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Fluid Mechanics II Notes 1
Fluid Mechanics II Notes 1
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Course Objectives
The student is expected to:
• Understand and apply the conservation principles and balance equations in fluid
flow systems analysis.
• Efficiently examine forces acting for and against fluid flows .
• Analyse piping networks, design and effectively select pipes and pumps.
• Appreciate the operational mechanisms of turbines.
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Course references
• Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics 2nd Ed. © 2001, Darby R.
• Fluid and Thermodynamics Vol 1. 1st Ed. © 2016, Hutter K., Wang Y.
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Course organisation
• 4 hours regular lectures per week
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1. Conservation principles
and the Balance equations
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Conservation of mass
Law of conservation of mass
During a chemical reaction/process, matter is neither created nor destroyed.
In any chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants must equal the total mass
of the products.
• Valid only for closed system. Does not hold in nuclear reactions
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Conservation of mass
Illustration 1.
Example:
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The General Balance Equation
• Balance equations are just like accounting in finance or population
balance
• Births
Population of
• Deaths
Ghana
• Immigration
• Emigration
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The General Balance Equation
• In an algebraic form, Ghana’s population will increase or decrease based
on the following equation:
Or
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The General Balance Equation
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The General Balance Equation
• The balance equation deals only with changes in the system being
accounted for but not with the total amount present.
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The Mass Balance
• It is the most important chemical engineering balance.
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The Mass Balance
• We can carefully apply the mass balance equation to transport
phenomena.
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The Mass Balance
• This whole idea was not known until 1780 when Lavoisier
demonstrated that:
If water is evaporated over a glass jar resting on a balance,
there was no loss of mass; the visible water had changed to
invisible water vapour, but the mass of the contents of the jar
did not change.
LPG gas
System boundary
Air
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The Mass Balance
Steady-state balances
Steady-state balances
• At one specific point, there is always water
flowing by at a fixed velocity.
, , O
H H
• Similarly, for steady state of any measurable
property is zero. Meaning for such a system 20
Steady-state balances
• So for the furnace at steady state, the mass balance equation simplifies
to
• To calculate the total flow rate across the system boundaries at point 1,
breaking the area across which flow
[steady flow in a 22
pipe or channel]
The Mass Balance
Average Velocity
• No real flow has a completely uniform velocity over the whole cross
section.
• For many problems we use an appropriate average velocity and assume
that it is uniform across the cross-section of the pipe.
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The Mass Balance
Average Velocity
• Since the density is uniform across the cross-section of the pipe we can
define volumetric flow rate (also called discharge),
• Dividing the volumetric flow rate by the cross-sectional area of the pipe
or channel,
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The Mass Balance
Average Velocity
Example 1.
A self-service gasoline pump puts 15 gal of fuel into our tank in 2 min.
The inside diameter of the nozzle is 1.0 in. What are the volumetric flow rate, mass flow
rate and average velocity.
Solution:
The volumetric flow rate is,
Using a gasoline specific gravity of 0.72 (density of water 62.3 lbm/ft3), the mass
flow rate is,
Velocity distribution
• Before we can effectively discuss velocity distribution, we have to briefly
discuss flow types in pipes: Turbulent and Laminar flow.
• Turbulent flow is the most common type of flow in industrial pipes, tubes
and channels.
• Laminar flow occurs in very small pipes and channels (e.g. blood flow in
the body) and highly viscous fluids (e.g. pouring honey on pancakes)
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The Mass Balance
Velocity distribution
• Despite these two different flow types we characterize the flow in pipe as having
one velocity.
• In the figure, for the block flow assumption, the velocity is constant at 6ft/s over
the entire pipe cross-section.
Velocity distribution
• With the velocity simplification from the block flow assumption, and the
assumption that the density of the fluid is constant across the cross section,
the steady-state pipe flow equation,
• Is integrated as,
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The Mass Balance
Velocity distribution
Example 2.
In a natural gas pipeline at Tema station, the pipe diameter is 2 ft and the flow conditions are
800 psia, 60 ᵒF and 50 ft/s velocity. At the Kaneshie station the pipe diameter 3ft and the flow
conditions are 500 psia, 60 ᵒF. What is the velocity at Kaneshie station? What is the mass flow
rate?
(Density of natural gas is 2.58 lb/ft3 for Tema and 1.54 lb/ft3 for Kaneshie station)
Solution:
Substituting the given data into the steady-state pipe flow equation,
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The Mass Balance
Velocity distribution
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The Mass Balance
Velocity distribution
Solution:
Substituting the given data into the steady-state pipe flow equation,
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The Mass Balance
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The Mass Balance
But we know:
Remember that:
But the volumetric flow rate is constant therefore the density of the air in and out is also
constant, therefore:
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The Mass Balance
For low-pressure gases at constant temperature the densities are proportional to the pressures,
so we can solve for the required time:
,
,
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The Mass Balance
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The Mass Balance
not:
Rearranging:
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,
The Mass Balance
At 68ᵒF = 20ᵒC the density of air is , and for ideal gases densities are
proportional to pressures, so:
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The Mass Balance
Answer:
The volume of the tank is decreasing and the level is falling.
The rate of fall of the level is: -0.00673 ft/s
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The Mass Balance
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The Mass Balance
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The Energy Balance
Insulation
• Our observations from nature have led us to conclude that energy can be neither
be created nor destroyed;
3. The other ways energy can flow in or out are via heat through
• the heating and cooling jacket, which we call, dQ.
• and via mechanical work in various forms, which we call, dW
• These are inexact differentials meaning the value of or depends
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on the initial and final states of the system.
The Energy Balance
• Lets allow dQ and dW to be the algebraic sum of the work flows in and out,
• Note: In the modern sign convention for work, we consider all flows into a
system as positive be it work or heat flow (some textbooks may say otherwise).
• Therefore, dQ = -dW
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The Energy Balance
Potential Energies
• Let’s choose the 1 kg steel ball as our system.
• We will also insulate it while lifting so heat is not transferred to or from the
surroundings: dQ=0
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The Energy Balance
Potential Energies
• Substituting the terms obtained into the energy balance equation:
• If we proceed without friction heating, the final temperature is the same as the
initial temperature:
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The Energy Balance
Potential Energies
• The force needed to lift the ball is the same as the weight of the ball, i.e. F=mg
• So,
• For a constant mass, the equation for the change in potential energy:
• Since our elevation is above some arbitrary datum (such as sea level or ground
level) is zero. If z is measured above this datum, then the constant is zero.
• Therefore:
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The Energy Balance
Potential Energies
Example 9.
Determine the change in potential energy of a 10 kg bag of feathers that is raised a
vertical distance of 23 m.
Solution:
Since we are dealing with a change in potential energy, we would need to apply our
equation to the initial and final states:
This is the change in potential energy per unit mass. To calculate the total change in
potential energy:
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The Energy Balance
Kinetic Energies
• Let’s choose the 1 kg steel ball as our system and throw it horizontally.
• If we proceed without friction heating, the final temperature is the same as the
initial temperature:
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The Energy Balance
Kinetic Energies
• Since we previously defined: dW = Fdz
• We obtain:
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The Energy Balance
Kinetic Energies
• But a=dv/dt, where v is the velocity; so a dx= dv dx/dt. Furthermore dx/dt=v; so
a dx=vdv.
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The Energy Balance
Kinetic Energies
Example 10.
What is the kinetic energy of a 0.01 lb bullet travelling 2000 ft/s relative to the barrel of
the gun it has just left.
Solution:
Since we have constant datum of reference:
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The Energy Balance
Internal Energy
• Let’s rewrite the energy balance equation with the numerical forms of the kinetic energy
per unit and potential energy per unit mass as:
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The Energy Balance
Internal Energy
• Also, the elevation and velocity of the material in the tank did not change, so:
• Suppose we cool our system to its initial state by removing energy via the cooling jacket.
• We also start the stirrer and measure the work done. The equation becomes:
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The Energy Balance
Internal Energy
• If we restrict ourselves to a closed system of constant mass, with no changes in kinetic or
potential energy.
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The Momentum Balance
• Newton’s second law of motion (Newton’s equation of motion) is commonly
written as:
F = ma
• In this form it can easily be applied to the motion of rigid bodies and fluids
moving in rigid motion.
• However, for fluids that are moving in more complicated motions, e.g. in
pipes or around airplanes, it is difficult to use the equation in the form
shown.
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The Momentum Balance
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The Momentum Balance
Momentum
• Momentum like energy is an abstract quantity. Unlike energy, it is defined in
terms of simpler quantities, mass and velocity.
• It is defined as:
• Only bodies such as solid, liquid or gas have mass, so momentum is referenced
against them only.
vector form: F = ma
The Momentum Balance
Momentum
• However any vector can be resolved into the vector sum of three scalar
components multiplied by unit vectors, in three perpendicular directions.
• Lets take Force (F):
• Similarly we can resolve the acceleration vector a and rewrite Newton's equation
as:
• This equation gives as the equation of a new vector, the (F – ma) vector, which is
seen to be zero.
• With momentum balance we need to pay attention to the algebraic signs of the
momentum terms.
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The Momentum Balance
• We will replace the real flow in pipes, channels and jets, which has some non-uniform
velocity distribution, with a flow with uniform velocity distribution, .
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The Momentum Balance
• Typically, we expect multiple forces to act on a system so we replace the force term with a
sum of forces,
• Let’s write all the terms so far obtained into one equation:
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The Momentum Balance
• If this sum is in the opposite direction of the velocities, then the term is a momentum
destruction term (indicated with a minus sign).
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The Momentum Balance
, ,
• A similar form can be written for the y and z equations by replacing the x subscript with y
or z subscripts.
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The Momentum Balance
, ,
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The Momentum Balance
, , ,
, ,
,
,
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