Module - 3

Inductors and Magnetic Circuits

 Introduction
Inductors have a number of response characteristics
similar to those of the capacitor.
The inductor exhibits its true characteristics only
when a change in voltage or current is made in the
network.
 Magnetic Fields
In the region surrounding a permanent magnet
there exists a magnetic field, which can be
represented by magnetic flux lines similar to
electric flux lines.
Magnetic flux lines differ from electric flux lines
in that they don’t have an origin or termination
point.
Magnetic flux lines radiate from the north pole to
the south pole through the magnetic bar.
 Magnetic Fields
Continuous magnetic flux lines will strive to occupy as
small an area as possible.
The strength of a magnetic field in a given region is
directly related to the density of flux lines in that region.
If unlike poles of two permanent magnets are brought
together the magnets will attract, and the flux distribution
will be as shown below.
 Magnetic Fields

If like poles are brought

together, the magnets will
repel, and the flux distribution
will be as shown.
If a nonmagnetic material,
such as glass or copper, is
placed in the flux paths
surrounding a permanent
magnet, there will be an
almost unnoticeable change in
the flux distribution.
 Magnetic Fields
If a magnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed in the flux path,
the flux lines will pass through the soft iron rather than the
surrounding air because the flux lines pass with greater ease
through magnetic materials than through air.
This principle is put to use in the shielding of sensitive electrical
elements and instruments that can be affected by stray magnetic
fields.
 Magnetic Fields
The direction of the magnetic flux lines can be found by
placing the thumb of the right hand in the direction of
conventional current flow and noting the direction of the
fingers (commonly called the right hand rule).
 Magnetic Fields
Flux and Flux Density
In the SI system of units, magnetic flux is measured in
webers (Wb) and is represented using the symbol .
The number of flux lines per unit area is called flux
density (B). Flux density is measured in teslas (T).
Its magnitude is determined by the following equation:
 Magnetic Fields
Permeability
If cores of different materials with the same physical
dimensions are used in the electromagnet, the strength of the
magnet will vary in accordance with the core used.
The variation in strength is due to the number of flux lines
passing through the core.
Magnetic material is material in which flux lines can readily be
created and is said to have high permeability.
Permeability () is a measure of the ease with which
magnetic flux lines can be established in the material.
 Magnetic Fields
Permeability
Permeability of free space 0 (vacuum) is
Wb
 0  4 10 7

AM
Materials that have permeability slightly less than
that of free space are said to be diamagnetic and
those with permeability slightly greater than that of
free space are said to be paramagnetic.
 Magnetic Fields
Permeability
Magnetic materials, such as iron, nickel, steel and
alloys of these materials, have permeability hundreds
and even thousands of times that of free space and are
referred to as ferromagnetic.
The ratio of the permeability of a material to that of
free space is called relative permeability.


r 
0
 Inductance
Inductors are designed to set up a strong
magnetic field linking the unit, whereas capacitors
are designed to set up a strong electric field
between the plates.
Inductance is measure in Henries (H).
One henry is the inductance level that will establish
a voltage of 1 volt across the coil due to a chance in
current of 1 A/s through the coil.
 Inductance

  permeability (Wb/A  m)
N A 2
N  number of turns (t)
L A  area (m 2 )
l l  length (m)
L  inductance in henries (H)
 Induced Voltage
If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field so that
it cuts magnetic lines of flux, a voltage will be induced
across the conductor.
 Induced Voltage
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
The greater the number of flux lines cut per unit time (by
increasing the speed with which the conductor passes through
the field), or the stronger the magnetic field strength (for the
same traversing speed), the greater will be the induced voltage
across the conductor.
If the conductor is held fixed and the magnetic field is moved
so that its flux lines cut the conductor, the same effect will be
produced.
 Induced Voltage
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
If a coil of N turns is placed in the region of the
changing flux, as in the figure below, a voltage will be
induced across the coil as determined by Faraday’s
Law.
 Induced Voltage
Lenz’s law
An induced effect is always such as to oppose the cause that
produced it.
The inductance of a coil is also a measure of the
change in flux linking a coil due to a change in
current through the coil

N is the number of turns,  is the flux in webers,

and i is the current through the coil
 Induced Voltage
The larger the inductance of a coil (with N fixed), the larger will
be the instantaneous change in flux linking the coil due to the
instantaneous change in the current through the coil.

diL
vL  L (volts, V)
dt
The voltage across an inductor is directly related to the
inductance L and the instantaneous rate of change through the
coil. The greater the rate of change of current through the coil,
the greater the induced voltage.
Electromagnetic Induction
The phenomenon of flux lines cut the conductor to get
Induced e.m.f in the conductor or coil is called
electromagnetic induction.
The induced emf sets up a current in such a direction so as to
oppose the cause producing it. Mathematically this opposition is
expressed by a negative sign
An induced emf which is due to physical movement of coil
or conductor w.r.t flux or movement of magnet w.r.t to
stationary coil or conductor is called dynamically induced
emf or motional induced emf
The change in flux lines w.r.t coil can be achieved without
physically moving the coil or the magnet. Such induced emf in
a coil which is without physical movement of coil or magnet is
called statically induced emf.
 The emf induced in a coil
due to the change of its own
flux linked with it is called
self induced emf.
 This emf lasts till the current
in coil is changing. The
direction of current us
obtained by lenz law.

The property of the coil which opposes any change in

current passing through it is called Self Inductance or
Inductance.
Any change in current thorough one coil produces
emf in another coil is mutually inducted emf. The
phenomenon exhibited by the coils is called mutual
inductance
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 556

556 Chapter 13 Magnetically Coupled Circuits

Historical
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), a graduate in mathematics from
Cambridge University, in 1865 wrote a most remarkable paper in which
he mathematically unified the laws of Faraday and Ampere. This rela-
tionship between the electric field and magnetic field served as the basis
for what was later called electromagnetic fields and waves, a major
field of study in electrical engineering. The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) uses a graphical representation of this
principle in its logo, in which a straight arrow represents current and
a curved arrow represents the electromagnetic field. This relationship
is commonly known as the right-hand rule. Maxwell was a very active
theoretician and scientist. He is best known for the “Maxwell equa-
tions.” The maxwell, a unit of magnetic flux, was named after him.

© Bettmann/Corbis

13.1 Introduction
The circuits we have considered so far may be regarded as conduc-
tively coupled, because one loop affects the neighboring loop through
current conduction. When two loops with or without contacts between
them affect each other through the magnetic field generated by one of
them, they are said to be magnetically coupled.
The transformer is an electrical device designed on the basis of the
concept of magnetic coupling. It uses magnetically coupled coils to
transfer energy from one circuit to another. Transformers are key cir-
cuit elements. They are used in power systems for stepping up or step-
ping down ac voltages or currents. They are used in electronic circuits
such as radio and television receivers for such purposes as impedance
matching, isolating one part of a circuit from another, and again for
stepping up or down ac voltages and currents.
We will begin with the concept of mutual inductance and intro-
duce the dot convention used for determining the voltage polarities of
inductively coupled components. Based on the notion of mutual induc-
tance, we then introduce the circuit element known as the transformer.
We will consider the linear transformer, the ideal transformer, the ideal
autotransformer, and the three-phase transformer. Finally, among their
important applications, we look at transformers as isolating and match-
ing devices and their use in power distribution.

13.2 Mutual Inductance

+ 
When two inductors (or coils) are in a close proximity to each other,
i(t) v the magnetic flux caused by current in one coil links with the other
coil, thereby inducing voltage in the latter. This phenomenon is known
− as mutual inductance.
Figure 13.1 Let us first consider a single inductor, a coil with N turns. When
Magnetic flux produced by a single coil current i flows through the coil, a magnetic flux f is produced around
with N turns. it (Fig. 13.1). According to Faraday’s law, the voltage v induced in the
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 557

13.2 Mutual Inductance 557

coil is proportional to the number of turns N and the time rate of change
of the magnetic flux f; that is,
df
vN (13.1)
dt
But the flux f is produced by current i so that any change in f is
caused by a change in the current. Hence, Eq. (13.1) can be written as
df di
vN (13.2)
di dt
or
di
vL (13.3)
dt
which is the voltage-current relationship for the inductor. From Eqs. (13.2)
and (13.3), the inductance L of the inductor is thus given by
df
LN (13.4) L1 L2
di
12
This inductance is commonly called self-inductance, because it relates + 11 +

the voltage induced in a coil by a time-varying current in the same coil. i1(t) v1 v2
Now consider two coils with self-inductances L 1 and L 2 that are
in close proximity with each other (Fig. 13.2). Coil 1 has N1 turns, − −
while coil 2 has N2 turns. For the sake of simplicity, assume that the N1 turns N2 turns
second inductor carries no current. The magnetic flux f1 emanating Figure 13.2
from coil 1 has two components: One component f11 links only coil 1, Mutual inductance M21 of coil 2 with
and another component f12 links both coils. Hence, respect to coil 1.

f1  f11  f12 (13.5)

Although the two coils are physically separated, they are said to be
magnetically coupled. Since the entire flux f1 links coil 1, the voltage
induced in coil 1 is
df1
v1  N1 (13.6)
dt
Only flux f12 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is
df12
v2  N2 (13.7)
dt
Again, as the fluxes are caused by the current i1 flowing in coil 1,
Eq. (13.6) can be written as
df1 di1 di1
v1  N1  L1 (13.8)
di1 dt dt
where L1  N1 df1di1 is the self-inductance of coil 1. Similarly,
Eq. (13.7) can be written as
df12 di1 di1
v2  N2  M21 (13.9)
di1 dt dt
where
df12
M21  N2 (13.10)
di1
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 558

558 Chapter 13 Magnetically Coupled Circuits

M21 is known as the mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1.

Subscript 21 indicates that the inductance M21 relates the voltage
induced in coil 2 to the current in coil 1. Thus, the open-circuit mutual
voltage (or induced voltage) across coil 2 is

di1
v2  M21 (13.11)
dt

L1 L2 Suppose we now let current i2 flow in coil 2, while coil 1 carries

21 no current (Fig. 13.3). The magnetic flux f2 emanating from coil 2
+ 22 +
comprises flux f22 that links only coil 2 and flux f21 that links both
v1 v2 i2(t) coils. Hence,
f2  f21  f22 (13.12)
− −
N1 turns N2 turns The entire flux f2 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is
Figure 13.3 df2 df2 di2 di2
Mutual inductance M12 of coil 1 with v2  N2  N2  L2 (13.13)
respect to coil 2. dt di2 dt dt
where L 2  N2 df2di2 is the self-inductance of coil 2. Since only flux
f21 links coil 1, the voltage induced in coil 1 is
df21 df21 di2 di2
v1  N1  N1  M12 (13.14)
dt di2 dt dt
where
df21
M12  N1 (13.15)
di2
which is the mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2. Thus,
the open-circuit mutual voltage across coil 1 is

di2
v1  M12 (13.16)
dt

We will see in the next section that M12 and M21 are equal; that is,
M12  M21  M (13.17)
and we refer to M as the mutual inductance between the two coils. Like
self-inductance L, mutual inductance M is measured in henrys (H).
Keep in mind that mutual coupling only exists when the inductors or
coils are in close proximity, and the circuits are driven by time-varying
sources. We recall that inductors act like short circuits to dc.
From the two cases in Figs. 13.2 and 13.3, we conclude that mutual
inductance results if a voltage is induced by a time-varying current in
another circuit. It is the property of an inductor to produce a voltage
in reaction to a time-varying current in another inductor near it. Thus,

Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce a voltage

across a neighboring inductor, measured in henrys (H).
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 559

13.2 Mutual Inductance 559

Although mutual inductance M is always a positive quantity, the

mutual voltage M didt may be negative or positive, just like the self-
induced voltage L didt. However, unlike the self-induced L didt,
whose polarity is determined by the reference direction of the current
and the reference polarity of the voltage (according to the passive sign
convention), the polarity of mutual voltage M didt is not easy to deter-
mine, because four terminals are involved. The choice of the correct
polarity for M didt is made by examining the orientation or particu-
lar way in which both coils are physically wound and applying Lenz’s
law in conjunction with the right-hand rule. Since it is inconvenient to
show the construction details of coils on a circuit schematic, we apply
the dot convention in circuit analysis. By this convention, a dot is
placed in the circuit at one end of each of the two magnetically cou-
pled coils to indicate the direction of the magnetic flux if current enters
that dotted terminal of the coil. This is illustrated in Fig. 13.4. Given
a circuit, the dots are already placed beside the coils so that we need M
i1
not bother about how to place them. The dots are used along with the
dot convention to determine the polarity of the mutual voltage. The dot +
convention is stated as follows: di1
v2 = M
dt
If a current enters the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity
−
of the mutual voltage in the second coil is positive at the dotted
terminal of the second coil. (a)

Alternatively, M
i1

If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polar- +
ity of the mutual voltage in the second coil is negative at the dotted di1
terminal of the second coil. v2 = – M
dt
−
Thus, the reference polarity of the mutual voltage depends on the ref-
erence direction of the inducing current and the dots on the coupled (b)
coils. Application of the dot convention is illustrated in the four pairs
M
of mutually coupled coils in Fig. 13.5. For the coupled coils in i2
Fig. 13.5(a), the sign of the mutual voltage v2 is determined by the ref-
erence polarity for v2 and the direction of i1. Since i1 enters the dotted +
terminal of coil 1 and v2 is positive at the dotted terminal of coil 2, the di2
mutual voltage is M di1dt. For the coils in Fig. 13.5(b), the current v 1 = –M
dt
i1 enters the dotted terminal of coil 1 and v2 is negative at the dotted −
terminal of coil 2. Hence, the mutual voltage is M di1dt. The same
reasoning applies to the coils in Fig. 13.5(c) and 13.5(d). (c)

12 M
i2

21 +
i1 i2
di2
+ + v1 = M
v1 11 22 v2 dt
− − −

(d)
Figure 13.5
Coil 1 Coil 2 Examples illustrating how to apply the
Figure 13.4 dot convention.
Illustration of the dot convention.
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 560

560 Chapter 13 Magnetically Coupled Circuits

M Figure 13.6 shows the dot convention for coupled coils in series.
For the coils in Fig. 13.6(a), the total inductance is
i i

L1 L2 L  L 1  L 2  2M (Series-aiding connection) (13.18)

(+)

(a) For the coils in Fig. 13.6(b),

M
L  L 1  L 2  2M (Series-opposing connection) (13.19)
i i
Now that we know how to determine the polarity of the mutual
L1 L2
(−) voltage, we are prepared to analyze circuits involving mutual induc-
tance. As the first example, consider the circuit in Fig. 13.7(a). Apply-
(b)
ing KVL to coil 1 gives
Figure 13.6
Dot convention for coils in series; di1 di2
the sign indicates the polarity of v1  i1R1  L1 M (13.20a)
dt dt
the mutual voltage: (a) series-
aiding connection, (b) series- For coil 2, KVL gives
opposing connection.
di2 di1
v2  i2R2  L2 M (13.20b)
dt dt
We can write Eq. (13.20) in the frequency domain as
V1  (R1  jL1)I1  jM I2 (13.21a)
V2  jM I1  (R2  jL2)I2 (13.21b)
As a second example, consider the circuit in Fig. 13.7(b). We analyze
this in the frequency domain. Applying KVL to coil 1, we get
V  (Z1  jL1)I1  jM I2 (13.22a)
For coil 2, KVL yields
0  jM I1  (ZL  jL2)I2 (13.22b)
Equations (13.21) and (13.22) are solved in the usual manner to deter-
mine the currents.
One of the most important things in making sure one solves prob-
lems accurately is to be able to check each step during the solution
process and to make sure assumptions can be verified. Too often, solv-
ing mutually coupled circuits requires the problem solver to track two
or more steps made at once regarding the sign and values of the mutu-
ally induced voltages.

M jM
R1 R2 Z1

v1 + i1 L1 L2 i2 + v + I1 I2
− − 2 V − jL 1 jL 2 ZL

(a) (b)
Figure 13.7
Time-domain analysis of a circuit containing coupled coils (a) and frequency-domain analysis of a circuit contain-
ing coupled coils (b).
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 561

13.2 Mutual Inductance 561

M
jwL 1 jwL 2 jwL 1 jwL 2

L1 L2
I1 I2
jwMI2 jwMI1 jwMI2 − + jwMI1
+ −

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 13.8
Model that makes analysis of mutually coupled easier to solve.
Experience has shown that if we break the problem into steps of
solving for the value and the sign into separate steps, the decisions
made are easier to track. We suggest that model (Figure 13.8 (b)) be
used when analyzing circuits containing a mutually coupled circuit
shown in Figure 13.8(a):
Notice that we have not included the signs in the model. The rea-
son for that is that we first determine the value of the induced voltages
and then we determine the appropriate signs. Clearly, I1 induces a volt-
age within the second coil represented by the value jI1 and I2 induces
a voltage of jI2 in the first coil. Once we have the values we next use
both circuits to find the correct signs for the dependent sources as
shown in Figure 13.8(c).
Since I1 enters L1 at the dotted end, it induces a voltage in L2 that
tries to force a current out of the dotted end of L2 which means that
the source must have a plus on top and a minus on the bottom as shown
in Figure 13.8(c). I2 leaves the dotted end of L2 which means that it
induces a voltage in L1 which tries to force a current into the dotted
end of L1 requiring a dependent source that has a plus on the bottom
and a minus on top as shown in Figure 13.8(c). Now all we have to
do is to analyze a circuit with two dependent sources. This process
allows you to check each of your assumptions.
At this introductory level we are not concerned with the determina-
tion of the mutual inductances of the coils and their dot placements. Like
R, L, and C, calculation of M would involve applying the theory of elec-
tromagnetics to the actual physical properties of the coils. In this text, we
assume that the mutual inductance and the placement of the dots are the
“givens’’ of the circuit problem, like the circuit components R, L, and C.

Calculate the phasor currents I1 and I2 in the circuit of Fig. 13.9. Example 13.1
j3 Ω
− j4 Ω − j4 Ω

j5 j6
12 0° V + I1 j5 Ω j6 Ω I2 12 Ω 12 0° +
− I1 I2 12 Ω
− − +
j3I2 + − j3I1

(a) (b)

Figure 13.9
For Example 13.1.

Solution:
For loop 1, KVL gives
12  (j4  j5)I1  j3I2  0
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 562

562 Chapter 13 Magnetically Coupled Circuits

or
j I1  j3I2  12 (13.1.1)
For loop 2, KVL gives
j3I1  (12  j6)I2  0
or
(12  j6)I2
I1   (2  j4)I2 (13.1.2)
j3
Substituting this in Eq. (13.1.1), we get
( j2  4  j3)I2  (4  j)I2  12
or
12
I2   2.91l14.04 A (13.1.3)
4j
From Eqs. (13.1.2) and (13.1.3),
I1  (2  j4)I2  (4.472l63.43)(2.91l14.04)
 13.01l49.39 A

Practice Problem 13.1 Determine the voltage Vo in the circuit of Fig. 13.10.
j1 Ω
4Ω

+
200 45° V + I1 j8 Ω j5 Ω I2 10 Ω Vo
−
−

Figure 13.10
For Practice Prob. 13.1.

Answer: 20l135 V.

Example 13.2 Calculate the mesh currents in the circuit of Fig. 13.11.

− j3 Ω
4Ω j8 Ω

j2 Ω

100 0° V + I1 j6 Ω 5Ω
−
I2

Figure 13.11
For Example 13.2.

Solution:
The key to analyzing a magnetically coupled circuit is knowing
the polarity of the mutual voltage. We need to apply the dot rule. In
Fig. 13.11, suppose coil 1 is the one whose reactance is 6 , and coil
2 is the one whose reactance is 8 . To figure out the polarity of the
mutual voltage in coil 1 due to current I2, we observe that I2 leaves the
dotted terminal of coil 2. Since we are applying KVL in the clockwise
direction, it implies that the mutual voltage is negative, that is, j2I2.
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 563

13.2 Mutual Inductance 563

Alternatively, it might be best to figure out the mutual voltage by j2(I1–I2)

j8
redrawing the relevant portion of the circuit, as shown in Fig. 13.12, − +
where it becomes clear that the mutual voltage is V1  2 j I2.
Thus, for mesh 1 in Fig. 13.11, KVL gives j6

100  I1(4  j3  j6)  j6I2  j2I2  0 I1 I2

j2I2 −
or +
100  (4  j3)I1  j8I2 (13.2.1)
Similarly, to figure out the mutual voltage in coil 2 due to current I1, Figure 13.12
consider the relevant portion of the circuit, as shown in Fig. 13.12. Model for Example 13.2 showing the
Applying the dot convention gives the mutual voltage as V2  2 j I1. polarity of the induced voltages.
Also, current I2 sees the two coupled coils in series in Fig. 13.11; since
it leaves the dotted terminals in both coils, Eq. (13.18) applies.
Therefore, for mesh 2 in Fig. 13.11, KVL gives
0  2 j I1  j6I1  ( j6  j8  j2  2  5)I2
or
0  j8I1  (5  j18)I2 (13.2.2)
Putting Eqs. (13.2.1) and (13.2.2) in matrix form, we get
4  j3 j8
c d  c d c d
100 I1
0 j8 5  j18 I2
The determinants are
4  j3 j8
¢2 2  30  j87
j8 5  j18
100 j8
¢1  2 2  100(5  j18)
0 5  j18
4  j3 100
¢2  2 2  j800
j8 0
Thus, we obtain the mesh currents as
¢1 100(5  j18) 1,868.2l74.5
I1     20.3l3.5 A
¢ 30  j87 92.03l71
¢2 j800 800l90
I2     8.693l19 A
¢ 30  j87 92.03l71

Determine the phasor currents I1 and I2 in the circuit of Fig. 13.13. Practice Problem 13.2
5Ω j2 Ω

j3 Ω
100 60° V + I1 j6 Ω I2 − j4 Ω
−

Figure 13.13
For Practice Prob. 13.2.

Answer: I1  17.889l86.57 A, I2  26.83l86.57 A.

ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 564

564 Chapter 13 Magnetically Coupled Circuits

13.3 Energy in a Coupled Circuit

In Chapter 6, we saw that the energy stored in an inductor is given by
1 2
w Li (13.23)
2
We now want to determine the energy stored in magnetically coupled
coils.
M Consider the circuit in Fig. 13.14. We assume that currents i1 and i2
i1 i2 are zero initially, so that the energy stored in the coils is zero. If we let i1
+ +
increase from zero to I1 while maintaining i2  0, the power in coil 1 is
di1
v1 L1 L2 v2 p1(t)  v1i1  i1L1 (13.24)
dt
− − and the energy stored in the circuit is
Figure 13.14 I1

 
1
The circuit for deriving energy stored w1  p1 dt  L1 i1 di1  L1I 21 (13.25)
in a coupled circuit. 0
2
If we now maintain i1  I1 and increase i2 from zero to I2, the mutual
voltage induced in coil 1 is M12 di2dt, while the mutual voltage induced
in coil 2 is zero, since i1 does not change. The power in the coils is now
di2 di2 di2
p2(t)  i1M12  i2v2  I1M12  i2 L 2 (13.26)
dt dt dt
and the energy stored in the circuit is
I2 I2
w2   p2dt  M12 I1 0
di2  L2 
0
i2 di2

1
 M12 I1I2  L 2 I 22 (13.27)
2
The total energy stored in the coils when both i1 and i2 have reached
constant values is
1 1
w  w1  w2  L1 I 21  L 2 I 22  M12 I1I2 (13.28)
2 2
If we reverse the order by which the currents reach their final values,
that is, if we first increase i2 from zero to I2 and later increase i1 from
zero to I1, the total energy stored in the coils is
1 1
w  L1 I 21  L 2 I 22  M21I1I2 (13.29)
2 2
Since the total energy stored should be the same regardless of how we
reach the final conditions, comparing Eqs. (13.28) and (13.29) leads us
to conclude that
M12  M21  M (13.30a)
and
1 1
w L1I 21  L 2 I 22  MI1I2 (13.30b)
2 2
This equation was derived based on the assumption that the coil
currents both entered the dotted terminals. If one current enters one
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 565

13.3 Energy in a Coupled Circuit 565

dotted terminal while the other current leaves the other dotted termi-
nal, the mutual voltage is negative, so that the mutual energy MI1I2 is
also negative. In that case,
1 1
w  L1I 21  L 2I 22  MI1I2 (13.31)
2 2
Also, since I1 and I2 are arbitrary values, they may be replaced by i1 and
i2, which gives the instantaneous energy stored in the circuit the general
expression

1 2 1
w L1i 1  L 2 i 22
Mi1i 2 (13.32)
2 2

The positive sign is selected for the mutual term if both currents enter
or leave the dotted terminals of the coils; the negative sign is selected
otherwise.
We will now establish an upper limit for the mutual inductance M.
The energy stored in the circuit cannot be negative because the circuit
is passive. This means that the quantity 12L1i 21  12L 2i 22  Mi1i2
must be greater than or equal to zero:
1 1
L1i 21  L 2i 22  Mi1i2 0 (13.33)
2 2
To complete the square, we both add and subtract the term i1i2 1L1L 2
on the right-hand side of Eq. (13.33) and obtain
1
(i1 1L1  i2 1L 2)2  i1i2(1L1L 2  M) 0 (13.34)
2
The squared term is never negative; at its least it is zero. Therefore,
the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (13.34) must be greater
than zero; that is,
1L1L 2  M 0
or
M  1L1L 2 (13.35)
Thus, the mutual inductance cannot be greater than the geometric mean
of the self-inductances of the coils. The extent to which the mutual
inductance M approaches the upper limit is specified by the coefficient
of coupling k, given by
M
k (13.36)
1L1L 2
or

M  k1L1L 2 (13.37)

where 0  k  1 or equivalently 0  M  1L1L2. The coupling coef-

ficient is the fraction of the total flux emanating from one coil that links
the other coil. For example, in Fig. 13.2,
f12 f12
k  (13.38)
f1 f11  f12
ale80571_ch13_555-612.qxd 11/30/11 2:07 PM Page 566

566 Chapter 13 Magnetically Coupled Circuits

Air or ferrite core and in Fig. 13.3,

f21 f21
k  (13.39)
f2 f21  f22
If the entire flux produced by one coil links another coil, then k  1
and we have 100 percent coupling, or the coils are said to be perfectly
coupled. For k 6 0.5, coils are said to be loosely coupled; and for
k 7 0.5, they are said to be tightly coupled. Thus,

The coupling coefficient k is a measure of the magnetic coupling

between two coils; 0  k  1.
(a) (b)
Figure 13.15 We expect k to depend on the closeness of the two coils, their
Windings: (a) loosely coupled, (b) tightly core, their orientation, and their windings. Figure 13.15 shows loosely
coupled; cutaway view demonstrates both coupled windings and tightly coupled windings. The air-core trans-
windings. formers used in radio frequency circuits are loosely coupled, whereas
iron-core transformers used in power systems are tightly coupled. The
linear transformers discussed in Section 3.4 are mostly air-core; the
ideal transformers discussed in Sections 13.5 and 13.6 are principally
iron-core.

Example 13.3 Consider the circuit in Fig. 13.16. Determine the coupling coefficient.
Calculate the energy stored in the coupled inductors at time t  1 s if
2.5 H v  60 cos(4t  30) V.
10 Ω

Solution:
1
v +
− 5H 4H 16 F The coupling coefficient is
M 2.5
k   0.56
Figure 13.16 1L1L 2 120
For Example 13.3.
indicating that the inductors are tightly coupled. To find the energy
stored, we need to calculate the current. To find the current, we need
to obtain the frequency-domain equivalent of the circuit.
60 cos(4t  30) 1 60l30,   4 rad/s
5H 1 jL1  j 20 
2.5 H 1 jM  j10 
4H 1 jL2  j16 
1 1
F 1  j4 
16 jC
The frequency-domain equivalent is shown in Fig. 13.17. We now apply
mesh analysis. For mesh 1,
(10  j20)I1  j10I2  60l30 (13.3.1)
For mesh 2,
j10I1  ( j16  j4)I2  0
or
I1  1.2I2 (13.3.2)