Writing a Lab Report

The lab reports should be written with a word processor, such as Word, Libre Office, Pages or Latex.
As much as possible, use short sentences and make sure that your arguments are clear. A lengthy, vague
report is never better than a short and clear one. Usually, reports are written in the passive voice (e.g.
“The measurements were performed using...” instead of ”we performed the measurements using...”).
Unless otherwise stated, include the following sections in each report:

Cover Page
A cover page should be filled out and stapled to every lab report. Students should use the provided
official cover page available on the course’s Moodle page.

Abstract
The abstract is a summary of the report. It briefly describes your experiment, its goals and your
noteworthy results. Be specific; quote your important numerical results, their uncertainties and your
conclusions. In a scientific article, this section is made to interest people who will want to read the
article, or so that others, less interested in the technical details, won’t have to read the article.

Introduction
In the introduction, you must explain the purpose of your experiment and how you intend to reach its
goals. The main theory related to your experiment should be briefly explained and the equations that
will be used for your analysis should be present. You should number your equations so that you can
refer to them later on in your report without restating them. You do not need to redevelop the theory or
re-derive the equations from scratch.
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Apparatus
Show the schematics of your setup. You may use a picture or drawing that isn’t yours, citing your
source of course, but include it in this section, not as an appendix. Describe how your apparatus works
and how you used it to perform the experiment. Do not include a procedure, listing all experimental
steps.

Calculations
Show a sample of each type of calculation you performed, including uncertainty calculations. Briefly
introduce each calculation. This is the only section that can be hand written (in a clear handwriting).

Results
In this section, present your data and results in tables and graphs, depending on the type of analysis
that was done. Number and briefly describe each table or graph. Include all relevant results throughout
the section, not in an appendix. In the case of an experiment that has a very large amount of computer-
acquired data, you should only print a table with a part of the original data for one of your runs or
if you must print it all, this should be in an appendix. Along with the tables and graphs, you should
mention how you evaluated the quoted uncertainties, any special technique that you used in acquiring
your data or anything you noticed during the experiment that could have an effect on your results and
possibly justify some outlier data.

Tables
Organize your original data as well as your calculated results in tables. When possible, reduce the
number of tables to a minimum by including all related data and results together. It is also advisable to
include, when possible, the expected values next to your experimental values, for comparison purposes.
Of course, make sure that these tables are as clear as possible. Include the units in the header and the
uncertainties, when they have been evaluated. Make sure to use the right number of significant figures
for each number. Table 1 shows an example of a proper table. Notice that the table is numbered and
given a proper title, the units are stated in the headers and the uncertainties can be in the header if all
values of that column have the same uncertainty. The uncertainties usually have only 1 significant
figure and each measurement and its uncertainty should have their last significant figure at the same
decimal place.

Measured Expected
Resistor Voltage(V) ± 0.06 V Current (×10−4 A)
Resistance (Ω) Resistance (Ω)

1 2.65 2.56 ± 0.04 1.04 ± 0.03 1.10 ± 0.05

2 3.23 4.2 ± 0.2 0.77 ± 0.04 0.766 ± 0.009
3 1.11 550 ± 10 (2.0 ± 0.1) × 10−3 (1.981 ± 0.004) × 10−3
5 5.20 12.5 ± 0.4 0.42 ± 0.01 0.5 ± 0.1

Table 1: Measurements for the resistors of Batch A

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Graphs
Graphs are arguably the physicist’s most powerful analysis tool; you should use them to find, represent
and summarize your results as much as possible. Fitting a trendline trough data points could help
you validate a theory by showing if your data follows an expected trend and if the curve’s parameters
are in agreement with theory. Alternately, it is possible to plot a theoretical curve alongside the
experimental data points to verify their agreement, given that each measurement is shown with an error
bar representing its uncertainty. Figure 1 shows you an example of a well-represented graph.

Figure 1: Measured charge of the 400 cm2 area capacitor for the polystyrene and glass dielectrics.

Notice that
• the axes are labeled and show the units,
• the data points take up as much of the graph’s area as possible,
• the data points are not be connected with lines,
• a trendline is shown, when needed, with its equation that has correct variable names and units,
• a theoretical curve is shown, when needed, along with an indication of the region around it that
is acceptable, given the uncertainties for the parameters used in drawing this curve,
• related data sets are plotted in a single graph, for comparison purposes,
• the graph is numbered and is given a descriptive title (not simply Q vs. V or Charge as a Function
of Voltage),
• error bars are present for all points, if possible, and if not, at least for a few points, to get a sense
of the uncertainties involved.
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Discussion
In this section, you should discuss the agreement (or lack of such) between the theory (or expected
results) and your experimental results. Do your data sets follow the expected trends (do they fit well
with a linear trendline, for instance)? Do your curve’s parameters (slope, intercept, or any other quantity
derived from them) fall within their expected values? Remember when comparing values that they are
said to be in agreement if their uncertainty intervals overlap. If some results or curve shapes are not
as expected, you must try to explain why this could be. Identify specific causes that were not taken
into account in the analysis but that could have an effect large enough to explain your discrepancies.
You should be critical of your results and not self congratulate yourself (e.g. never say “Our goal was
perfectly reached...” or “This experiment was a success”). Let your readers decide if you performed
a good study. As this course is an introduction to experimental Physics, you will find indications
in the experiment’s procedure of what should be discussed more specifically in this section. These
indications might take the form of questions; include your answers as a continuous text not as bullet
points. Throughout this section, you can discuss results and equations by simply referring to the tables
of the results section and the equations from the introduction. You do not need to restate values or
equations that are clearly written in other sections.

Appendix
You can include any other part of your analysis that is too long to put in your report but that you wish
to show your reader, as a reference.
 Introduction to Data Acquisition with Capstone

In this experimental course, you will often be using Pasco interfaces to acquire data from various
sensors. These interfaces communicate with a computer through the Capstone software. This section
aims at introducing how to use the basic data acquisition tools available in Capstone.

Setting up the Hardware

Once a sensor is connected to a Pasco interface that is connected to a computer and the Capstone
program is started, you will need to inform Capstone which sensor is connected in which port and how
to read its data.
• Click the hardware setup tab on the left side of the window.
• On the screen, you can see a representation of the interface you are using. Click on the yellow
circle highlighting the port in which you sensor is physically connected. Select the sensor that
you are using from the drop down menu that appears. If you are using more than one sensor,
repeat this process for the other port in which a sensor is connected.
• If you are using a photogate, it can be used as a timer, causing data to be acquired when the
photogate measures certain events. We will mostly use photogates to measure the period of
pendulums. To set the timer parameters, click on the Timer Setup tab. In the options, use
a pre-configured timer, the pendulum timer, and select the measurements that you will need,
usually, only the period is necessary. When asked for the pendulum width, you can simply click
next, as this is only important if you want other measurements to be shown, like the speed when
crossing the gate.
• It is important to tell Capstone what precision to use for the measurement values being acquired.
Go to the Data Summary tab. Click on the name of a parameter you will be measuring (ex.:
Period) and click on the Properties symbol that appears (the gear symbol). A Properties window
will open, as shown in figure 2; select Numerical Format and indicate the number of decimal
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places that you would like the program to keep. Alternately, you can change the Number Style
parameter to Significant Figures and ask for 5 or more significant figures. Make sure you
have more than enough precision on the values acquired so that this approximation will not
be responsible for experimental errors. Repeat this step for all the parameters that you will be
measuring.

Figure 2: Adjusting the Precision of Parameter Values

Adjusting the Display

• Once you have configured your hardware and the numerical precision to be used, you can click
on the tab you were using, so that its pop-up menus disappear. You will see many display options
in the main part of your window. Choose one of them that will suit your purposes. The option of
one table and one graph will usually suit most circumstances.

Figure 3: Selecting Parameters to be Shown

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• You must select which measured parameters are to be displayed in your table’s columns and
on your graph’s axes. Click on the Select Measurement button shown in figure 3 and select the
parameter you want in that specific column or axis.

Recording and Playback Modes

• Looking at the bottom of the window (figure 4), you will find the recording parameters. You
will most likely want to adjust the sampling rate of your sensors as a common rate (setting all
the sensors to have the same sampling rate), unless you are using a photogate (it determines the
sampling rate on its own).

Figure 4: Recording Parameters

• When you are ready for a measurement run, press Record. Press Stop whenever you want to end
the run.
• Each run will be saved, if you start a new run after a previous one. You can delete any of your
saved runs by opening the dialogue next to the Delete Last Run button.

Figure 5: Playback Mode

• To view your runs, enter the playback mode, by clicking the Play button to the lower left of your
window. You will be able to select the desired run, and once you do, press the fast-forward button
to display the run’s data.
• Once you have performed all your measurement runs, you can export them all at the same time
by clicking Export Data in the File menu. Save your data in your selected location as a CSV
(comma separated values type file), as it is easily readable by any data analysis program.
 A Brief Introduction to Origin

Origin is a huge piece of software and there are many ways to perform an operation. The steps described
below are suggestions to get you up to speed quickly. As you gain experience with Origin, you will
discover faster ways to perform the same operations. Consult the Origin User Guide, the Origin Tutorial
or the Origin YouTube channel for more details.

Using Origin as a Calculator

Origin can be used to perform calculations similar to the how you use Microsoft Excel (tm). Origin
expects equations to be written with its own notation. For example, 2A must be written 2*A. The table
below shows the difference between standard mathematics notation and Origin notation:

Mathematics Notation Origin Notation

AB A∗B
A+B A+B
A−B A−B
2AB 2∗A∗B
A2 Aˆ2
A
B A/B
A−B
C−D (A − B)/(C − D)
1
A2
1/Aˆ2
sin(ωt) sin(w ∗ t)
√
A sqrt(A)
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• A blank worksheet looks like the following:

Figure 6: Blank Worksheet

• Below is an example of a worksheet with many columns and sample calculations. Column A
and B contain the data that is used in calculations in the other columns. For example, each row
in Column C is the sum ( A + B ) of the corresponding entry in A and B. The F(x) Column
Formula is used to define the calculation, in this case, F(x) = A + B.

Figure 7: Column Calculations

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• In addition to performing column calculations, you can perform cell calculations similar to
Microsoft Excel (tm). For example, cell C3 is the sum of cell A1 and B2.

Figure 8: Cell Calculation Expression

Figure 9: Cell Calculation Result

Importing Data

Once you have completed an experiment and saved your data using Capstone, the next step is to analyze
your data. The CSV file that was saved needs to be imported into Origin using the following steps.

• Open Origin and import your CSV file

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Figure 10: Importing a CSV file

• fill in "Long Name" and "Units" as Origin uses this information to label the horizontal and
vertical axis of your plot

Figure 11: Hooke’s Law Data

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• select Plot, Scatter, XY Error

Figure 12: Scatter Plot with XY Error

• Plot Setup, Select Data to Create New Plot

Figure 13: Plot Setup

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• Select which column (A, B, C, D, ...) corresponds to each variable ( X, xEr, yEr, ...) by selecting
the appropriate checkbox in the Plot Setup window.

Figure 14: Plot Setup Checkboxes

• Click OK to display your plot

Figure 15: Plot with Error Bars

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Linear Fit
A function of the form
y = a + b0 x

will be fitted to the data from the preceding section.

• Analysis, Fitting, Fit Linear

Figure 16: Linear Fitting

• Linear Fit Plot

Figure 17: Final Plot

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• The Statistics summary provides information to help you evaluate the quality of the fit

Figure 18: Statistics Summary

Non Linear Fit

A function of the form

π
y = y0 + Asin( (x − xc))
ω

will be fitted to data recorded and exported using Capstone. Capstone does not record uncertainties on
exported data tables as a result you will have to add the uncertainties once your data is imported into
Origin.

• Import your CSV file

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Figure 19: Non Linear Fit Data

• fill in "Long Name" and "Units"

Figure 20: Non Linear Fit Data with Labels

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• Add columns for uncertainties in X and Y

Figure 21: Non Linear Fit Data with Uncertainty Columns

• Set Column value for uncertainties in X

Figure 22: Setting X Uncertainty Value

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• Set Column value for uncertainties in Y

Figure 23: Setting Y Uncertainty Value

• Select which column (A, B, C, D, ...) corresponds to each variable ( X, xEr, yEr, ...) by selecting
the appropriate checkbox in the Plot Setup window

Figure 24: Plot Setup Checkboxes

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• Plot, Scatter, XY Error

Figure 25: Scatter Plot with XY Error

• Display plot

Figure 26: Non Linear Fit Data Plot with Error Bars
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• Analysis, Fitting, Fit Linear

Figure 27: Non Linear Data Fit

• Final Plot

Figure 28: Non Linear Data Fit Final Plot

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• Display Residual Plots

Figure 29: Residual Plots

• Display Plot Statistics

Figure 30: Statistics Summary

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User-Defined Function Fit

A user defined fit will be performed on the following data:

t (± 0.5 s ) υ (± 0.5 m/s )

0.0 0.0
1.0 3.5
3.0 34.0
4.0 62.0
5.0 90.0

The theoretical curve is known to be a parabola of the form υ = At 2 where A is a constant.

• Once you have the data in Origin,

Figure 31: User-Defined Fit Data

• Select Plot, XY Error,

Figure 32: Scatter Plot with XY Error

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• Select Data for plot

Figure 33: User-Defined Fit Plot

• The resulting plot will have just the data points with error bars

Figure 34: Plot Setup Checkboxes

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• The next step is to fit a parabola of the form

υ = At 2

Select Analysis, Fitting, Nonlinear Implicit Curve Fit, Open Dialog

Figure 35: User-Defined Fit with Error Bars

• Function Selection, click function icon

Figure 36: Function Selection

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• Enter Function Name

Figure 37: Function Name

• Independent Variable, Dependent Variable, Parameters ( Note : Although "A "is constant, Origin
considers "A "as a variable while it performs the fitting)

Figure 38: Variables and Parameters

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• Enter the theoretical equation in the Function Body

Figure 39: Expression Function

• Click on Next

Figure 40: Parameter Initialization Function Code

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• Click on Next

Figure 41: Bounds and General Linear Constraints

• Click on Next

Figure 42: Derived Parameters

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• Click on Next

Figure 43: Scripts

• Click on Next

Figure 44: Load User-Defined Function

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• Click on Finish

Figure 45: Final Plot

• Click on Fit

Figure 46: Statistics Summary

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Exporting Data
• Once you have completed your analysis, the usually step is to save your Origin project. To write
your report, you will usually export your plots to be used in your report.

Figure 47: ASCII Export

Figure 48: Graph Export