Assignment Set for Concept Building

(Taken from Exercises of book of Raj Kamal)

1. How does the processor, RAM, ROM and I/O units organized?
2. What is the significance of ARM processor?
-----Advanced RISC Machine (ARM) Processor  is considered to be family of
Central Processing Units that is used in music players, smartphones,
wearables, tablets and other consumer electronic devices. 
The architecture of ARM processor is created by Advanced RISC Machines,
hence name ARM. This needs very few instruction sets and transistors. It has
very small size. This is reason that it is perfect fit for small size devices. It has
less power consumption along with reduced complexity in its circuits. 
They can be applied to various designs such as 32-bit devices and embedded
systems. They can even be upgraded according to user needs. 
The main features of ARM Processor are mentioned below
1. Multiprocessing Systems – 
ARM processors are designed so that they can be used in cases of
multiprocessing systems where more than one processors are used
to process information. First AMP processor introduced by name of
ARMv6K had ability to support 4 CPUs along with its hardware. 
 
2. Tightly Coupled Memory – 
Memory of ARM processors is tightly coupled. This has very fast
response time. It has low latency (quick response) that can also be
used in cases of cache memory being unpredictable. 
 
3. Memory Management – 
ARM processor has management section. This includes Memory
Management Unit and Memory Protection Unit. These management
systems become very important in managing memory efficiently. 
 
4. Thumb-2 Technology – 
Thumb-2 Technology was introduced in 2003 and was used to create
variable length instruction set. It extends 16-bit instructions of initial
Thumb technology to 32-bit instructions. It has better performance
than previously used Thumb technology. 
 
5. One cycle execution time – 
ARM processor is optimized for each instruction on CPU. Each
instruction is of fixed length that allows time for fetching future
instructions before executing present instruction. ARM has CPI
 (Clock Per Instruction) of one cycle. 
 
6. Pipelining – 
Processing of instructions is done in parallel using pipelines.
Instructions are broken down and decoded in one pipeline stage. The
pipeline advances one step at a time to increase throughput (rate of
processing). 
 
Large number of registers – 
Large number of registers are used in ARM processor to prevent large amount
of memory interactions. Registers contain data and addresses. These act as
local memory store for all operations

3. What are the advantages of internet enabled systems?

----. It provides connectionless, packet-based communication. Industrial automation
has long been a good application area for Internet-based embedded systems. Information
appliances that use the Internet are rapidly becoming another use of IP in embedded
computing.

4. What is a thread?
A thread on the other hand is defined as “a semi-independent program
----
segment that executes within a process”. For embedded software developers
working with microcontrollers, a process is essentially the entire application that
runs on the system. A thread is then a small program that has a specific function
and purpose within the overall application. Threads tend to be lower level than
tasks and have minimal overhead.

5. Define critical section of a task.

---- The critical section is a code segment where the shared variables can be accessed. An atomic
action is required in a critical section i.e. only one process can execute in its critical section at a
time. All the other processes have to wait to execute in their critical sections.

6. What is an exception?
--- Exceptions and interrupts are unexpected events which will disrupt the normal flow of
execution of instruction(that is currently executing by processor). An exception is an
unexpected event from within the processor. Interrupt is an unexpected event from
outside the process.
7. What is meant by a pipe?
--- A pipe is simply a set of storage locations, each big enough to hold a single data
item of user-defined byte length, access to which is controlled so that it may be
safely utilized by multiple tasks.

8. State importance of embedded system in real life.

People often question the importance of embedded systems in
-----
daily life. These small computers are integrated into various
systems for performing specific image and data processing tasks,
and thus significantly impact the way we commute, spend our
leisure time, run business, and perform various other daily
activities.

Still wondering where can you find embedded systems? Whether

you work in a restaurant, office, health practice, factory or other
environment, your workplace is full of systems that are built with
embedded devices, like elevators, printers, routers and point of
sale systems. In brief, they can be found everywhere in our society
— from vehicles and EV charging stations to vending machines,
lottery ticket systems and digital signage to sophisticated medical
equipment.

Here are some of the reasons why embedded systems are

becoming prevalent across the globe:

 They are small, fast, and powerful computers used in many

devices and equipment we use daily.
 They guarantee the performance of real-time applications.
 They are responsible for the completion of a task within a
specified time limit, such as rapid graphics processing and
artificial intelligence processing.

Additionally, embedded modules are becoming more

sophisticated and powerful all the time, and are increasing in
graphics performance and edge compute capabilities, giving
embedded developers the tools to bring high-performance
market-driven products to market.
9. How does a pipe differ from a queue?
----
Sr. Key Pipe Message Queue
No.

1 Concept The pipe is the Unix IPC form to Message Queue is a System VIPC
provide a flow of information in one form to store a list of messages.
 Sr. Key Pipe Message Queue
No.

direction.

Creation A pipe can be created using pipe()
function which returns two file
2
descriptors, one is for reading and
another is for writing.
A message queue is created using
msgget() function which returns a
queue identifier.

3 Direction The pipe is unidirectional. A message queue is bidirectional.

Data Data can be fetched in FIFO, First In Data can be fetched in any order.
4
Fetching First Out manner.

Priorities Priorities are not present in pipes. A message can have a priority by
5 attaching a priority number to
type(s) of the message(s).

Receiver For a pipe to function, sender and In a message queue, a writer

receiver processes should be present to process can write a message and
6
wait for messages to be written and read exit. A reader process can read a
in a pipe. message later.

Persistence A pipe is deleted from the system if A message queue remains active in
7 there is no linked receiver/sender the system until explicitly deleted
process is present. by some process.

Message A pipe message size can be up to 4096 A message queue message size can
8
Size Bytes. be up to 8192 Bytes.

10. How an error handling task is executed on throwing the exception?

11. How does USB protocol function?
--- USB Protocol
USB is a polled bus, where the host initiates all data exchanges.

Transactions

Data is transferred in so called transactions. Normally, they consist of three packets:

1. The token packet is the header defining the transaction type and direction, the
device address, and the endpoint.
2. Data is transferred in a data packet.
3. The final status of the transaction is acknowledges in the handshake packet.
Pipe Model

In a transaction, data is transferred either from the USB Host to an USB Device or vice-
versa. The transfer direction is specified in the token packet that is sent from the USB
Host. Then, the source sends a data packet or indicates it has no data to transfer. In
general, the destination responds with a handshake packet indicating whether the
transfer was successful.

Packet Model

Packets

Packets could be thought of as the smallest element of data transmission. Each packet

transmits an integral number of bytes at the current transmission rate. Packets start
with a synchronization pattern, followed by the data bytes of the packet, and
concluded with an End-of-Packet (EOP) signal. All USB packet patterns are
transmitted least significant bit first. Before and after the packet, the bus is in idle state.

Start-of-Frame (SOF) Packet

A special packet is the Start-of-Frame packet (SOF) that splits the USB bus into time
segments. Each pipe is allocated a slot in each frame. The Start-of-Frame packet is sent
every 1ms on full speed links. At high speed, the 1ms frame is divided into 8
microframes of 125μs each. A Start-of-Frame packet is sent at the beginning of each
microframe using the same frame number. The frame number increments every 1ms.

12. Critically investigate about the utility of context, interrupt latency and interrupt service deadline
 in the field of embedded systems.
13. Describe properly about interrupt-servicing mechanism. What do you mean by nonmaskable
and maskable interrupts?
14. State and explain about the design challenges faced during the design process of an embedded
system.
15. What is a serial port?
----. In computing, a serial port is a serial communication interface through which
information transfers in or out sequentially one bit at a time. This is in contrast to a
parallel port, which communicates multiple bits simultaneously in parallel.

16. What do you mean by plug and play device?

----- In computing, a plug and play (PnP) device or computer bus is one with a
specification that facilitates the recognition of a hardware component in a system without
the need for physical device configuration or user intervention in resolving resource
conflicts.

17. What is PISO?

----The shift register which uses parallel input and generates serial output
is known as the parallel input serial output shift register or PISO shift
register. This shift register works in a reverse way to the SIPO shift
register. In this type of shift register, the input data enters a parallel way
and comes out serially. So the i/p of the second FF is the o/p of the first
flip flop.

18. How synchronous communication is different from asynchronous communication?

----

S.
No. Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

In Asynchronous transmission,
In Synchronous transmission, data data is sent in form of bytes or
1. is sent in form of blocks or frames. characters.

Asynchronous transmission is
2. Synchronous transmission is fast.  slow.

Synchronous transmission is Asynchronous transmission is

3. costly. economical.

In Synchronous transmission, the In Asynchronous transmission,

time interval of transmission is the time interval of transmission is
4. constant.  not constant, it is random.

5. In this transmission, users have to Here, users do not have to wait

 S.
No. Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

wait till the transmission is for the completion of transmission

complete before getting a in order to get a response from
response back from the server.  the server.

In Synchronous transmission, In Asynchronous transmission,

there is no gap present between there is a gap present between
6. data.  data.

While in Asynchronous
Efficient use of transmission lines transmission, the transmission
is done in synchronous line remains empty during a gap
7. transmission.  in character transmission.

The start and stop bits are used in

The start and stop bits are not transmitting data that imposes
8. used in transmitting data. extra overhead.

19. Does a system clock always increment without stopping?

--- System clock
 A hardware-timing device programmed to tick at constant intervals T.
 An interrupt at each tick
 A chain of interrupts thus occur at periodic intervals.
 T is as per a preset count value
 The interrupts are called system clock interrupts, when used to control the schedules and
timings in the system

20. What is the utility of USB bus?

-----The Universal Serial Bus standard has been extremely

successful. USB ports and cables are used to connect hardware
such as printers, scanners, keyboards, mice, flash drives, external
hard drives, joysticks, cameras, monitors, and more to computers of
all kinds, including desktops, tablets, laptops, netbooks, etc.

In fact, USB has become so common that you'll find the connection
available on nearly any computer-like device such as video game
consoles, home audio/visual equipment, and even in many
automobiles.

Carry Everything You Need on a Tiny USB Stick

Before USB, many of those devices would attach to a computer
over serial and parallel ports, and others like PS/2.

Many portable devices, like smartphones, eBook readers, and small

tablets, use USB primarily for charging. USB charging has become
so common that it's now easy to find replacement electrical outlets
at home improvement stores with USB ports built in, negating the
need for a USB power adapter.
21. What do you mean by the buses for networking of serial devices and buses for networking of
parallel devices?
22. With neat diagram show how parallel port interfacing can be done with touch screen.
23. With the help of block Diagram, establish CPU Interfacing With data and program Memory In PIC
microcontroller.
24. What is the advantage and disadvantage of of disabling interrupts from during the running of a
critical section of a process?
25. How does use of a counting semaphore differ from a mutex? Comment also about the
application process of counting semaphore.
----
Parameters Semaphore Mutex
It is a type of signaling
Mechanism It is a locking mechanism.
mechanism.
Semaphore is an integer
Data Type Mutex is just an object.
variable.
It is modified only by the
The wait and signal operations
Modification process that may request or
can modify a semaphore.
release a resource.
If no resource is free, then the
If it is locked, the process has to
process requires a resource that
wait. The process should be
Resource should execute wait operation.
kept in a queue. This needs to
management It should wait until the count of
be accessed only when the
the semaphore is greater than
mutex is unlocked.
0.
You can have multiple program
You can have multiple program
Thread threads in mutex but not
threads.
simultaneously.
Value can be changed by any Object lock is released only by
Ownership process releasing or obtaining the process, which has
the resource. obtained the lock on it.
Types of Semaphore are
Types counting semaphore and binary Mutex has no subtypes.
semaphore.
Semaphore value is modified
Mutex object is locked or
Operation using wait () and signal ()
unlocked.
operation.
Resources It is occupied if all resources are In case if the object is already
Occupancy being used and the process locked, the process requesting
requesting for resource resources waits and is queued
performs wait () operation and by the system before lock is
blocks itself until semaphore released.
Parameters Semaphore Mutex
count becomes >1.

There are the scenarios in which more than one processes need to execute in critical
section simultaneously. However, counting semaphore can be used when we need to
have more than one process in the critical section at the same time.

The programming code of semaphore implementation is shown below which includes

the structure of semaphore and the logic using which the entry and the exit can be
performed in the critical section.

In this mechanism, the entry and exit in the critical section are performed on the basis
of the value of counting semaphore. The value of counting semaphore at any point of
time indicates the maximum number of processes that can enter in the critical section
at the same time.

A process which wants to enter in the critical section first decrease the semaphore
value by 1 and then check whether it gets negative or not. If it gets negative then the
process is pushed in the list of blocked processes (i.e. q) otherwise it gets enter in the
critical section.

When a process exits from the critical section, it increases the counting semaphore by
1 and then checks whether it is negative or zero. If it is negative then that means that
at least one process is waiting in the blocked state hence, to ensure bounded waiting,
the first process among the list of blocked processes will wake up and gets enter in the
critical section.

The processes in the blocked list will get waked in the order in which they slept. If the
value of counting semaphore is negative then it states the number of processes in the
blocked state while if it is positive then it states the number of slots available in the
critical section.

26. Does PIC16F873 microcontroller use RISC architecture?

---- Yes

27. State the real life applications of PIC16F873 microcontroller.

28. What are the different specifications of PIC16F873 microcontrollers that are required to checked
before using it for any application?
29. What is Zigbee?
---- ZigBee is a wireless networking standard that is aimed at remote control and
sensor applications which is suitable for operation in harsh radio environments
and in isolated locations. It is an established set of specifications for wireless personal
area networking (WPAN).
30. What is a protocol?
---- A protocol is a set of rules and guidelines for communicating data

31. What is the full form of HDLC?

--- HDLC (High-level Data Link Control) is a group of protocols or rules for transmitting
data between network points (sometimes called nodes). In more technical terms, HDLC is
a bit-oriented, synchronous data link layer protocol created by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).

32. What is CAN bus?

--- Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a serial bus protocol to connect individual
systems and sensors as an alternative to conventional multi-wire looms. It allows
automotive components to communicate on a single or dual-wire networked data bus up
to 1Mbps.

33. Is there any advantage of using freeware, GNU C/C++ compiler?

---. The GNU Compiler Collection is an open source (GPL) compiler. It's found on a wide
variety of systems, ranging from GNU/Linux to every flavor of Unix, to Windows.

GCC contains support for many languages (C, C++, Fortran, to name but a few). It's highly
portable, and widely used, and tends to produce good code. It can also be used as a
cross-compiler (compiling for a system other than the one running GCC).

It's the default compiler choice for most Unix-type systems because most vendors don't
bother to write their own compilers anymore - GCC is just too good for general use.

Under Windows, Microsoft's own dev tools are often preferred because they get support
for new technologies quicker.

In high-performance programming environments (and some embedded environments)

you may want a compiler that's more highly tuned to the chip/system in question.

34. Explain the importance of the following declarations for real time application model: static,
volatile and interrupt in embedded C.
35. What is System-on-Chip (SoC) and IrDA?
---. A system on a chip, also known as an SoC, is essentially an integrated circuit or an
IC that takes a single platform and integrates an entire electronic or computer system
onto it. It is, exactly as its name suggests, an entire system on a single chip. The
components that an SoC generally looks to incorporate within itself include a central
processing unit, input and output ports, internal memory, as well as analog input and
output blocks among other things. Depending on the kind of system that has been
reduced to the size of a chip, it can perform a variety of functions including signal
 processing, wireless communication, artificial intelligence and more.

The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) is an industry-driven interest group that was founded

in 1994[1] by around 50 companies. IrDA provides specifications for a complete set of protocols
for wireless infrared communications, and the name "IrDA" also refers to that set of protocols.
The main reason for using the IrDA protocols had been wireless data transfer over the "last
one meter" using point-and-shoot principles. Thus, it has been implemented in portable
devices such as mobile telephones, laptops, cameras, printers, and medical devices. The
main characteristics of this kind of wireless optical communication are physically secure data
transfer, line-of-sight (LOS) and very low bit error rate (BER) that makes it very efficient.
36. What is validation?
--- Validation is the “determination of the correctness of the final program or
software produced from a development project with respect to the user needs
and requirements.

37. What is synthesis?

---- Synthesis is the process of taking a high-level description and turning it into a
lower-level description that, in the case of software, can be compiled directly.

38. What is a PIC microcontroller?

--- PIC microcontrollers are a family of specialized microcontroller chips produced by
Microchip Technology in Chandler, Arizona. The acronym PIC stands for "peripheral
interface controller," although that term is rarely used nowadays.

39. What is bit rate?

---- bit rate (bitrate or as a variable R) is the number of bits that are conveyed or
processed per unit of time.

40. What is baud rate?

---- The baud rate is the rate at which information is transferred in a communication
channel.

41. State the importance of DMA.

--- The DMA device can act as a bus master and can read and write physical
memory. The DMA device can be used to offload the software and processors from
copying large chunks of data from one place in memory to another. This DMA device
supports two modes of operation: contiguous transfer and scatter-gather lists.

42. Why the new age microcontrollers are smarter than the older ones?
43. Make a classification of PIC microcontrollers on the basis of internal structures.
44. What are the different memory options available for PIC microcontrollers?
--- PIC memory organization divided into 3 types of memories: Program Memory, Data
Memory, and Data EEPROM. 

45. Which is the entity controlling (scheduling) the transitions from one state to another in a task?
--- Schedulers are responsible for transferring a process from one state to the other.

46. Give an example of deadlock situation during multiprocessing/multitasking execution.

47. Multitasking OS and Multitasking Scheduler - explain in terms of real life application.
 48. Real time operating systems performance metrics are throughput, interrupt latencies, average
response times and deadline misses. Explain importance of each of these metrics.
49. State and explain round robin scheduling in embedded systems.
------ Round-robin scheduling (Figure 7.151) allocates each task an equal share of the
CPU time. In its simplest form, tasks are in a circular queue and when a task's allocated
CPU time expires, the task is put to the end of the queue and the new task is taken from
the front of the queue.

50. Any application based embedded software of a given system is built up after selecting an
appropriate programming languge. What are the criterias of choosing the appropriate
programming language?
51. Analyse the feature in C that makes it popular high level language for an embedded system.
---- Although not originally designed for embedded software development, the C
language allows a range of programming styles from high-level application code
down to direct low-level manipulation of hardware registers. As a result, C has
become the most popular programming language for embedded systems today.

52. Why do you break a program into header files, configuration files, modules and function?
53. Why do you use an infinite loop in embedded software? Explain with proper justification.
----- Infinite loops are used in embedded systems so as to repeat the task required to be
performed by the system. By this the embedded system designed remains functional
through out its usage.

Personal computers have an operating system and once the program is executed, It
returns control on the operating system, where as on the other hand Embedded systems
do not have an operating system and therefore we cannot let the control fall out of the
program.

54. How half duplex is different from full duplex?

---- In simplex mode, Sender can send the data but that sender can't receive the data. In
Half Duplex mode, Sender can send the data and also can receive the data but one
at a time. In Full Duplex mode, Sender can send the data and also can receive the data
simultaneously.

55. What is the need of handshaking signals?

----- Handshaking (either software codes or hardware signals) is used to halt
transmission of data from the sending computer until the receiving computer has
emptied the buffer. Various functions are available in BASIC to allow either software or
hardware handshaking.

56. What is the difference between serial port and parallel port?
------
Serial Key
Ports

Purpose Serial Port is used for serial Parallel Port is used for
1
data transmission. parallel data transmission.
 Serial Key
Ports

Transmission Transmission speed of a serial Transmission speed of a

2 Speed port is slow as compared to a parallel port is quiet high as
parallel port. compared to a serial port.

Redundancy Bottom-Up model is better Top-down model has high

suited as it ensures minimum ratio of redundancy as the
3
data redundancy and focus is size of project increases.
on re-usability.

No. Of Wires Wire connections to serial port No. of wires that are
are quiet less as compared to connected to parallel port
4
parallel port. are quiet high as compared
to serial port.

57. What is the difference between counter and timer?

58. State the difference between flip flop and latch.

Parameter Flip-Flop Latch

Basic Principle Flip-flop utilizes an edge triggering Latch follows a level triggering
approach. approach.

Clock Signal The clock signal is present. The clock signal is absent.

Designed You can design it using Latches along You can design it using Logic gates.
Using with a clock.

Sensitivity Flip-flop is sensitive to the applied input Latches are sensitive to the applied
and the clock signal. input signal- only when enabled.

Operating It has a slow operating speed. It has comparatively fast operating

 Speed speed.

Classification You can classify a flip-flop into a A user cannot classify the Latch this
synchronous or asynchronous flip-flop. way.

59. What is the utility of RS232C port?

--- RS-232C is the interface that your computer uses to talk to and exchange data with
your modem and other serial devices.

60. What are advantages of re-entrant functions in embedded system software?

------ In embedded systems, you may have a processor with limited EEPROM/FLASH/RAM,
where functions are accessing global memory and are not re-entrant. Have you ever had
to disable interrupts and perform actions that could not be interrupted - not a re-entrant
function. High priority interrupts would be examples of a non re-entrant functions. Almost
all functions we come across are re-entrant. Usually not re-entrant functions relate to gui,
interrupts, global memory, or semaphore guarded access.

Even if your chip is ARM and you have MB of RAM, 1 Gbit data rate from a CMOS camera
chip can max you out pretty fast. The best example that comes to mind is processing
image flow on ARM9 processor.

I have coded a consumer thread function that would run multiple consumers in order to
process large amount of data without draining RAM. I can see lots of uses of re-entrant
functions in protocol stacks in the embedded , personal computer, and server world.

In my case, I could split a large data pieces into smaller pieces and use the same thread
call as 8 consumers. RAM consumption and memory manipulation on smaller data pieces
had a significantly smaller footprint.

My bottle neck was IO on both sides of the re-entrant function(s). Having multiple
consumers enabled me to have IO going pretty much non-stop. While one consumer is
processing data, another consumer is using IO read/write calls.

61. State if any advantage of polymorphism while programming with C++?

---- Polymorphism in C++ allows us to reuse code by creating one function that's usable
for multiple uses. We can also make operators polymorphic and use them to add not only
numbers but also combine strings. This saves time and allows for a more streamlined
program.
62. State the utilities and features of JAVA that makes it a highly useful high level language for an
embedded system in many network related applications.
63. Each process or task has an endless loop in preemptive scheduler. How does the control of
resources transfer from one task to another?
64. What do you understand by throwing an exception? Evaluate the exception function handling
during execution of a routine.
---- The object, called an exception object, contains information about the error,
including its type and the state of the program when the error occurred. Creating an
exception object and handing it to the runtime system is called throwing an
exception.

65. Examine about the uses of hardware and software assigned priorities in an interrupt
mechanism.
---- Hardware interrupts are used by devices to communicate that
they require attention from the operating system. Internally,
hardware interrupts are implemented using electronic alerting
signals that are sent to the processor from an external device,
which is either a part of the computer itself, such as a disk
controller, or an external peripheral.
A software 
interrupt
 is caused either by an exceptional condition in the processor itself, or a special
instruction in the instruction which causes an 
interrupt
 when it is executed. The former is often called a trap or
exception and is used for errors or events occurring during
program executions that are exceptional enough that they
cannot be handled within the program itself.

66. What is a device driver?

---- A device driver is computer program that allows a system to interface with
hardware devices. 

67. What is soft real time and hard real time?

---- A hard-real time system is a system in which a failure to meet even a single deadline
may lead to complete or appalling system failure. A soft real-time system is a system in
which one or more failures to meet the deadline are not considered complete system
failure, but that performance is considered to be degraded.

68. What is a buffer?

----- A buffer is a data area shared by hardware devices or program processes that
operate at different speeds or with different sets of priorities.