic factor
when N in relation to time is
ponential growth,
plotted
population growth. on
on
graph, the curve becomes J shaped.
L o g i s t i cg r o w t h

The resources bec become limited at Certain pont of time, so no population can
model is m o r e realistic. grow exponentially.
growth
This or environment or habitat has imited resources to
erye c o s y s t e m

duals called its carrying capacity (K).

bero findividua
support a particular maximum
ation to
plotted in relation time t, the logistic growth show sigmoid curve and is also called
ulst-Pearl logistic growth. It is given by the following
equation:
dN-NK
dt
at timet
N population density
vhere
rate of natural increase
r =intrinsic
capacity.
K = carrying

Variation
12.Life History to the populations where they evolve to maximise their reproductive
Darwinian
fitness reters
'r' value.
fitness, i.e., high
evolve towards the most efficient reproductive strateay
Under selection pressures, organisms to once in their lifetime
from species species, as some organisms breed
The rate of breeding varies while others breed many times during their lifetime (most birds and
(Pacific salmon fish, bamboo),
mammals) while
small-szed oflsprings (oysters, pelagic fishes),
a large number of
ISome organisms produce mammals).
number of large-sized oflsprings (birds,
others producea small have evolved in relation to the constraints,

that life history traits of organisms

Ecologists suggest in which they live.
biotic components of the habitat,
imposedby theabiotic and
13. Population Interaction
interactions of populations of two different species.
Interspecific interactions are
The mteractions may be
by
beneficial/positive effect indicated +.

harmful'detrimental/negative effect indicated by -

indicated by 0.
neutral interaction/no effect on the species Interactions
Table 13.1 Population
Name of Interaction
Species B
Species A
Mutualism
Competition
Predation
Parasitism
Commensalism

Amensalism

Xamidea
402 Xam idea
Biology-Xl
) Predation
Kills and consumes
called predator, the other
erspecilic interaction, where an animal,
weaker animal called prey.
levels, eg.,.
vels, eg, a liger (predator
to higher trophic
lation is nature's way of transferring energy
4 deer (prey), a sparrow (predator) cating fruit or seed (prey), ct
The role of
predators: control. This is called biological control
cuators keep prey population under
in a communy, Dy reducing the inte
redators also in maintaining species
help diversity mtensity
of competition among prey species.
across trophic levels, predators nla
Desides acting as for energy transfer
'conduits'
could achieve very high poniul
roles. In absence of predator species, prey species
mportant
densities and lead to ecosystem instability.
area, they become invasive and
species are introduced into a geographical start
.

when certain exotic

natural predators.
its
not have
Spreading fast because the invaded land does
then the prey might become extinct and
lt a predator is to0 efficient and over-exploits its prey,
a

food.
extinct due to the lack of
1ollowing it, the predator will also become
The prey defence mechanisms
insects and frogs arecrypticall
some species ot
(a) To avoid being detected easily by the predators,
coloured (camoullaged).
of
special chemical
predator (birds) because
a
its
6) The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful
to
on a poisonous weed in its
present in its body which is acquired by the buttertly by leeding
caterpillar stage.
mechanism, e.g., Acaca, cactus.
) Some plants have thorns or spines for defence
chemicals like cardiac glycosides, nicotine, caffeine,
(d) Some plants produce highly poisonous as defences against
quinine, strychnine, opium, etc., are produced by plants actually grazers

and browsers.

(i) Competition
Competition is a type of interaction where both the species sufler. It may exist between some species
(interspecific competition) or between individuals of diflerent species (intraspecific competition).
The competition occurs due to limited resources between closely related species.
Some totally unrelated species could also compete for the same resource, eg, in some shallow
lod,
South American lakes, visiting lamingoes and resident fishes compete for their common
zooplanktons.
the
I n interspecific competition, the feeding efficiency of one
species might be reduced to

interfering and inhibitory presence of the other species, although the resources are abundant
due
F o r example, after the introduction of goats in Galapagos Islands, the Abingdon tortoise becane
extinct within a decade due to greater browSing eficiency of the goats.
Competitive release refers to the phenomenon of a species whose distribution is restricted to aSna
nd its
geographical area because ofthe presence of a competitively superior species, is found to expand
distributional range dramatically when the competing species is experimentally removed.
Gause's competitive exclusion principle states that two closely related species competing tor
inated
same resource cannot coexist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminat
eventually by the superior one.
Resource partitioning: It refers to the phenomenon in which species facing competition might
five
evolve mechanisms that promote coexistence rather than exclusion. MacArthur showed ta
1 coexist
closely related species of warblers living on the same tree were able to avoid competition and
due to behavioural differences in their foraging activities.

Xamidea
 Organisms ard Prpulations 403
i Varastlism
ol interaction between two
etl for food and shelter, andspecies in which one species
l 8t h em o d e

(host) for
in this (parasite) depends on the
while the other is process damages the host. In this process one
o t h e rs p p e U e s

benelited (parasit
g a n i s mi Sb e n e f i t e e

being harmed (host).

Adaptationo fparasite:

have evolved to be
The
parasite
host-specilic in such a manner hat both host and parasite tend
(a) t oc o - e v o l v e .
Sense organs.
nssof unnecessary
fadhesive
adhesive organs or suckers.
Presence of
o of digestive system.
Loss

e) High reproduct uctive capacity.

des ofsome parasites are complex where one or more intermediate host or vectors to
Thelife cycles
ation ar
facihtate parasitisation are present.

fac human liver uke depends on two intermediate hosts, a snail and a fish, to complete its
( a ) The

ife cycle.
lasmodium) needs a vector (mosquito) to complete its life cycle.
falarial parasite (Plasx
(6) harm theeihost by reducing the survival, growth and reproduction of the host.
of parasites
Majority

reduce its
ulation density by making it physically weak.
They
Parasites may be of
two types: ectoparasites and endoparasites.
Endoparasite Ectoparasite
S .No.
the which feed on the
live inside the These are parasites
These are the parasites which external surface of the host organism for food
different sites like liver, kidney.
host's body at and shelter.
for food and shelter.
lungs, etc.,
Example, lice on humans, ticks on dogs,
liver fluke, Plasmodinum.
) Example, tapeworm, copepods, Cuscuta.

eggs in the nest of another organism is

organism (paras1te) lays its
phenomenon in which
one
The
called brood parasitism.

(v) Commensalism benefited

interaction between two species where one species is
referred to as the
Commensalism is benefited.
neither harmed nor

and the other is from

commensalism:
I Few examples of shelter and nutrition
tree. The orchid gets
epiphyte on a mango
as an
(a)An orchid growing tree is neither
benelited n o r
harmed.
for food
the to location
mangotreewhile mango
whale. Barnacles
are
benefited to move

the back of harmed.

0)Barnacles growing
on nor
neither benefited benefited by the
while the whales are are
a5 well as shelter cattle. The cattle egrets. the
association of grazing flushed out from
are in close and insects are

4 ne egrets the bushes

insects because cattle stir up
catule to detect cattle egrets. fish. The fish is
protected
vegetation, to be detected by and the clown
between sea
anemones

found harmed.
commensalism is also benelited n o r
9 he and sea
anemones
are
neither

Picdators 1s
which one speCies
Amensalism different species, in
between two
interaction is
Amensalism is r to as the harmed. but the
mould

o 1s referred neither
benefited
nor
which kills
bacteria

med and the other is secretes

penicillin
For exan aple, the moul
uld
Penicillium

unaffected.
Vamidea
404 Xam idea Biology-Xll
(vi) Mutualism
which both the interacting species a
1S rererred to as the interspecific interaction in
c
benefited.
Some examples of mutualism
algae or cyanobacteria
Lichens represent close association between fungus and photosynthetiC
where the fungus helps in the absorption of nutrients and provides protection while algae o

cyanobacterium prepares the food.

(0) Mycorrhizae are close mutual association between fungi
and higher plants
the roots ot

while the plant provides food for

where fungi helps the plant for absorption of nutrients
the fungus.
of animals fo
) Mutualism found in plant-animal relationships. Plants take the help
are
in the form of nectar o
pollination and dispersal of their seeds and animals are rewarded
edible pollen or oviposition (site for laying egg)
(d) The male bee pseudocopulates with it and during this process of pseudocopulation, the pollen
grains are dusted on the body of male bees.
e)With such pollen dusts, male bee pseudocopulates to another flower of the same species and
pollination takes place.

UMPORTANT OUESTIONS