თამარ სირაძე

ინგლისური ლიტერატურა მე-20 საუკუნე

ჯეიმზ ჯოისი

ჯეიმზ ჯოისი (ინგლ. James Augustine Aloysius Joyce, ირლ. Séamus Seoighe; დ. 2
თებერვალი, 1882, რეთგერი, დუბლინის გარეუბანი, ირლანდია — გ. 13 იანვარი, 1941,
ციურიხი, შვეიცარია) — XX საუკუნის ერთ-ერთი ყველაზე გავლენიანი ირლანდიელი
მწერალი და პოეტი.
ჯოისის შემოქმედებას ეკუთვნის მისი ყველაზე გახმაურებული რომანი „ულისე“ (1922
წ.) და „ფინეგანის სამძიმარი“ (1939 წ.), ნოველების კრებული „დუბლინელები“ (1914
წ.) და ავტობიოგრაფიული ნაწარმოები „ხელოვანის პორტრეტი ახალგაზრდობისას“
(1916 წ.). მიუხედავად იმისა, რომ ჯოისმა ცხოვრების უმეტესი ნაწილი ირლანდიის
საზღვრებს გარეთ გაატარა, მისი ფსიქოლოგიური და ბელეტრისტული სამყარო
ეყრდნობა მშობლიურ დუბლინს - ქალაქს, რომელიც წარმოადგენს მისი
შემოქმედებითი სამყაროს მთავარ მოქმედების ადგილს.
ჯეიმზ ავგუსტინ ჯოისი დაიბადა კათოლიკეთა ოჯახში, დუბლინის გარეუბან
რეთგერში. იგი ოჯახში უფროსი შვილი იყო. მისი ორი ტყუპისცალი ჯერ კიდევ
მცირეწლოვნობისას ტიფით გარდაიცვალა. ჯოისების ოჯახი წარმოშობით
ფერმოიდან, კორკის საგრაფოდან იყო. ჯოისის მამა და პაპა მდიდარი ოჯახის
შვილებზე დაქორწინდნენ. 1887 წელს ჯეიმსის მამა ჯონ სტანისლოს ჯოისი გახდა
ადგილობრივი ყადაღის შემგროვებელი, რამაც ოჯახის შემოსავალი მნიშვნელოვნად
გაზარდა. ჯოისები საცხოვრებლად გადავიდნენ შედარებით პრესტიჟულ ქალაქ
ბრეიში, დუბლინიდან 12 კილომეტრის დაშორებით. როგორც ცნობილია, ამ
დროისათვის პატარა ჯეიმსს უკბინა ძაღლმა, რამაც მომავალში დიდი გავლენა იქონია
მის ფსიქიკაზე, ჩამოუყალიბდა რა ძაღლებისადმი შიშის სინდრომი. ჯეიმსს ასევე
ეშინოდა გრუხუნის. მისი ჩანაწერებიდან ირკვევა, რომ ბავშვობაში დეიდა ზღაპრებში
გრუხუნს აღწერდა, როგორც ღმერთის მიერ მოვლენილ სასჯელს.
1891 წელს ჯოისმა დაწერა პოემა “Et Tu Healy” ჩარლზ სტიუარტ პარნელის
გარდაცვალების პატივსაგებად. ჯოისის მამას არ მოწონდა პარნელი მისი კათოლიკურ
ეკლესიაზე დამოკიდებულებითა და ირლანდიის ჰოუმრულის ინიციატივის
ჩავარდნის გამო. უფროსმა ჯოისმა დაბეჭდა პოემა და პროტესტის ნიშნად გააგზავნა
ვატიკანის ბიბლიოთეკაში. იმავე წლის ნოემბერში, ჯონ ჯოისი ოფიციალურად
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გაკოტრდა, ხოლო 1893 წელს ჩამოართვეს სახელმწიფო პენსია, რამაც ოჯახში დიდი
ფინანსური პრობლემები წარმოშვა. სტრესის ნიადაგზე ჯონ ჯოისს სასმელისადმი
მიდრეკილება ჩამოუყალიბდა.
ჯეიმს ჯოისმა 1888 წელს ჩააბარა გამოცდები კლონგოუს-ვუდის კოლეჯში. 1892 წელს,
მას შემდეგ, რაც მამა ვეღარ ეხმარებოდა სწავლის ღირებულების გადახდაში, იგი
იძულებული გახდა, დაენებებინა კოლეჯში სწავლისთვის თავი. თუმცა აქტიურ
თვითგანათლებას ეწეოდა შინ, ო'კონელის სკოლის სისტემით. 1893 წელს მას
შესთავაზეს ადგილი დუბლინის იეზუიტთა სკოლაში, ბელვედერ-კოლეჯში.
შეთავაზება დამყარებული იყო მკაცრ მოთხოვნებზე, დამორჩილებოდა სკოლის
კანონებს. მიუხედავად იმისა, რომ ჯოისი იძულებული გახდა უარეყო კათოლიციზმი
16 წლის ასაკში, თომა აქვინელის ფილოსოფია მაინც დარჩა მისი მთელი
შემოქმედებითი ცხოვრების მეგზურად.
ჯეიმსმა 1898 წელს ჩააბარა დუბლინის ახლადშექმნილ კოლეჯში University College
Dublin (UCD), თანამედროვე ენების ფაკულტეტზე, კერძოდ კი ინგლისური,
ფრანგული და იტალიური ენების განხრით. ამასთანავე ჯეიმსი აქტიურ
მონაწილეობას იღებდა თეატრალური და ლიტერატურული წრეების მუშაობაში.
რევიუ ჰენრიკ იბსენის „ახალი დრამის“ შესახებ იყო ჯოისის პირველი ნამუშევარი,
რომელიც გამოქვეყნდა 1900 წელს და თავად ნორვეგიელი დრამატურგის მადლობა
დაიმსახურა. ჯოისმა ამ პერიოდში დაწერა რამდენიმე სხვა სტატია და სავარაუდოდ,
ორი პიესა (რომლებიც არ შემონახულა). ბევრი მეგობარი, რომლებიც ჯოისმა გაიჩინა
დუბლინის უნვიერსიტეტში სწავლისას, შემდგომში გახდნენ მისი ნაწარმოებების
მთავარი თუ მეორეხარისხოვანი პერსონაჟები. იგი აგრეთვე იყო დუბლინის
უნივერსიტეტის ლიტერატურისა და ისტორიის საზოგადოების აქტიური წევრი. 1900
წელს მან საზოგადოების ერთ-ერთ შეკრებაზე წარმოადგინა „დრამა და ცხოვრება“.
უნივერსიტეტის დამთავრების შემდეგ, 1903 წელს, ჯოისმა დატოვა დუბლინი და
მედიცინის შესასწავლად გაემგზავრა პარიზში. თუმცა სინამდვილეში ფულის
ფლანგვის მეტს არც არაფერს აკეთებდა. რამდენიმე თვის შემდეგ იგი დაბრუნდა
ირლანდიაში მას შემდეგ, რაც დედამისს ეშინოდა რა თავისი შვილის
უპატივცემლობის, ჯოისის დედა ცდილობდა, ეზიარებინა, თუმცა ყოველი მისი ცდა
უშედეგოდ დასრულდა. საბოლოოდ ჯოისის დედა ჩავარდა კომაში და გარდაიცვალა
13 აგვისტოს, უარყოფილი შვილის მიერ, რათა მუხლმოყრილი ელოცა მისი სულის
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გადასარჩენად. დედის გარდაცვალების შემდეგ ჯოისმა მოუხშირა სმას, რამაც სახლში
გამოიწვია სიტუაციის დაძაბვა. იგი თავს ირჩენდა წიგნების რევიუირებით, კერძო
გაკვეთილებით და ასწავლიდა სიმღერას. მისმა ერთ ერთმა მოსწავლემ 1904 წელს
ბრინჯაოს მედალი აიღო ერთ-ერთ მუსიკალურ კონკურსში.
1904 წლის 7 იანვარს ჯოისი ეცადა, გამოექვეყნებინა ახალგაზრდა ხელოვანის
პორტრეტი - ესთეტიური ესსე, მაგრამ ჟურნალმა უარი განაცხადა. ჯოისმა თავის 22-ე
დაბადების დღისათვის გადაწყვიტა, ესსე განეახლებინა და ექცია რომანად, დაერქმია
ახალი ვერსიისთვის „სტივენ გმირი“. თუმცა ჯოისს არასოდეს არ გამოუქვეყნებია ეს
ნაწარმოები მისი ორიგინალური სახელწოდებით. ეს იყო ის წელი, როდესაც ჯოისი
შეხვდა ნორა ბარნაქლს, ახალგაზრდა გოგონას გალვეიდან, რომელიც მუშაობდა
დუბლინის ერთ-ერთ სასტუმროში. 1904 წლის 16 ივნისს, ჯოისი და ნორა პირველად
შეხვდნენ ერთმანეთს პაემანზე. სწორედ ეს დღე გახდა ჯოისის ბრწყინვალე
ნაწარმოებში, „ულისეში“ აღწერილი დღის თარიღი.
რამდენიმე ხნის განმავლობაში ჯოისი დარჩა დუბლინში, თუმცა ძალიან მოუმატა
სმას. ერთ დღეს, როდესაც მწერალი არაფხიზელ მდგომარეობაში იმყოფებოდა, იგი
სკანდალის მიზეზი გახდა, რომლისგანაც მამამისის შორეულმა ნაცნობმა ალფრედ
ჰანთერმა იხსნა, რომელმაც იგი შეიკედლა საკუთარ სახლში. ჰანთერი აღმოჩნდა
ებრაელი, რომელსაც ჰყავდა მოღალატე მეუღლე. სწორედ იგი გახდა ულისეს
პერსონაჟის, ლეოპოლდ ბლუმის პროტოტიპი. ჯოისი დაუახლოვდა ოლივერ ჯონ
გოგართს, ულისეს პერსონაჟ ბაკ მალიგანის პროტოტიპს. მწერალმა გოგართის
ციხესიმაგრეში 6 ღამე გაატარა, რაც ბოლოს დასრულდა ამ უკანასკნელის მიერ ჯოისის
მიმართულებით გასროლით. ჯეიმსი იმავე ღამეს დაბრუნდა დუბლინში. ამ ამბიდან
ცოტა ხნის შემდეგ მწერალმა კუნძული დატოვა და კონტინენტზე ნორასთან ერთად
გაემგზავრა.
ჯოისი და ნორა, აღკვეთილნი ირლანდიიდან საკუთარი ნებასურვილით,
გაემგზავრნენ ციურიხში, სადაც სავარაუდოდ ჯოისმა დაიწყო მუშაობა ბერლიცის
ენათა ინსტიტუტში, ინგლისელი აგენტის დახმარებით. ფაქტიურად მან შეძლო
მოეტყუებინა ინგლისელი აგენტი, თუმცა სკოლის დირექტორმა გააგზავნა იგი
ტრიესტში, რომელიც იმ დროისათვის იყო ავსტრია-უნგრეთის ნაწილი მეორე
მსოფლიო ომამდე. ამჟამად არის იტალიის სახელმწიფოს შემადგენლობაში.
ალმიდანო ალტიფონის დახმარებით, რომელიც იყო ტრიესტის ბერლიცის სკოლის
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დირექტორი, ჯოისმა დაიწყო მუშაობა მასწავლებლად პულაში, რომელიც იმჟამად
ასევე იყო ავსტრია-უნგრეთის შემადგენლობაში, დღესდღეობით არის ხორვატიის
სახელმწიფოს შემადგენლობაში. ჯოისი ასწავლიდა ინგლისურ ენას ავსტრიელ-
უნგრელ სახმელეთო ოფიცრებს, რომლებიც ცხოვრობდნენ პულაში 1904 წლის
ოქტომბრიდან 1905 წლის მარტამდე. მოგვიანებით კვლავ არტიფონის დახმარებით
ჯოისი გადავიდა ტრიესტში და იქ დაიწყო მუშაობა კვლავ ინგლისური ენის
მასწავლებლად, სადაც შემდგომი 10 წელი მოღვაწეობდა.
იმავე წელს, ნორას და ჯოისს შეეძინათ მათი პირველი ვაჟი ჯორჯიო. ჯოისმა მიმართა
თავის ძმას სტანისლაუსს რომ შეერთებოდა მას ტრიესტში და სათადარიგოდ უპოვა
მას ადგილი ინგლისური ენის მასწავლებლად ადგილობრივ სკოლაში. ფაქტიურად
მან შესთავაზა თავის ძმას უფრო საინტერესო სამსახური, ვიდრე კლერკად მუშაობა
დუბლინში, მაგრამ სინამდვილეში იგი ცდილობდა გაეზარდა მისი ოჯახის მცირე
შემოსავალი მისი ძმის ახალი სამსახურით. სტანისლავს და ჯეიმსს ჰქონდათ ძალიან
ახლო ურთიერთობა მთელი იმ დროის განმავლობაში რაც ისინი ცხოვრობდნენ
ტრიესტში, მიუხედავად იმისა, რომ ჯოისი კვლავ განუწყვეტლივ სვამდა და ხშირად
არაორდინალურად იქცეოდა.
1906 წელს, მას შემდეგ რაც ჯოისმა დააგროვა საკმაო კაპიტალი ტრიესტრში
მოღვაწეობის შედეგად, ქრონიკული ახლის ძიებით შეპყრობილი ჯოისი გაემგზავრა
რომში, ვინაიდან მისთვის მოსაწყენი გახდა ტრიესტში ცხოვრება. იმავე წელს
ზაფხულში ჯოისს და ნორას შეეძინათ ქალიშვილი ლუჩია ჯოისი.
ჯოისი დაბრუნდა დუბლინში 1909 წლის ზაფხულში, თავის შვილ ჯიორჯიოსთან
ერთად, რათა მოენახულებინა მამამისი და ასევე გადაწყვიტა დაეწყო მუშაობა
„დუბლინელების“ გამოსაქვეყნებლად. მან აგრეთვე მოინახულა ნორას ოჯახი
გალვეიში, შეხვდა რა მათ პირველად, თავისი აღმავლობის პერიოდში. ჯოისმა
გადაწყვიტა თან წაეყვანა თავისი ერთ ერთი და ევა, რათა დახმარებოდა ნორას
საოჯახო საქმეების მოგვარებაში. ჯოისმა მხოლოდ ერთი თვე გაატარა ტრიესტში,
ვიდრე კვლავ უკან დაბრუნდებოდა დუბლინში, მაგრამ ამჟამად ახალი შემართებით,
რომ დაეარსებინა ადგილობრივი კინემატოგრაფია დუბლინში. წამოწყება მეტად
წარმატებული აღმოჩნდა, თუმცა მას შემდეგ რაც ჯოისმა მიატოვა დუბლინი, საქმე
წარუმატებლად დასრულდა. ჯოისმა თან წაიყვანა თავისი მეორე და აილინი. მას

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შემდეგ რაც ევამ მიატოვა ტრიესტი 1910 წელს აილინი დარჩა კონტინენტზე და
დაქორწინდა კიდეც ჩეხ ბანკირზე, ფრანტიჩეკ შურეკზე.
ჯოისი დაბრუნდა დუბლინში 1912 წლის ზაფხულში, ჯორჯ რობერთან ერთწლიანი
დავის შემდეგ, თავისი ნოველის „დუბლინელების“ დაბეჭდვის გამო. მისი
მოგზაურობა კვლავ უშედეგო აღმოჩნდა. ტრიესტში დაბრუნების შემდეგ ჯოისმა
დაწერა პოემა Gas from a Burner რობერტთან პროტესტის მიმართებაში. ეს იყო მისი
ბოლო მოგზაურობა ირლანდიაში, მას შემდეგ იგი არ გაკარებია ახლოს დუბლინს,
მიუხედავად ჯონ ჯოისის და ახალგაზრდა ირლანდიელი მწერლის უილიამ ბათლერ
იეითსის გამუდმებული ხვეწნისა.
ჯოისმა დააბანდა ბლომად ფული, რათა გამხდარიყო კინემატოგრაფიის ბიზნეს
მაგნატი დუბლინში. მისი შემოსავალი ფაქტიურად იყო ბერლიცის სკოლიდან და
აგრეთვე კერძო გაკვეთილების საზღაური. სწორედ ამ კერძო გაკვეთილების
გამოისობით გაჩენილი ნაცნობობების წრე მომავალში მას მეტად დაეხმარა ავსტრია-
უნგრეთის კონფლიქტის დროს და აგრეთვე 1915 წელს შვეიცარიაში.
მისი ერთ ერთი სტუდენტი ტრიესტში იყო ეტორე შმიცი, ცნობილი როგორც
ფსევდონიმით იტალო სვევო, რომელიც შემდგომში გახდა ჯოისის ახლო მეგობარი.
შმიცი იყო ებრაული ძირის მქონე კათოლიკე, ლეოპოლდ ბლუმის შესანიშნავი
მაგალითი. ფაქტიურად მასალა იუდაიზმის შესახებ რომელიც ჯოისმა მიაწოდა
მკითხველს ულისეში არის შმიცის საპასუხო კორესპონდენცია ჯოისისადმი. ჯოისმა
ცხოვრების უმეტესი ნაწილი გაატარა კონტინენტზე, ირლანდიისგან მოშორებით.
სწორედ ტრიესტში გაუჩნდა ჯოისს თვალების პრობლემა, რამაც გამოიწვია რამდენიმე
ოპერაცია.
1915 წელს, პირველი მსოფლიო ომის დროს, ჯოისი როგორც წარმომავლობით
ბრიტანელი, გაერიდა ავსტრია-უნგრეთს და საცხოვრებლად გადავიდა შვეიცარიაში,
სადაც იგი შეხვდა თავის მეგობარს ფრანკ ბურგენს, რომლის აზრიც ფაქტიურად
ძალზე მნიშვნელოვანი აღმოჩნდა ჯოისისათვის შემდგომში „ულისეს“ და „ფინეგანის
ქელეხის“ შესახებ. აქვე გაიცნო მან ეზრა პაუნდი, რომელმაც თავისი მხრივ წარუდგინა
ჯოისი ჰარიეტ შოუ ვეივერს, გამომცემელს, რომელიც ფაქტიურად შემდგომი 25 წლის
განმავლობაში გახდა ჯოისის მრჩეველი და პატრონი. ომის შემდგომ ჯოისი
დაბრუნდა ტრიესტში. ომმა მნიშვნელოვნად შეცვალა ტრიესტი. 1920 წელს, ეზრა

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პაუნდის მიწვევით და რჩევით, ჯოისი გადავიდა საცხოვრებლად პარიზში, სადაც
ფაქტიურად ცხოვრობდა შემდგომი 20 წელიწადი.
ამ დროის განმავლობაში, ჯოისი ხშირად მოგზაურობდა შვეიცარიაში, თვალის
ოპერაციების გამო და ასევე ლუჩიას გამო, რომელიც როგორც ჯოისი ამტკიცებს
დაავადებული იყო შიზოფრენიით. როგორც კარლ იუნგი ამტკიცებს, ლუჩია
ფაქტიურად დაავადდა შიზოფრენიით მას შემდეგ რაც წაიკითხა „ულისე“. იუნგი
აღნიშნავდა, რომ ლუჩია და ჯეიმსი ორივენი არიან ფსიქოლოგიურად დაავადებული
ადამიანები, ორივენი მიექანებოდნენ რა მდინარის ფსკერისკენ, განსხვავება მხოლოდ
იყო ის რომ ჯოისი წყალში გადახტომით იძირებოდა, და ლუჩია კი საბედისწერო
შემთხვევითი ჩავარდნით. 1982 წელს, მას შემდეგ რაც სტივენ ჯოისი გახდა ჯეიმს
ჯოისის ერთადერთი მემკვიდრე, მან დაწვა ათასობით წერილი, რომელიც
ფაქტიურად აღწერდა ჯეიმსის და ლუჩიას ურთიერთობას. სტივენ ჯოისმა შემდგომში
ნიუ იორკ ტაიმსის გამომცემელს მოახსენა რომ წერილები რომელიც მან დაწვა იყო
მხოლოდ პერსონალური წერილები და დაწერილი იყო ნონო და ნონას (ე.წ. ჯოისის და
ნორა ბარნაკლის) გარდაცვალების შემდგომ, და ფაქტიურად არ ეხებოდა არანაირად
მათ. ასევე მან დაწვა სემუელ ბეკეტის მიერ დაწერილი წერილი ლუჩიასათვის,
რომელიც ფაქტიურად თავად სემუელის წერილობითი მოთხოვნის თანახმად
გაანადგურა.“

პარიზში ცხოვრების დროს ჯოისს პატრონობდნენ მარია და ევგენი ჯოლები, ვიდრე

იგი დაასრულებდა მუშაობას „ფინეგანის სამძიმარზე“. რომ არა მათ მიერ გაწეული
დიდი თანადგომა, ჯოისი ალბათ ვერც შეძლებდა ამ დიდებული წიგნის დასრულებას.
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ჟურნალი ტრანზიშენი (ინგლ. “transition”) სერიულად აქვეყნებდა მოკლე ნაწყვეტებს
ამ ნაწარმოებიდან სათაურით: „ნაწარმოები მუშაობის პროცესშია“.
ჯოისი ციურიხში 1941 წელს დაბრუნდა. 1941 წლის 11 იანვარს თვალის მორიგი
ოპერაცია გაიკეთა. ოპერაციის შემდგომ იგი კომაში ჩავარდა და მხოლოდ 1941 წლის
13 იანვრის ღამის ორ საათზე, ორი დღის შემდგომ, მოვიდა გონს. მისი პირველი
მოთხოვნა იყო, სასწრაფოდ დაკავშირებოდნენ მისი ოჯახის წევრებს, ვიდრე კვლავ
დაკარგავდა გონებას. ოჯახმა ჯოისს ვერ მოუსწრო, ვინაიდან ის კომადან
გამოსვლიდან 15 წუთში გარდაიცვალა.
ჯეიმზ ჯოისი 58 წლის ასაკში გარდაიცვალა, როტენ კროიცის შვესტერჰაუზში,
პერიტონიტული გლავკომით. იგი დაკრძალეს ციურიხში ფლუნტერნის სასაფლაოზე,
ციურიხის ზოოპარკთან. როგორც ცნობილია, ნორა ჯოისმა ირლანდიის მთავრობას
მიმართა თხოვნით, მისი მეუღლის ცხედარის გადასასვენებლად ირლანდიაში, თუმცა
მისი მოთხოვნა უგულვებელყოფილ იქნა. ნორა გარდაიცვალა 1951 წელს და
დაკრძალულია ჯოისის გვერდით. აგრეთვე ჯეიმსის გვერდით დაკრძალულია მისი
შვილი ჯორჯიო, რომელიც გარდაიცვალა 1976 წელს. ჯეიმზ ჯოისის დაკრძალვაზე
შვეიცარიელმა ტენორმა მაქს მეილსმა შეასრულა სიმღერა Addio terra, addio cielo
კლაუდიო მონტევერდის ოპერიდან „ორფეოსი“.
დუბლინელები
ჯოისის ნაწარმოებებში მნიშვნელოვნად იგრძნობა მისი ირლანდიური
წარმომავლობა. მისი ერთ-ერთი ადრეული მოთხრობების კრებულში
„დუბლინელები“ აღწერილია დუბლინელი საზოგადოების დეგრადაცია და
პარალიზება. 1987 დირექტორმა ჯონ ჰასტონმა (ფილმი იყო ჰასტონის ბოლო
სერიოზული ნამუშევარი) გადაიღო ფილმი „მიცვალებულნი“, რომელიც იყო სწორედ
დუბლინელების ბოლო მოთხრობის კინო-ინტერპრეტაცია.
ხელოვანის პორტრეტი ახალგაზრდობაში
„ხელოვანის პორტრეტი ახალგაზრდობისას“ არის „გმირი სტივენის“ ნოველის
ხელახლად შექმნილი მოთხრობა. ორიგინალი ნოველისა „გმირი სტივენი“ ჯოისმა
გაანადგურა ნორასთან კამათის შემდგომ, რომელიც დაჟინებით მოითხოვდა რომ მას
არ გამოექვეყნებინა ეს ნოველა. ქიუნსთლერრომანი (გერმ.Künstlerroman) , მოთხრობა
რომელიც ემყარება ხელოვანის პიროვნული თვითშემეცნების განვითარებას,

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ფაქტიურად გამოხატავს თავად ჯოისის სახეს მისი მთავარი მოქმედი პერსონაჟის
სტივენ დედალუსის სახით.
პიესა „დევნილნი“ და პოეზია
მიუხედავად ჯოისის დიდი თაყვანისცემისა თეატრის მიმართ, მან მხოლოდ
ერთადერთი პიესა დაწერა სახელწოდებით დევნილნი (ინგლ. Exiles) რომელიც მან
შექმნა პირველი მსოფლიო ომის შემდგომ, 1918 წელს. პიესა ფაქტიურად მოიცას ცოლ-
ქმრული ურთიერთობის სხვადასხვა სცენებს, სადაც მკაფიოდ იგრძნობა რომ იგი
შეიქმნა მოთხრობის გარდაცვლილნის (ბოლო მოთხრობა დუბლინელებიდან)
დასრულების შემდეგ და წინ უსწრებდა ნოველას ულისე. ულისეს შექმნა ჯოისმა
სწორედ რომ პიესაზე მუშაობის დროს დაიწყო.
ჯოისმა 1904 წელს გამოაქვეყნა პირველი სატირული ხასიათის პოეზიის კრებული,
სადაც თავს იწონებდა როგორც კელტური აღორძინების ხანის ლიდერი. მისი
კრებული „კამერული მუსიკა“ შეიცავდა 36 მოკლე ლირიკულ ლექსს. ამ პუბლიკაციამ
იგი ფაქტიურად ჩართო „იმიჯისტების ანთოლოგიაში“, (ინგლ. Imagist Anthology)
რომელსაც აქვეყნებდა ეზრა პაუნდი, ჯოისის ერთ-ერთი უდიდესი თაყვანისმცემელი.
სხვა პოეზია, რომელიც ჯოისმა გამოაქვეყნა მომავალში არის: Gas From A Burner (1912),
Pomes Penyeach (1927) and “Ecce Puer” (1932, მიუძღვნა თავისი შვილიშვილის
დაბადებას და მისი მამის გარდაცვალებას). იგი გამოქვეყნდა 1936 წელს კრებულში:
ნარკვევი პოემები.
ულისე
1906 წელს ჯოისმა დაიწყო მუშაობა ნოველაზე ულისე. თუმცა დასაწყისში მას არ
ჰქონდა დაგეგმილი თუ როგორ განვითარდებოდა მოვლენები რომანში, მაგრამ
გამოკვეთილი ჰყავდა პერსონაჟი ლეოპოლდ ბლუმი და ასევე მისდევდა 1914 წლის
ქრონოლოგიურ მოვლენებს. ნაწარმოებზე მუშაობა დაასრულა 1921 წელს. კიდევ სამი
თვე დასჭირდა იმისათვის, რომ ჯოისს საბოლოოდ დაესრულებინა მისი შესწორება,
ეს ფაქტიურად დაემთხვა მისი 40 წლის იუბილეს, 1922 წლის 2 თებერვალს.
ნაწარმოები ულისე, რომლის 600 გვერდი დათმობილი აქვს დუბლინელი ებრაელის
ლეოპოლდ ბლუმის ერთი დღის ისტორიას (16 ივნისი, 1904), იმდენად ფართოდ
განიხილავს დუბლინს, რომ თავად ავტორის მტკიცებით, წიგნზე დაყრდნობით
ადვილი შესაძლებელი იქნებოდა ისტორიული დუბლინის აღდგენა მისი დანგრევის

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შემთხვევაში. 16 ივნისი მთელ მსოფლიოში ჯოისის თაყვანისმცემელთა მიერ
აღინიშნება როგორც ბლუმსდეი (Bloomsday).
ეზრა პაუნდის დამსახურებით, ნოველის მოკლე ნაწყვეტების სერიული პუბლიკაცია,
სახელწოდებით „მცირე მიმოხილვა“ ჯერ კიდევ 1918 წელს დაიწყო.
"The Sisters"
"The Sisters" is a short story by James Joyce, the first of a series of short stories called Dubliners.
The Irish Homestead Journal originally published The Sisters on 13 August 1904. It was Joyce's
first published work of fiction. Joyce later revised the story and had it, along with the rest of
the series, published in book form in 1914.
The Sisters gives a portrait of the relationship between a nameless boy and the infirmed priest
Father Flynn. The priest who has been relieved of his priestly duties has acted as a mentor for
the boy in the clerical duties of a Catholic priest.
The story starts with the boy contemplating Father Flynn's illness and impending death. He is
fascinated with interpreting signs and symbols, and their meaning.
Later, while the boy eats his dinner, his aunt, uncle, and old Cotter have a conversation in
which the boy is informed that the priest has died. The conversation focuses on the priest and
his relationship with the boy.
That night the boy is haunted by images of the priest, and he dreams of escape to a mysterious
land.

The next day the boy goes to look at the announcement that the priest has died, and then
wanders about, further puzzling about his dream and about his relationship with the priest.
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That night the boy and his aunt go to the house of mourning. They view the corpse with
Nannie, and then they sit with the sisters Eliza and Nannie. They are offered food and drink,
and then Eliza and the aunt carry on a conversation that reveals that Father Flynn had
apparently suffered a mental breakdown after accidentally breaking a chalice. The dialogue
then trails off.
From the numerous flashbacks and memories scattered through the story, Father Flynn is
shown to have been an intellectual priest, trained in Rome and having a strong religious
vocation, but unable to cope with the mundane daily routine of being a parish priest - which
finally led to his collapse. The boy narrator is seen to have initially admired Father Flynn and
looked up to him, and later felt deeply sorry for him and guilty about not having visited him
in his last days - all of which the narrator must conceal from his adult environment, where
Father Flynn is considered to have been a complete failure, his death is in fact regarded with
relief and he is considered to have been a bad example from which the boy must be preserved.
The choice of the title is quite curious as the story clearly focuses on the boy's relationship
with the dead priest and the sisters Eliza and Nannie seem to be quite marginal to it. Joyce's
intention in giving this title to the story is far from obvious, though a common theory is that
the title comes from the fact that the priest's sisters are shown to be the only ones (besides the
boy) who really knew and understood what Father Flynn was going through in the
monotonous life of a priest in Dublin.
"The Dead"
"The Dead" is the final short story in the 1914 collection Dubliners by James Joyce. It is the
longest story in the collection and is often considered the best of Joyce's shorter works. At
15,672 words it has also been considered a novella.
It was adapted as a one act play of the same name by Hugh Leonard in 1967.[1] "The Dead"
was made into a film also entitled The Dead in 1987, directed by John Huston. In 1999 it was
adapted into a musical by Richard Nelson[disambiguation needed] and Shaun Davey.
Christopher Walken starred in the original production.
The story centres on Gabriel Conroy on the night of the Morkan sisters' annual dance and
dinner in the first week of January 1904, perhaps the Feast of the Epiphany (January 6). Typical
of the stories in Dubliners, "The Dead" develops toward a moment of painful self-awareness;
Joyce described this as an epiphany. The narrative generally concentrates on Gabriel's
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insecurities, his social awkwardness, and the defensive way he copes with his discomfort. The
story culminates at the point when Gabriel discovers that, through years of marriage, there
was much he never knew of his wife's past.

Upon arriving at the party with his wife, Gabriel makes a joke that is not funny about the
maid's marriage prospects; and he fidgets, adjusts his clothing, and offers her money as a
holiday present. Not long after that, he gets flustered again when his wife pokes fun at him
over a conversation they had earlier, in which he had forced her to wear galoshes for the bad
weather. With such episodes, Gabriel is depicted as particularly pathetic. Similarly, Gabriel is
unsure about quoting a poem from the poet Robert Browning when he is giving his dinner
address, as he is afraid to be seen as pretentious. But, at the same time, Gabriel considers
himself above the others when he speculates that his audience would not understand the
words he uses.
Later, when giving the traditional holiday toast, Gabriel overcompensates for some of his
earlier statements to his evening dancing partner Miss Ivors, an Irish nationalist. His talk relies
heavily on conventions; and he praises the virtues of the Irish people and idealizes the past in
a way that feels contrived and disingenuous, especially considering what the past will mean to
him once he hears his wife's story. In fact he hurts Miss Ivors by mistake so much that she
rushes away even before dinner is served.
As Gabriel is preparing to leave the party, he sees a woman absorbed in thought, standing at
the top of the staircase. He stares at her for a moment before he recognizes her as his wife. He
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then envisages her as though she were the model in a painting that he would call "Distant
Music". Her distracted and wistful mood arouses sexual interest in him. He tries indirectly to
confront her about it after the party, in the hotel room he has reserved for them; but he finds
her unresponsive. Trying to make ironic, half-suggestive comments, Gabriel learns that she
was feeling nostalgic after having heard Mr. D'Arcy singing "The Lass of Aughrim" at the party.
Upon being pressed further, Gretta says that the song reminds her of the time when she was a
girl in Galway and in love with a boy named Michael Furey. At the time, Gretta was being
kept at her grandmother's home before she was to be sent off to a convent in Dublin. Michael
was terribly sick and unable to see her. Despite being bedridden, when it came time for her to
leave Galway, Michael travelled through the rain to Gretta's window; and, although he was
able to speak with her again, he died within the week.

The remainder of the text delves further into Gabriel's thoughts after he hears this story,
exploring his shifting views on himself, his wife, the past, the living and the dead. It is
ambiguous whether the epiphany is just an artistic and emotional moment or is meant to set
the reader pondering whether Gabriel will ever manage to escape his smallness and insecurity.
In fact, Gabriel is forced to consider whether it is better to die young, when emotion and time
diminish weakness; or die old, when the threat of error grows more with every year. It's a
question of being remembered, and Gabriel may seem to find himself wishing he were gone.

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ადელაინ ვირჯინია ვულფი (ინგლ. Adeline Virginia Woolf, ქალიშვილობის გვარით:

სტივენი – ინგლ. Stephen, დ. 25 იანვარი, 1882 – გ. 28 მარტი, 1941) — ინგლისელი
მწერალი და ესეისტი, აღიარებული, როგორც XX საუკუნის მოდერნისტული
ლიტერატურის ერთ–ერთი მოწინავე ფიგურა.
ვირჯინია ედელინ ვულფი (ქალიშვილობაში სტივენი) დაიბადა ლონდონში 1882
წლის 25 იანვარს. მამამისი, ლესლი სტივენი ვიქტორიანული ეპოქის ცნობილი
მწერალი და კრიტიკოსი იყო. ვირჯინიას მშობლები ვულფის 1927 წელს დაწერილი
რომანის “შუქურასკენ” გმირების, მისტერ და მისის რამსეების პროტოტიპები არიან.
1895 წელს დედის გარდაცვალებამ ცამეტი წლის გოგონა ნერვულ კრიზისამდე
მიიყვანა. იმ ხანიდან მოყოლებული ვირჯინია მამასთან იზრდებოდა სახლში, სადაც
მისთვის “ხელმისაწვდომი იყო დიდი ბიბლიოთეკა, რომელშიც არც ერთი წიგნი
არავისთვის ყოფილა დამალული”. ძმებისგან განსხვავებით უნივერსიტეტში არ
უსწავლია. როდესაც 1904 წელს მამამისი გარდაიცვალა ვირჯინია დასთან და ძმებთან
ერთად კენსინგტონის ფეშენებელური რაიონიდან საცხოვრებლად ბლუმსბერიში
გადავიდა - რაიონში, სადაც ლონდონური ბოჰემა ცხოვრობდა. 1905 წელს ვულფი
რეგულარულად წერს “თაიმსის” ლიტერატურული დამატებისთვის. კიდევ ერთ
ტრავმად 1906 წელს ერთ-ერთი ძმის, ტობის გარდაცვალება იქცა. ამ შემთხვევასთან
დაკავშირებული ტკივილი მისი რომანის “ტალღების” საფუძველი გახდა.

1907 წელს დის, ვანესას კრიტიკოსსა და ხელოვნებათმცოდნე კლაივ ბელზე

დაქორწინების შემდეგ ვირჯინია ძმასთან ერთად ფიტცროი-სკვერზე (ასევე
ბლუმსბერიში) გადავიდა საცხოვრებლად. სწორედ აქ იმართებოდა ე.წ. “ბლუმსბერის
ჯგუფის” შეხვედრები. თავისუფლად შეკრებილი თანამოაზრეებისგან შემდგარ

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ჯგუფში უმეტესობა ჰომოსექსუალი იყო. ფილოსოფოს გ.ე. მურის იდეების
ზეგავლენით ისინი თვლიდნენ, რომ მეგობრობისა და სიყვარულის იდეალები
უმთავრესია და რომ ეს იდეალები მხოლოდ მაშინ შეიძლება განხორციელდეს,
როდესაც გულწრფელობა და თავისუფლება თვალთმაქცობაზე აღმატებული იქნება.
მათი აზრით, სოციალური პირობითობები პირადი მორალისა და პასუხისმგებლობის
პრინციპების მიხედვით უნდა გამოდევნილიყო. ჯგუფის წევრთათვის ყველაზე
მნიშვნელოვანი ის ურთიერთობები იყო, რომელიც მათ შორის ყალიბდებოდა.
როგორც რომანისტი ე. მ. ფორსტერი წერდა, “ურთიერთობებს არაფერი შეცვლის”.
ფორსტერის გარდა ჯგუფში შედიოდნენ ეკონომისტი ჯონ მეინერდ კეინსი, ბიოგრაფი
და ესსეისტი ლიტტონ სტრეჩი, მხატვარი დანკან გრანტი, კრიტიკოსი-
ხელოვნებათმცოდნეები როჯერ ფრაი და კლაივ ბელი. 1912 წელს, მას შემდეგ რაც
კემბრიჯის უნივერსიტეტის კურსდამთავრებული და ცეილონიდან
ახლადდაბრუნებული საქმრო ლეონარდ ვულფი წინასწარ გააფრთხილა მამაკაცთან
სექსის მიმართ ცუდი დამოკიდებულების შესახებ, ვირჯინია მას ცოლად მიჰყვება.
მათი ქორწინება ურთიერთპატივისცემისა და ემოციური მხარდაჭერის მაგალითი
იყო, სექსუალური ურთიერთობები კი - მინიმუმამდე დაყვანილი. ვირჯინიამ და
ლეონარდმა ერთად დააარსეს “ჰოგარტ პრესი” - გამომცემლობა, სადაც ვირჯინია
ვულფის რომანების გარდა იბეჭდებოდა ფორსტერის, ტ.ს. ელიოტის და კეტრინ
მენსფილდის ნაწარმოებები.რომანზე სახელწოდებით “მოგზაურობა” მუშაობის დროს
ვულფმა კიდევ ერთი სერიოზული ნერვული შეტევა გადაიტანა, რომელმაც 1915 წელს
ის თვითმკვლელობის მცდელობამდე მიიყვანა. თუმცა, შემდეგ გამოკეთდა და 1919
წელს მომდევნო რომანი “ღამე და დღე” გამოაქვეყნა. ორივე ეს ნაწარმოები უჩვეულო
ენით იყო დაწერილი. შემდეგ ნაწარმოებში სახელწოდებით “იაკობის ოთახი” (1922) კი
ვულფმა ლიტერატურულ ფორმებში ფართო და რადიკალურ ექსპერიმენტირებას
მიჰყო ხელი. ნაყოფიერი ექსპერიმენტები სამ მომდევნო რომანში გრძელდებოდა:
“მისის დელოუეი” (1925), “შუქურისაკენ” (1927) და “ტალღები” (1931). თხრობის
ხერხების, პერსონაჟების შინაგანი სამყაროს და ცნობიერების გარდატეხის გადმოცემის
თვალსაზრისით ნოვატორული რომანები ლიტერატურული მოდერნიზმის ოქროს
ფონდში შევიდა.
ვირჯინია ვულფი ემოციურად ყოველთვის უფრო ქალებზე იყო მიჯაჭვული ვიდრე
მამაკაცებზე. 1922 წელს მას ვიტა სეკვილ-უესტი შეუყვარდა. გარკვეული ხნის შემდეგ
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მათ შორის რომანი განვითარდა, რომელმაც თითქმის მთელი 20 წელი გასტანა. 1928
წელს ვულფმა ვიტა ასახა “ორლანდოში” - ფანტასმაგორიულ ბიოგრაფიაში, სადაც
ეფემერული მთავარი პერსონაჟის ცხოვრება სამი საუკუნის განმავლობაში
გრძელდება. ის ხან მამაკაცად, ხანაც ქალად იქცევა. ვიტა სეკვილ-უესტის შვილმა
ნაიჯელ ნიკოლსონმა ამ ნაწარმოებს “ლიტერატურის ისტორიაში ყველაზე გრძელი და
ყველაზე მომხიბვლელი სასიყვარულო წერილი” უწოდა. ვულფი წერდა ბევრს და
დაუღალავად. რომანების გარდა მას ეკუთვნის რამდენიმე ნაშრომი ლიტერატურულ
კრიტიკაში. მისი ლიტერატურული მემკვიდრეობა მოიცავს ათასობით წერილს და
დაახლოებით ხუთი ათასი ფურცლის ოდენობის დღიურებს. მისი ამბიციური რომანი
“წლები”, რომელიც ვირჯინიას წინა რომანების მსგავსად დიდ ფსიქიკურ
ძალისხმევად დაუჯდა, შეფასებულ იქნა როგორც “ბრწყინვალე კატასტროფა”.
გერმანული ავიაციის მიერ ლონდონის დაბომბვების შედეგად სახლის დანგრევის
შემდეგ ლეონარდ და ვირჯინია ვულფები ქალაქ როდმელში გადავიდნენ, რომელიც
სასექსის საგრაფოში მდებარეობდა. ომთან დაკავშირებული საშინელებების და ახალი
რომანის “აქტებს შორის” მუშაობაზე დაღლილობისგან ღრმა დეპრესიაში მყოფი
ვულფის მდგომარეობა გაუარესდა. ლეონარდოს მორიგი ტანჯვისგან დახსნის
სურვილით 1941 წლის 28 მარტს ვირჯინია ვულფმა მდინარე ოუსში დაიხრჩო თავი.

Mrs Dalloway

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Mrs Dalloway (published on 14 May 1925) is a novel by Virginia Woolf that details a day in
the life of Clarissa Dalloway, a fictional high-society woman in post-World War I England. It
is one of Woolf's best-known novels.
Created from two short stories, "Mrs Dalloway in Bond Street" and the unfinished "The Prime
Minister," the novel addresses Clarissa's preparations for a party she will host that evening.
With an interior perspective, the story travels forwards and back in time and in and out of the
characters' minds to construct an image of Clarissa's life and of the inter-war social structure.
In October 2005, Mrs Dalloway was included on TIME magazine's list of the 100 best English-
language novels written since 1923.
Clarissa Dalloway goes around London in the morning, getting ready to host a party that
evening. The nice day reminds her of her youth spent in the countryside in Bourton and makes
her wonder about her choice of husband; she married the reliable Richard Dalloway instead
of the enigmatic and demanding Peter Walsh, and she "had not the option" to be with Sally
Seton. Peter reintroduces these conflicts by paying a visit that morning.

Septimus Warren Smith, a World War I veteran suffering from deferred traumatic stress,
spends his day in the park with his Italian-born wife Lucrezia, where Peter Walsh observes
them. Septimus is visited by frequent and indecipherable hallucinations, mostly concerning
his dear friend Evans who died in the war. Later that day, after he is prescribed involuntary
commitment to a psychiatric hospital, he commits suicide by jumping out of a window.
Clarissa's party in the evening is a slow success. It is attended by most of the characters she has
met in the book, including people from her past. She hears about Septimus' suicide at the party
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and gradually comes to admire this stranger's act, which she considers an effort to preserve the
purity of his happiness.
In Mrs Dalloway, all of the action, aside from the flashbacks, takes place on a day in June. It is
an example of stream of consciousness storytelling: every scene closely tracks the momentary
thoughts of a particular character. Woolf blurs the distinction between direct and indirect
speech throughout the novel, freely alternating her mode of narration between omniscient
description, indirect interior monologue, and soliloquy. The narration follows at least twenty
characters in this way, but the bulk of the novel is spent with Clarissa Dalloway and Septimus
Smith.

Because of structural and stylistic similarities, Mrs Dalloway is commonly thought to be a

response to James Joyce's Ulysses, a text that is often considered one of the greatest novels of
the twentieth century (though Woolf herself, writing in 1928, apparently denied this). In her
essay "Modern Fiction," Woolf praised Ulysses, saying of the scene in the cemetery, "on a first
reading at any rate, it is difficult not to acclaim a masterpiece." The Hogarth Press, run by her
and her husband Leonard, had to turn down the chance to publish the novel in 1919, because
of the obscenity law in England, as well as the practical issues regarding publishing such a
substantial text.
Woolf laid out some of her literary goals with the characters of Mrs Dalloway while still
working on the novel. A year before its publication, she gave a talk at Cambridge University

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called "Character in Fiction," revised and retitled later that year as "Mr. Bennett and Mrs.
Brown."
The novel has two main narrative lines involving two separate characters (Clarissa Dalloway
and Septimus Smith); within each narrative there is a particular time and place in the past that
the main characters keep returning to in their minds. For Clarissa, the "continuous present"
(Gertrude Stein's phrase) of her charmed youth at Bourton keeps intruding into her thoughts
on this day in London. For Septimus, the "continuous present" of his time as a soldier during
the "Great War" keeps intruding, especially in the form of Evans, his fallen comrade.
დევიდ ჰერბერტ ლორენსი

დევიდ ჰერბერტ ლორენსი (ინგლ. David Herbert Lawrence; დ. 11 სექტემბერი, 1885,

ისტვუდი, — გ. 2 მარტი, 1930, ვანსი, საფრანგეთი) — ინგლისელი მწერალი. 1909 წელს
გამოაქვეყნა ლექსების კრებული; სახელი გაითქვა პირველივე რომანით „თეთრი
ფარშავანგი“ (1911). ლორენსის ყველაზე საინტერესო რომანია „ვაჟიშვილები და
საყვარლები“ (1913). აღსანიშნავია აგრეთვე რომანები „ცისარტყელა“ (1915),
„შეყვარებული ქალები“ (1920), „აარონის კვერთხი“ (1922), „კენგურუ“ (1923), „ლედი
ჩატერლის საყვარელი“ (1928) და სხვა. ამ რომანებში ლორენსი ილაშქრებს
დრომოჭმული ვიქტორიანული მორალის წინააღმდეგ, მაგრამ, ამავე დროს, არ იღებს
ბურჟუაზიულ სამყაროს „მექანისტურ ცივილიზაციას“, რადგან იგი, მისი აზრით,
აჩლუნგებს ადამიანის ინსტინქტურ საწყისს. ლორენსის ესთეტიკის საფუძველია
ბუნებრიობის აპათეოსი და სამყაროს სენსუალური აღქმა. ფონად იგი ხშირად იყენებს
სოციალურ ელემენტებს. ადამიანის სულიერი და ფიზიკური ჰარმონიულობისათვის
ბრძოლაში იგი მიმართავდა ფროიდიზმსაც, თუმცა ფროიდისტი მწერალი არასოდეს
ყოფილა. საუკუნეებით გამომუშავებული ყალბი ბურჟუაზიული ზნეობრივი
ნორმების საწინააღმდეგოდ ლორენსი იბრძოდა ადამიანის სხეულის
ემანსიპაციისათვის. ლორენსის შემოქმედებამ, მისი წინააღმდეგობრივი ხასიათის
მიუხედავად, უდიდესი გავლენა მოახდინა XX საუკუნის ინგლისური რომანის
განვითარებაზე.
David Herbert Lawrence
David Herbert Lawrence (11 September 1885 – 2 March 1930) was an English novelist, poet,
playwright, essayist, literary critic and painter who published as D. H. Lawrence. His collected
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works represent an extended reflection upon the dehumanising effects of modernity and
industrialisation. In them, Lawrence confronts issues relating to emotional health and vitality,
spontaneity, and instinct.

Lawrence's opinions earned him many enemies and he endured official persecution,
censorship, and misrepresentation of his creative work throughout the second half of his life,
much of which he spent in a voluntary exile which he called his "savage pilgrimage." At the
time of his death, his public reputation was that of a pornographer who had wasted his
considerable talents. E. M. Forster, in an obituary notice, challenged this widely held view,
describing him as, "The greatest imaginative novelist of our generation." Later, the influential
Cambridge critic F. R. Leavis championed both his artistic integrity and his moral seriousness,
placing much of Lawrence's fiction within the canonical "great tradition" of the English novel.
Lawrence is now valued by many as a visionary thinker and significant representative of
modernism in English literature.
Lawrence is perhaps best known for his novels Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow, Women in
Love and Lady Chatterley's Lover. Within these Lawrence explores the possibilities for life
and living within an industrial setting. In particular Lawrence is concerned with the nature of
relationships that can be had within such settings. Though often classed as a realist, Lawrence's
use of his characters can be better understood with reference to his philosophy. His depiction

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of sexual activity, though shocking at the time, has its roots in this highly personal way of
thinking and being. It is worth noting that Lawrence was very interested in human touch
behaviour (see Haptics) and that his interest in physical intimacy has its roots in a desire to
restore our emphasis on the body, and re-balance it with what he perceived to be western
civilisation's slow process of over-emphasis on the mind. In his later years Lawrence developed
the potentialities of the short novel form in St Mawr, The Virgin and the Gypsy and The
Escaped Cock.
Short stories
Lawrence's best-known short stories include The Captain's Doll, The Fox, The Ladybird,
Odour of Chrysanthemums, The Princess, The Rocking-Horse Winner, St Mawr, The Virgin
and the Gypsy and The Woman who Rode Away. (The Virgin and the Gypsy was published
as a novella after he died.) Among his most praised collections is The Prussian Officer and
Other Stories, published in 1914. His collection The Woman Who Rode Away and Other
Stories, published in 1928, develops his themes of leadership that he also explored in novels
such as Kangaroo, The Plumed Serpent and Fanny and Annie.
Lawrence's criticism of other authors often provides great insight into his own thinking and
writing. Of particular note is his Study of Thomas Hardy and Other Essays and Studies in
Classic American Literature. In the latter, Lawrence's responses to Whitman, Melville and
Edgar Allan Poe shed particular light on the nature of Lawrence's craft.
The Rainbow is a 1915 novel by British author D. H. Lawrence. It follows three generations of
the Brangwen family living in Nottinghamshire, particularly focusing on the individual's
struggle to growth and fulfillment within the confining strictures of English social life.
The Rainbow tells the story of three generations of the Brangwen family, a farm/ labouring
dynasty who live in the East Midlands of England near Nottingham. The book spans a period
of roughly 65 years from the 1840s to 1905, and shows how the love relationships of the
Brangwens change against the backdrop of the increasing industrialisation of Britain. The first
central character, Tom Brangwen, is a labourer whose experience of the world does not stretch
beyond Nottinghamshire; while the last, Ursula, his granddaughter, studies at University and
becomes a teacher in the progressively urbanised, capitalist and industrial world that would
become our modern experience.

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The book starts with a description of the Brangwen dynasty, then deals with how Tom
Brangwen, one of several brothers, fell in love with a Polish refugee, Lydia. The next part of
the book deals with Lydia's daughter by her first husband, Anna, and her destructive, battle-
riven relationship with her husband, Will, the son of one of Tom's brothers. The last and most
extended part of the book, and also probably the most famous, then deals with Will and Anna's
daughter, Ursula, and her struggle to find fulfilment for her passionate, spiritual and sensual
nature against the confines of the increasingly materialist and conformist society around her.
She experiences a lesbian relationship with a teacher, and a passionate but ultimately doomed
love affair with Anton Skrebensky, a British soldier of Polish ancestry. At the end of the book,
having failed to find her fulfilment in Skrebensky, she has a vision of a rainbow towering over
the Earth, promising a new dawn for humanity:
"She saw in the rainbow the earth's new architecture, the old, brittle corruption of houses and
factories swept away, the world built up in a living fabric of Truth, fitting to the over-arching
heaven."
Lawrence's frank treatment of sexual desire and the power it plays within relationships as a
natural and even spiritual force of life, though perhaps tame by modern standards, caused The
Rainbow to be prosecuted in an obscenity trial in late 1915, as a result of which all copies were
seized and burnt. After this ban it was unavailable in Britain for 11 years, although editions
were available in the USA.
The Rainbow was followed by a sequel in 1920, Women in Love. Although Lawrence
conceived of the two novels as one, considering the titles The Sisters and The Wedding Ring

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for the work, they were published as two separate novels at the urging of his publisher.
However, after the negative public reception of The Rainbow, Lawrence's publisher opted out
of publishing the sequel.
Ursula's spiritual and emotional quest continues in Women in Love, in which she continues
to be a main character. This second work follows her into a relationship with Rupert Birkin
(often seen as a self-portrait by Lawrence), and follows her sister, Gudrun's parallel
relationship with Birkin's friend, Gerald Crich.

მოდერნისტული პოეზია. ტ. ს. ელიოტის შემოქმედება

ტომას სტერნზ ელიოტი (1888-1965) დაიბადა სენტ ლუისში (მისუერის შტატი,

აშშ), მაგრამ სიცოცხლის ემეტესი პერიოდი ინგლისში ცხოვრობდა, სადაც 1927 წელს
ანგლიკანურ ეკლესიას შეუერთდა და ბრიტანეთის მოქალაქე გახდა. იგი იყო პოეტი,
დრამატურგი და ლიტერატურის კრიტიკოსი. გამორჩეული მოღვაწეობისათვის 1948
წელს მიიღო ნობელის პრემია ლიტერატურაში. თავის ეროვნულობაზე და
ეროვნულობის როლზე მის შემოქმედებაში, ელიოტი ასე წერს: „My poetry wouldn’t be
what it is if I’d been born in England, and it wouldn’t be what it is if I’d stayed in America. It’s
a combination of things. But in its sources, in its emotional springs, it comes from America”.
[“ჩემი პოეზია არ იქნებოდა ის რაც არის, ინგლისში რომ დავბადებულიყავი, და არ
იქნებოდა ის რაც არის ამერიკაში რომ დავრჩენილიყავი. ეს გარემოებათა კომბინაციაა.
ხოლო მისი სათავე და ემოციური ნაკადული მაინც ამერიკაშია.“

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 თამარ სირაძე
1906 წელს ელიოტი ჰარვარდის უნივერსიტეტის სტუდენტი გახდა, სადაც ირვინგ
ბებიტის ანტი-რომანტიზმის და ჯორჯ სანტაიანას ფილოსოფიური და კრიტიკული
ინტერესების გავლენის ქვეშ მოექცა. მასზე ასევე დიდი ზეგავლენა მოახდინა
ჰარვარდის იმდროინდელ წრეებში არსებულმა ენთუზიაზმმა და ინტერესმა
ელისაბედური და იაკობინური ლიტერატურის, იტალიური რენესანსის და ინდური
მისტიკური ფილოსოფიის მიმართ. ელიოტის ფილოსოფიური კურსი მოიცავდა
ინგლისელი იდეალისტი ფილოსოფოსის, ფ. ჰ. ბრედლის, ინტენსიურ კვლევას.
სწორედ ამ ფილოსოფოსის შესახებ დაწერა ელიოტმა ჰარვარდის დისერტაცია.
ბრედლის თვალსაზრისმა ინდივიდუალური გამოცდილების კერძო ბუნების
თაობაზე - “a circle enclosed on the outside” – „გარედან შემოსაზღვრული წრე“ - დიდი
გავლენა მოახდინა ტ. ს. ელიოტის პოეზიის ხატოვანებაზე და მის თვალსაზრისზე
ინდივიდსა და სხვა ინდივიდებს შორის ურთიერთობის შესახებ, რაც ასე ხშირადაა
ასახული მის პოეზიაში. მოგვიანებით ელიოტმა ლიტერატურა და ფილოსოფია
შეისწავლა საფრანგეთსა და გერმანიაში, სანამ 1914 წელს, პირველი მსოფლიო ომის
გარიჟრაჟზე, ინგლისში არ გაემგზავრა. იქ მან ბერძნული ფილოსოფია შეისწავლა
ოქსფორდის უნივერსიტეტში, ასწავლიდა სკოლაში ლონდონში, ხოლო 1925 წლამდე
ლოიდის ბანკში მუშაობდა გარკვეულ თანამდებობაზე. 1925 წლიდან კი იგი ფაბერ
და ფაბერის საგამომცემლო კომპანიას შეუერთდა, რომლის დირექტორიც გახდა 1929
წლიდან.
ელიოტმა ლიტერატურული და ფილოსოფიური რეცენზიების წერა ლონდონში
დამკვიდრებიდან მალევე დაიწყო. იგი წერდა სხვადასხვა პერიოდული
გამოცემებისათვის, მათ შორის Athenaeum, Egoist და Times Literry Supplement. 1922 მან
დააარსა გავლენიანი კვარტალური ჟურნალი The Criterion, რომლის რედაქტორიც იყო
1939 წლამდე, ანუ ჟურნალის დახურვამდე.
ტ. ს. ელიოტის მნიშვნელოვან ნაწარმოებთა შორის გამოირჩევიან: „The Love
Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” (“ჯ. ალფრედ პრუფროკის სასიყვარულო სიმღერა“), “The
Waste Land” („უნაყოფო მიწა“), “The Hollow Men” („ფუტურო ადამიანები“, Ash
Wednesday” („ფერფლის ოთხშაბათი“), “Four Quartets” („ოთხი კვარტეტი“); პიესები
“The Murder in the Cathedral” („მკვლელობა ტაძარში“), “The Cocktail Party”
(„კოქტეილის წვეულება“); კრიტიკული ნაშრომები “The Sacred Wood” („წმინდა ხე“),
“Tradition and the Individual Talent” „ტრადიცია და ინდივიდუალური ნიჭი“).
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 თამარ სირაძე
“Our civilization comprehends great variety and complexity, and this variety and complexity,
playing upon a refined sensibility, must produce various and complex results. The poet must
become more and more comprehensive, more allusive, more indirect, in order to force, to
dislocate if necessary, language into his meaning”. ეს შეხედულება, გადმოცემული
ელიოტის ესეში „მეტაფიზიკოსი პოეტები“ (1921) გვაძლევს მისი პოეტური
მეთოდისერთ-ერთ გასაღებს „პრუფროკიდან“ დაწყებული „უნაყოფო მიწის“
ჩათვლით. ელიოტის ლონდონში დამკვიდრების პერიოდში ინგლისური პოეზიის
წამყვან და ყველაზე აქტიურ ნაწილს რომანტიკული ტრადიციის გამტარებელი
ჯორჯიანელი პოეტები იყვნენ. ელიოტის აზრით, მათი მშვიდად მედიტაციური
პასტორალიზმი, გახუნებული ეგზოტიურობა, ურბანული ცხოვრების რეალისტური
აღწერილობა, ელიოტის აზრით, დრომოჭმული და გაცვეთილი პოეტური მეთოდის
გამოყენების შედეგი იყო, რომელსაც არავითარი ვერბალური აღტაცებულობა ან
ორიგინალური ოსტატობა არ ახლდა თან. ელიოტი ცდილობდა პოეზია უფრო
სათუთი გაეხადა, უფრო სუგესტიური და სააზროვნო, და ამავე დროს უფრო ზუსტი
და ლაკონური. იმაჟისტებისაგან მან ნათელი და ზუსტი ხატების/იმიჯების
აუცილებლობა ისწავლა. მან ასევე შეისწავლა ტ. ე. ჰიულმისა და ეზრა პაუნდისაგან -
მისი მხარდამჭერისა და მრჩეველისაგან - რომანტიკული სინაზის და სიფაქიზის შიში,
ხოლო მნიშვნელოვან ფაქტორად თვლიდა არა პოეტის პიროვნულობას არამედ
პოეტურ მეთოდსა და საშუალებებს. ამავე დროს, ელიოტისათის საკმარისი არ იყო
ჰიულმის მიერ შემოთავაზებული „მშრალი და უხეში“ ხატები და სახეები; მას სურდა
გონებამახვილობა, ალუზიურობა, ირონია. მან მეტაფიზიკოს პოეტებში იხილა
სწორედ, თუ როგორ გაეერთიანებინა გონება და ვნება, ხოლო ფრანგ სიმბოლისტებში
აღმოაჩინა, თუ როგორ შეიძლება იმიჯი/ხატი იყოს აბსოლუტურად ზუსტად
გამომხატველი იმისა, რასაც ფიზიკურად განსაზღვრავს, და იმავდროულად
უსასრულოდ მრავლისმთქმელი მისი სხვა ხატებტან ურთიერთმიმართების გამო.
ელიოტზე დიდი გავლენა მოახდინა მე-19 საუკუნის დასასრულს მოღვაწე პოეტის,
ჟიულ ლაფორჟის, მიერ გამოყენებულმა სიზუსტის, სიმბოლური სუგესტიურობისა და
ირონიული დაცინვის კომბინირებამ. ელიოტზე ასევე სხვა ფრანგმა პოეტებმაც
მოახდინეს ზეგავლენა: თეოფილ გოტიე, შარლ ბოდლერი, პოლ ვერლენი, არტურ
რემბო და სტეფან მალარმე.

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ტ. ე. ჰიულმის პროტესტი პოეზიის რომანტიკული კონცეფციის წინააღმდეგ კარგად
მოერგო იმას, რაც ელიოტმა ირვინგ ბებიტისაგან ისწავლა ჰარვარდში. მაგრამ
მიუხედავად მისი ასეთი სიმკაცრისა და დაუნდობლობისა რომანტიკოსების (მათ
შორის პერსი ბიში შელის) მიმართ, მის მიერ კლასიკური თვალთახედვის
გააზრებული განვითარებისა, წესრიგის და დისციპლინის მოთხოვნის წინა პლანზე
წამოწევისა უფრო, ვიდრე ხელოვნებაში პოეტის თვით-გამოხატვის აუცილებლობისა,
მაინც არის ელიოტის პოეტურ გენიაში რაღაც რომანტიკული. სიმბოლისტების
ზეგავლენა მის ხატოვანებაზე, მისი ინტერესი სუგესტიურობისა და გონებითი
წარმოსახვის მიმართ, მისი შემდეგი სახის სტროფები, მაგალითად:
And fiddled whisper music on those strings
And bats with baby faces in the violet light
Whistled, and beat their wings . . .
ან კიდევ ისეთი განმეორებადი ხატები, როგორიცაა ჰიაცინტებიანი გოგონა და
ვარდების ბაღი - ყველაფერი ეს მიგვითითებს იმისკენ, რასაც შეგვიძლია ვუწოდოთ
რომანტიკული ელემენტი პოეზიაში. თუმცა, ელიოტთან ეს შეერთებულია ირონიულ
მინიშნებებთან/ალუზიებთან, გონებამახვილობასთან და კოლოკვიალურ
ელემენტთან, რასაც ჩვეულებრივ ვერ ვხვდებით რომანტიკული ტრადიციის
მატარებელ პოეტებთან.
ელიოტის ნამდვილი ნოვატორობა - და დიდი ვნებათაღელვის საბაბი მისი
ლექსების პირველივე გამოჩენისთანავე - იყო მის მიერ მაკავშირებელი და
გრდამავალი პასაჟების განზრახ, მიზანმიმართულად განდევნა და მნიშვნელობის
მთელი მოდელის აგება სახეების შეპირისპირებაზე, რასაც არ ახლავს ელემენტარული
ახსნაც კი, თუ რა ხდება სინამდვილეში. ამას თან ერთვის ერთი შეხედვით ბუნდოვანი
და გაურკვეველი მინიშნებები სხვა ავტორების ნაწარმოებებიდან, რაც შესაძლოა
სრულიად გაუგებარი აღმოჩნდეს მკითხველისათვის. ასე მაგალითად, „პრუფროკი“
წარმოადგენს სიმბოლურ პეიზაჟს, სადაც მნიშვნელობა ჩნდება სახეების და იმიჯების
ორმხრივი ურთიერთმიმართების საფუძველზე, ხოლო ამ მნიშვნელობას ზრდის
გამოძახილები, ხშირ შემთხვევაში ირონიული, ჰესიოდეს, დანტეს და შქსპირის
ნაწარმოებებიდან. „უნაყოფო მიწა“ სცენებისა და სახეების მთელ სერიებს
წარმოგვიდგენს ისე, რომ ვერსად ვხვდებით ავტორისეულ რემარკებს იმის შესახებ,
თუ სად ვართ და რას ვაკეთებთ, მხოლოდ სახეცვლილი ციტირებები თუ გვეხმარება
25
 თამარ სირაძე
სხვა ნაწარმოებებიდან, რომ მნიშვნელობებს ჩავწვდეთ. გარდა ამისა, ხშირად ეს
ციტირებული ნაწარმოებები სულაც არ არის ცნობილი დასავლური ლიტერატურული
ტრადიციის ნიმუშები: დანტესა და შექსპირის გარდა აქ შეიძლება სოკრატემდელი
ფილოსოფოსები აღმოვაჩინოთ, მე-17 საუკუნის მეორეხარისხოვანი (დ, რა თქმა უნდა,
მთავარიც) პოეტები და დრამატურგები, ნაშრომები შესრულებული
ანთროპოლოგიაში, ისტორიადსა და ფილოსოფიაში და პოეტის კერძო
შთაბეჭდილებებიდან გამოხმობილი მინიშნებები.
ელიოტის ადრეული პოეზია, დაწერილი დაახლოებით 1920-იან წლებამდე,
მეტნაკლებად „უნაყოფო მიწის“ ირგვლივ ტრიალებს - ყველა პოეტური ნიმუში
ძირითადად თანამედროვე დასავლური სამყაროს კულტურული დაღმასვლის
ასპექტებს შეეხება. ანგლიკანური ქრისტიანობის ოფიციალურად მიღების შემდეგ,
ელიოტის ბევრ ლექსში სინანულის გამომხატველი, პენიტენციალური ტონალობა
შეინიშნება. ავტორი სულიერ სიმშვიდეს ეძიებს. აქ ხშირია ალუზიები ბიბლიიდან,
ლოიტურგიული და მისტიკური რელიგიური ლიტერატურიდან, და დანტე
ალიგიერიდან.

ტ. ს. ელიოტი ქრისტიანულ ეპიფანიის ბიბლიურ სიუჟეტს იყენებს თავის ცნობილ

ლექსში „მოგვების მოგზაურობა“ – „Journey of the Magi”, რათა აღწეროს საკუთარი
სულიერი მდგომარეობა ანგლიკანური ეკლესიის წევრად გახდომის შემდეგ. ეს ლექსი
დაიწერა 1927 წელს, იმ წელს, როდესაც თ. ს. ელიოტი კათოლიკურ-პაპისტურ
სარწმუნოებას განუდგა და ანგლიკანური ეკლესიის წევრი გახდა. ლექსი თავისთავად
საინტერესოა ეპიფანიური თვალსაზრისით, რადგან სათაურიდანვე სჩანს მოგვებთან
დაკავშირებული სიუჟეტი. ლექსი შეიცავს როგორც პირდაპირი გაგებით ეპიფანიას,

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რომელიც შობასთან დაკავშირებულ საეკლესიო დღესასწაულს აღნიშნავს, ისე
ეპიფანიას, როგორც ლიტერატურულ ხერხს, რომელშიც ტრადიციული
მოდერნისტული ეპიფანია რელიგიური ეპიფანიით იცვლება. აქ აუცილებელია ხაზი
გავუსვათ იმ გარემოებას, რომ ელიოტის მიზანი არ იყო ეპიფანიის, როგორც
რელიგიური დღესასწაულის აღწერა. მის მთავარ სათქმელს სულ სხვა რამ
წარმოადგენს. ავტორი მოგვების სტუმრობას და მათ მიერ მიღებულ წარუშლელ,
მაგრამ ჯერ გაუთვითცნობიერებელ შთაბეჭდილებას, დანახულს ყრმა იესოს ღვთიურ
მანიფესტაციაში, იყენებს საკუთარი სულიერი მდგომარეობის გადმოსაცემად.
მოგვებისათის ადვილი არ იყო უცხო მიწაზე მოგზაურობა. ისინი ძლივს მიიკვლევენ
გზას თოვლში და ყინვაში, დაცარიელებულ ან მთრულად განწყობილ ქალაქებში, და
მუდამ ენატრებათ ტკბილი და უზრუნველი ცხოვრება სამშობლოში:
There were times that we regretted
The summer palaces on slopes, the terraces,
And the silken girls bringing sherbet.
ასევე რთულია მათთვის შეეგუონ იმ ახალ ჭეშმარიტებას, რომლის მოწმენიც
გახდნენ, და რაც მთელ ქვეყანას უნდა აუწყონ, მათ იციან, რომ რაღაც ახალი შეიმეცნეს,
მაგრამ ავტორი გვეუბნება, რომ სამშობლოში დაბრუნებულებს გაუჭირდათ ძველ
ცხოვრებას დაბრუნებოდნენ:
We returned to our palces, these Kingdoms,
But no longer at ease here, in the old dispensation,
With an alien people clutching their gods.
I should be glad of another death.
ჩვენ არ ვიცით, რამდენად რეალურია ის ისტორია, რაზეც ელიოტი
გვესაუბრება. ეს მხატვრული ნაწარმოებია და არც აქვს პრეტენზია, რომ სახარებისეულ
ამბავს ზედმიწევნითი სიზუსტით გადმოსცემს. ლექსში გადმოცემული ამბავი პოეტის
შემოქმედების და წარმოსახვის ნაყოფია, სადაც ბიბლიური ფაბულა მხოლოდ საბაბია
ავტორიეული ინფორმაციის გადმოსაცემად. ჩვენთვის ადვილია მივხვდეთ, თუ
როგორ უჭირდა ელიოტს ახალ სამყაროსთან შეგუება, და რამდენად ბევრს ფიქრობდა
გადამწყვეტი ნაბიჯის გადადგმამდე და გადადგმის შემდეგ.
ლექსში გამოყენებული ბიბლიური ალუზიები ადვილად საცნობს ხდის
ეპიფანიურ მომენტებს. ამის საილუსტრაციოდ რამოდენიმე მაგალითს მოვიყვანთ.
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ლექსში უკვე მოხუცებული ერთ-ერთი მოგვი მოგვითხრობს, თუ რას ხედავდნენ
ისინი გზადაგზა მოგზაურობისას, განსაკუთრებით მაშინ, როცა უკვე ისრაელის
ტერიტორიაზე შევიდნენ. ისინი ცის ფონზე რატომღაც სამ ხეს დაინახავენ -
მკითხველში მაშინვე ჯვარცმის ეპიფანიამ უნდა გაიელვოს. ან კიდევ კამათლებით
წილის ყრა ტავერნაში და ვერცხლის ფულებზე თამაში:
Then at dawn we came down to a temperate valley,
Wet, below the snow line, smelling of vegetation;
With a running stream and a water-mill beating the darkness,
And three trees on the low sky,
And an old white horse galloped away in the meadow.
Then we came to a taversn with vine leaves over the lintel,
Six hands at an open door dicing for pieces of silver,
And feet kicking the empty wine-skins.
აღსანიშნავია, რომ ლექსის „მოგვთა მოგზაურობა“ განსაკუთრებით ამომწურავ
შეფასებას გვაძლევს კრიტიკოსი თემურ კობახიძე თავის სტატიაში „მოგვთა
მოგზაურობა საკრალურ დროში“. სტატიაში ნათლადაა ასახული ავტორის მიზანი -
სახარებისეული ტექსტი ლიტერატურული ეფექტის შესაქმნელად გამოიყენოს და არა
თეოლოგიური სიზუსტის გადმოსაცემად: „როდესაც სახარების ტრადიციულ
სიუჟეტზე ახალი, ორიგინალური განცდითი შინაარსის პოეტური ტილო იქმნება,
როგორც წესი, მნიშვნელობა არა აქვს ხოლმე სიუჟეტურ დეტალთა დაცვას, ან
სახარების ტექსტთან მათ ზუსტ თანხვედრას. ჩვეულებრივ, ასეთი დამთხვევა
ჩანაფიქრშივე გამოირიცხება, რადგანაც საერო პოეზია არც ლიტურგიის ტექსტი და
არც ხატწერა არ არის. ის არც უნდა მისდევდეს სიტყვასიტყვით საღმრთო წერილს,
ან საეკლესიო კანონს. მითუმეტეს, რომ სწორედ დამკვიდრებული კანონიდან
გადახვევაში ჩანს ხოლმე ავტორის შემოქმედებითი კრედო და მისი სათქმელის არსი“
(კობახიძე 2010:27).
კრიტიკოსი საინტერესოდ აკავშირებს ლექსში გადმოცემული პირქუში კლიმატის
შეუსაბამობას აღმოსავლეთის რეალურ კლიმატთან, რომელიც, ლექსში მოწოდებული
სუსხისა და სიცივის საპირისპიროდ, საკმაოდ რბილი და ასატანია. სინამდვილეში,
შობის ელიოტისეული აღქმა ამ მოვლენისადმი შრდილოური დამოკიდებულების
გამოვლინებაა, რითაც კიდევ ერთხელ ესმევა ხაზი ლექსის არა ზოგად სახარებისეულ
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არამედ კერძო გამოცდილებისეულ ხასიათს: „ცხადია, ზამთარი არც სპარსეთ-
მესოპოტამიის გეოგრაფიულ არეალში, არც არაბეთში და არც ისრაელში არასოდეს არ
ყოფილა ცივი, ან თოვლიანი და ის, რომ შობა მაინცდამაინც სიცივესთან და
თოვლთან არის ასოცირებული, არა საერთო-ქრისტიანული, არამედ ჩრდილოურ
საშობაო ესთეტიკაში ჩამოყალიბებული ზოგადკულტურული ხატია. მას ვხვდებით,
მაგალითად, პიტერ ბროიგელის ტილოებში, სადაც მოგვთა თაყვანისცემა
იმჟამინდელი ნიდერლანდების ზამთრის პეიზაჟის ფონზეა წარმოსახული და სადაც
ქრისტესშობისას, “ბიბლიურ” ბეთლემს უხვად ათოვს. დიდთოვლობაა ბროიგელის
“ყრმათა ჟლეტაშიც”, რაც იმას მეტყველებს, რომ დიდ ჰოლანდიელს და მასთან
ერთად ბევრ სხვა ჩრდილოელ ფერმწერს შობასთან დაკავშირებული სიუჟეტები
თოვლისა და სიცივის გარეშე ვერ წარმოედგინათ. საზოგადოდ, ჩრდილოურ
რელიგიურ ტრადიციაში სულიერი სიცივე და თოვლი ისევე წინ უძღვის ქრისტეს
შობას, როგორც სამხრეთულში – მზისა და სიცხისგან გადამწვარი, ძველი აღთქმის
სულიერი უდაბნო“ (კობახიძე 2010:30).

ასევე კარგადაა გადმოცემული ლექსის რელიგიური ქვეტექსტები, რომლის

მეშვეობითაც კრიტიკოსი ეპიფანიებისა და ჰიეროფანიების საინტერესო მაგალითებს
გვაწვდის. ეს მიგნებები ზუსტად გვიხსნის ავტორის ჩანაფიქრის არსს: „ზერელე
მკითხველმა ყველა ამ სახეში შესაძლოა არც აღიქვას (ან “ვერ გამოიცნოს”) რელიგიური
ქვეტექსტი, მაგრამ არსებითად, ლექსში ოსტატურად არის გამოყენებული ის, რასაც
მოგვიანებით მირჩე ელიადე ჰიეროფანიას – ყოველდღიურ, ”პროფანულ” საგნებსა და
მოვლენებში “საკრალური რეალობის მანიფესტაციას” უწოდებს. იმ განსხვავებით, რომ
ელიოტის “ჰიეროფანიები” საგნის აბსტრაქტულ საკრალიზაციას კი არ გულისხმობს,
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არამედ ასოციაციურად (ცხადია, თუ ეს ასოციაცია გაცნობიერდა მკითხველის მიერ),
კონკრეტულ ბიბლიურ და სახარებისეულ სიუჟეტურ დეტალებს უკავშირდება.
მაგალითისათვის, ტავერნის კარი მკითხველმა შეიძლება ჩვეულებრივ კარად აღიქვას
და არა მაცხოვრის სიმბოლოდ, თუ ის არ გაიაზრებს მას, როგორც სახარების
რემინისცენციას (“მე ვარ კარი. ჩემ მიერ თუ ვინმე შევიდეს, ცხონდეს” (იოანე 10:9)).
ზუსტად ასევე, გზის, ან მოგვთა მაძიებლობის მითოლოგემა შეიძლება აღქმულ იქნას,
როგორც ჩვეულებრივი გზა, ანუ გეოგრაფიულ სივრცეში ფიზიკური გადაადგილება.
დაახლოებით, ეს იგივეა, რომ “უძღები ძის დაბრუნების” მხილველმა რემბრანდტის
ტილოში მხოლოდ გზააბნეული ჭაბუკის შინ დაბრუნება დაინახოს და ვერ აღიქვას ის
დაცემის ქვესკნელიდან ღაღადისი და ის სულის ამაღლება ღმერთთან, რაც ამ
ნაწარმოების კონცეპტუალურ საფუძველის შეადგენს“ (კობახიძე 2010:34).

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Henry Graham Greene

Henry Graham Greene, OM, CH, (2 October 1904 – 3 April 1991) was an English writer,
playwright and literary critic. His works explore the ambivalent moral and political issues of the
modern world. Greene was noted for his ability to combine serious literary acclaim with
widespread popularity.
Although Greene objected strongly to being described as a Roman Catholic novelist rather
than as a novelist who happened to be Catholic, Catholic religious themes are at the root of much
of his writing, especially the four major Catholic novels: Brighton Rock, The Power and the Glory,
The Heart of the Matter and The End of the Affair. Several works such as The Confidential Agent,
The Third Man, The Quiet American, Our Man in Havana and The Human Factor also show an
avid interest in the workings of international politics and espionage.

Greene suffered from bipolar disorder, which had a profound effect on his writing and personal
life. In a letter to his wife Vivien, he told her that he had "a character profoundly antagonistic to
ordinary domestic life", and that "unfortunately, the disease is also one's material". William
Golding described Greene as "the ultimate chronicler of twentieth-century man's consciousness
and anxiety." Greene never received the Nobel Prize in Literature, though he finished runner-up
to Ivo Andrić in 1961.
After graduating with a second-class degree in History, Greene worked for a period of time as
a private tutor and then turned to journalism – first on the Nottingham Journal, and then as a sub-
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editor on The Times. While in Nottingham, he started corresponding with Vivien Dayrell-
Browning, a Catholic convert, who had written to him to correct him on a point of Catholic
doctrine. Greene was an agnostic at the time, but when he began to think about marrying Vivien,
it occurred to him that, as he puts it in A Sort of Life, he "ought at least to learn the nature and
limits of the beliefs she held". In his discussions with the priest to whom he went for instruction,
he argued "on the ground of dogmatic atheism", as his primary difficulty was what he termed the
"if" surrounding God's existence. However, he found that "after a few weeks of serious argument
the 'if' was becoming less and less improbable". Greene converted to Catholicism in 1926 (described
in A Sort of Life) when he was baptised in February of that year. He married Vivien in 1927; and
they had two children, Lucy Caroline (b. 1933) and Francis (b. 1936). In 1948, Greene separated
amicably from Vivien. Although he had other relationships (Dorothy Glover, Catherine Walston
among them), he never divorced or remarried.
Greene's first published novel was The Man Within (1929). Favourable reception emboldened
him to quit his sub-editor job at The Times and work as a full-time novelist. The next two books,
The Name of Action (1930) and Rumour at Nightfall (1932), were unsuccessful; and he later
disowned them. His first true success was Stamboul Train (1932) which was taken on by the Book
Society and adapted as the film Orient Express (1934).
He supplemented his novelist's income with freelance journalism, book and film reviews for
The Spectator, and co-editing the magazine Night and Day, which folded in 1937. Greene's film
review of Wee Willie Winkie, featuring nine-year-old Shirley Temple, cost the magazine a lost
libel lawsuit. Greene's review stated that Temple displayed "a dubious coquetry" which appealed
to "middle-aged men and clergymen". It is now considered one of the first criticisms of the
sexualisation of children for entertainment.
Greene originally divided his fiction into two genres: thrillers (mystery and suspense books),
such as The Ministry of Fear, which he described as entertainments, often with notable philosophic
edges; and literary works, such as The Power and the Glory, which he described as novels, on
which he thought his literary reputation was to be based.
As his career lengthened, both Greene and his readers found the distinction between
entertainments and novels increasingly problematic. The last book Greene termed as
entertainment was Our Man in Havana in 1958. When Travels with My Aunt was published eleven
years later, many reviewers noted that Greene had designated it a novel, even though, as a work
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decidedly comic in tone, it appeared closer to his last two entertainments, Loser Takes All and Our
Man in Havana, than to any of the novels. Greene, they speculated, seemed to have dropped the
category of entertainment. This was soon confirmed. In the Collected Edition of Greene's works
published in 22 volumes between 1970 and 1982, the distinction between novels and
entertainments is no longer maintained. All are novels.

Greene also wrote short stories and plays, which were well-received, although he was always
first and foremost a novelist. His first play, The Living Room, debuted in 1953. He collected the
1948 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for The Heart of the Matter. In 1986, he was awarded
Britain's Order of Merit.
Greene was one of the most "cinematic" of twentieth century writers; most of his novels and
many of his plays and short stories would eventually be adapted for film or television. The Internet
Movie Database lists 66 titles based on Greene material between 1934 and 2010. Some novels were
filmed more than once, such as Brighton Rock in 1947 and 2011, The End of the Affair in 1955 and
1999, and The Quiet American in 1958 and 2002. The early thriller A Gun for Sale was filmed at
least five times under different titles. Greene received an Academy Award nomination for the
screenplay for the 1948 Carol Reed film The Fallen Idol, adapted from his own short story The
Basement Room. He also wrote several original screenplays. In 1949, after writing the novella as

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"raw material", he wrote the screenplay for the classic film noir, The Third Man, also directed by
Carol Reed, and featuring Orson Welles. In 1983, The Honorary Consul, published ten years
earlier, was released as a film under its original title, starring Michael Caine and Richard Gere.
Author and screenwriter Michael Korda contributed a foreword and introduction to this novel in
a commemorative edition.
In 2009, The Strand Magazine began to publish in serial form a newly discovered Greene novel
entitled The Empty Chair. The manuscript was written in longhand when Greene was 22 and
newly converted to Catholicism.
The literary style of Graham Greene was described by Evelyn Waugh in Commonweal as "not
a specifically literary style at all. The words are functional, devoid of sensuous attraction, of
ancestry, and of independent life". Commenting on this lean, realistic prose and its readability,
Richard Jones wrote in the Virginia Quarterly Review that "nothing deflects Greene from the main
business of holding the reader's attention." His novels often have religious themes at the centre. In
his literary criticism he attacked the modernist writers Virginia Woolf and E. M. Forster for having
lost the religious sense which, he argued, resulted in dull, superficial characters, who "wandered
about like cardboard symbols through a world that is paper-thin". Only in recovering the religious
element, the awareness of the drama of the struggle in the soul carrying the infinite consequences
of salvation and damnation, and of the ultimate metaphysical realities of good and evil, sin and
divine grace, could the novel recover its dramatic power. Suffering and unhappiness are
omnipresent in the world Greene depicts; and Catholicism is presented against a background of
unvarying human evil, sin, and doubt. V. S. Pritchett praised Greene as the first English novelist
since Henry James to present, and grapple with, the reality of evil. Greene concentrated on
portraying the characters' internal lives – their mental, emotional, and spiritual depths. His stories
often occurred in poor, hot, and dusty tropical backwaters, such as Mexico, West Africa, Vietnam,
Cuba, Haiti, and Argentina, which led to the coining of the expression "Greeneland" to describe
such settings.
A stranger with no shortage of calling cards: devout Catholic, lifelong adulterer, pulpy hack,
canonical novelist; self-destructive, meticulously disciplined, deliriously romantic, bitterly cynical;
moral relativist, strict theologian, salon communist, closet monarchist; civilized to a stuffy fault
and louche to drugged-out distraction, anti-imperialist crusader and postcolonial parasite, self-
excoriating and self-aggrandizing, to name just a few.
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The novels often powerfully portray the Christian drama of the struggles within the individual
soul from the Catholic perspective. Greene was criticized for certain tendencies in an unorthodox
direction – in the world, sin is omnipresent to the degree that the vigilant struggle to avoid sinful
conduct is doomed to failure, hence not central to holiness. Friend and fellow Catholic Evelyn
Waugh attacked that as a revival of the Quietist heresy. This aspect of his work also was criticized
by the theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar, as giving sin a mystique. Greene responded that
constructing a vision of pure faith and goodness in the novel was beyond his talents. Praise of
Greene from an orthodox Catholic point of view by Edward Short is in Crisis Magazine, and a
mainstream Catholic critique is presented by Joseph Pearce.
Catholicism's prominence decreased in the later writings. According to Ernest Mandel in his
Delightful Murder: a Social History of the Crime Story: "Greene started out as a conservative agent
of the British intelligence services, upholding such reactionary causes as the struggle of the
Catholic Church against the Mexican revolution (The Power and the Glory, 1940), and arguing the
necessary merciful function of religion in a context of human misery (Brighton Rock, 1938; The
Heart of the Matter, 1948). The better he came to know the socio-political realities of the third
world where he was operating, and the more directly he came to be confronted by the rising tide
of revolution in those countries, the more his doubts regarding the imperialist cause grew, and the
more his novels shifted away from any identification with the latter." The supernatural realities
that haunted the earlier work declined and were replaced by a humanistic perspective, a change
reflected in his public criticism of orthodox Catholic teaching. Left-wing political critiques
assumed greater importance in his novels: for example, years before the Vietnam War, in The Quiet
American he prophetically attacked the naive and counterproductive attitudes that were to
characterise American policy in Vietnam. The tormented believers he portrayed were more likely
to have faith in communism than in Catholicism.In his later years Greene was a strong critic of
American imperialism, and supported the Cuban leader Fidel Castro, whom he had met. For
Greene and politics, see also Anthony Burgess' Politics in the Novels of Graham Greene. In Ways
of Escape, reflecting on his Mexican trip, he complained that Mexico's government was
insufficiently left-wing compared with Cuba's. In Greene's opinion, "Conservatism and
Catholicism should be .... impossible bedfellows".
Despite his seriousness, Graham Greene greatly enjoyed parody, even of himself. In 1949,
when the New Statesman held a contest for parodies of Greene's writing style, he submitted an
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entry under the pen name "N. Wilkinson" and won second prize. His entry comprised the first two
paragraphs of a novel, apparently set in Italy, The Stranger's Hand: An Entertainment. Greene's
friend, Mario Soldati, a Piedmontese novelist and film director, believed that it had the makings of
a suspense film about Yugoslav spies in postwar Venice. Upon Soldati's prompting, Greene
continued writing the story as the basis for a film script. Apparently he lost interest in the project,
leaving it as a substantial fragment that was published posthumously in The Graham Greene Film
Reader (1993) and No Man's Land (2005). The script for The Stranger's Hand was penned by
veteran screenwriter Guy Elmes on the basis of Greene's unfinished story, and cinematically
rendered by Soldati. In 1965 Greene again entered a similar New Statesman competition
pseudonymously, and won an honourable mention.
The Quiet American is an anti-war novel by English author Graham Greene, first published in
the United Kingdom in 1955 and in the United States in 1956. It was adapted into films in 1958
and 2002. The book draws on Greene's experiences as a war correspondent for The Times and Le
Figaro in French Indochina 1951–1954. He was apparently inspired to write The Quiet American
in October 1951 while driving back to Saigon from Ben Tre province. He was accompanied by an
American aid worker who lectured him about finding a “third force in Vietnam”.
Thomas Fowler is a British journalist in his fifties who has been covering the French war in
Vietnam for over two years. He meets a young American idealist named Alden Pyle, a CIA agent
working under cover. Pyle lives his life and forms his opinions based on the books written by York
Harding, who writes books on foreign policy, with no real experience in matters of Southeast Asia
at all. Harding's theory is that neither Communism nor colonialism are the answer in foreign lands
like Vietnam, but rather a "Third Force" — usually a combination of traditions — works best.
When Pyle and Fowler first meet, Pyle says he would be delighted if Fowler could help him
understand more about the country. Fowler is much older, more realistic and more cynical.

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Fowler has a live-in lover, Phuong, who is only 20 years old and was previously a dancer at
The Arc-en-Ciel (Rainbow) on Jaccareo Road, in Cholon. Her sister's intent is to arrange a marriage
for Phuong that will benefit herself and her family. The sister disapproves of their relationship, as
Fowler is already married and an atheist. So, at a dinner with Fowler and Phuong, Pyle meets her
sister, who immediately starts questioning Pyle about his viability for marriage with Phuong.
Towards the end of the dinner, Pyle dances with Phuong, and Fowler notes how poorly he dances.
Fowler goes to Phat Diem to cover a battle there. Pyle travels there to tell him that he has been
in love with Phuong since the first night he saw her, and that he wants to marry her. They make
a toast to nothing and Pyle leaves the next day. Fowler gets a letter from Pyle thanking him for
being so nice. The letter annoys Fowler because of Pyle's arrogant confidence that Phuong will
leave Fowler to marry him. Meanwhile, Fowler's editor wants him to transfer back to England.
Pyle comes to Fowler's residence and they ask Phuong to choose between them. She chooses
Fowler, unaware that he is up for a transfer. Fowler writes to his wife to ask for a divorce in front
of Phuong.
Fowler and Pyle meet again in a war zone. They end up in a tower, and their discussion topics
range from their sexual experiences to religion. As they escape, Pyle saves Fowler's life. Fowler
goes back to Saigon, where he lies to Phuong that his wife will divorce him. Pyle exposes the lie
and Phuong moves in secretly with Pyle. After receiving a letter from Fowler, his editor decides
that he can stay in Indo-China for another year. Fowler goes into the midst of the battlefield to
cover the unfolding events.

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When Fowler returns to Saigon, he goes to Pyle's office to confront him, but Pyle is out. Pyle
comes over later for drinks and they talk about his upcoming marriage to Phuong. Later that week,
a car bomb is detonated and many innocent civilians are killed from the blast. Fowler puts the
pieces together and realizes that Pyle is behind the bombing. Realising that Pyle is causing
innocent people to die, Fowler takes part in an assassination plot against him. Although the police
believe that Fowler is involved, they cannot prove anything. Phuong goes back to Fowler as if
nothing had ever happened. In the last chapter, Fowler receives a telegram from his wife in which
she states that she has changed her mind and that she will start divorce proceedings. The novel
ends with Fowler reflecting on his first meeting with Phuong, and the death of Pyle.

ბერნარდ შოს დრამატურგია

George Bernard Shaw
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) was born in Dublin, the son of a civil servant. His education
was irregular, due to his dislike of any organized training. After working in an estate agent's office
for a while he moved to London as a young man (1876), where he established himself as a leading
music and theatre critic in the eighties and nineties and became a prominent member of the Fabian
Society, for which he composed many pamphlets. He began his literary career as a novelist; as a
fervent advocate of the new theatre of Ibsen (The Quintessence of Ibsenism, 1891) he decided to
write plays in order to illustrate his criticism of the English stage. His earliest dramas were called
appropriately Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant (1898). Among these, Widower's Houses and Mrs.
Warren's Profession savagely attack social hypocrisy, while in plays such as Arms and the Man and
The Man of Destiny the criticism is less fierce. Shaw's radical rationalism, his utter disregard of
conventions, his keen dialectic interest and verbal wit often turn the stage into a forum of ideas,
and nowhere more openly than in the famous discourses on the Life Force, «Don Juan in Hell», the
third act of the dramatization of woman's love chase of man, Man and Superman (1903).
In the plays of his later period discussion sometimes drowns the drama, in Back to Methuselah
(1921), although in the same period he worked on his masterpiece Saint Joan (1923), in which he
rewrites the well-known story of the French maiden and extends it from the Middle Ages to the
present.

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Other important plays by Shaw are Caesar and Cleopatra (1901), a historical play filled with
allusions to modern times, and Androcles and the Lion (1912), in which he exercised a kind of
retrospective history and from modern movements drew deductions for the Christian era. In Major
Barbara (1905), one of Shaw's most successful «discussion» plays, the audience's attention is held
by the power of the witty argumentation that man can achieve aesthetic salvation only through
political activity, not as an individual. The Doctor's Dilemma (1906), facetiously classified as a
tragedy by Shaw, is really a comedy the humour of which is directed at the medical profession.
Candida (1898), with social attitudes toward sex relations as objects of his satire, and Pygmalion
(1912), a witty study of phonetics as well as a clever treatment of middle-class morality and class
distinction, proved some of Shaw's greatest successes on the stage. It is a combination of the
dramatic, the comic, and the social corrective that gives Shaw's comedies their special flavour.
Shaw's complete works appeared in thirty-six volumes between 1930 and 1950, the year of his
death.
George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950) was an Irish playwright and a co-
founder of the London School of Economics. Although his first profitable writing was music and
literary criticism, in which capacity he wrote many highly articulate pieces of journalism, his main
talent was for drama, and he wrote more than 60 plays. He was also an essayist, novelist and short
story writer. Nearly all his writings address prevailing social problems, but have a vein of comedy
which makes their stark themes more palatable. Issues which engaged Shaw's attention included
education, marriage, religion, government, health care, and class privilege.
He was most angered by what he perceived as the exploitation of the working class. An ardent
socialist, Shaw wrote many brochures and speeches for the Fabian Society. He became an
accomplished orator in the furtherance of its causes, which included gaining equal rights for men
and women, alleviating abuses of the working class, rescinding private ownership of productive
land, and promoting healthy lifestyles. For a short time he was active in local politics, serving on
the London County Council.
In 1898, Shaw married Charlotte Payne-Townshend, a fellow Fabian, whom he survived. They
settled in Ayot St Lawrence in a house now called Shaw's Corner. Shaw died there, aged 94, from
chronic problems exacerbated by injuries he incurred by falling from a ladder.
He is the only person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize in Literature (1925) and an
Oscar (1938), for his contributions to literature and for his work on the film Pygmalion (adaptation
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of his play of the same name), respectively. Shaw wanted to refuse his Nobel Prize outright because
he had no desire for public honours, but accepted it at his wife's behest: she considered it a tribute
to Ireland. He did reject the monetary award, requesting it be used to finance translation of fellow
playwright August Strindberg's works from Swedish to English.
Plays
Shaw began working on his first play destined for production, Widowers' Houses, in 1885 in
collaboration with critic William Archer, who supplied the structure. Archer decided that Shaw
could not write a play, so the project was abandoned. Years later, Shaw tried again and, in 1892,
completed the play without collaboration. Widowers' Houses, a scathing attack on slumlords, was
first performed at London's Royalty Theatre on 9 December 1892. Shaw would later call it one of
his worst works, but he had found his medium. His first significant financial success as a playwright
came from Richard Mansfield's American production of The Devil's Disciple (1897). He went on
to write 63 plays, most of them full-length.
Often his plays succeeded in the United States and Germany before they did in London.
Although major London productions of many of his earlier pieces were delayed for years, they are
still being performed there. Examples include Mrs. Warren's Profession (1893), Arms and the Man
(1894), Candida (1894) and You Never Can Tell (1897).

Shaw's plays, like those of Oscar Wilde, contained incisive humour, which was exceptional
among playwrights of the Victorian era; both authors are remembered for their comedy.[39]
However, Shaw's wittiness should not obscure his important role in revolutionizing British drama.
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In the Victorian Era, the London stage had been regarded as a place for frothy, sentimental
entertainment. Shaw made it a forum for considering moral, political and economic issues, possibly
his most lasting and important contribution to dramatic art. In this, he considered himself indebted
to Henrik Ibsen, who pioneered modern realistic drama, meaning drama designed to heighten
awareness of some important social issue. Significantly, Widowers' Houses — an example of the
realistic genre — was completed after William Archer, Shaw's friend, had translated some of
Ibsen's plays to English and Shaw had written The Quintessence of Ibsenism.
As Shaw's experience and popularity increased, his plays and prefaces became more voluble
about reforms he advocated, without diminishing their success as entertainments. Such works,
including Caesar and Cleopatra (1898), Man and Superman (1903), Major Barbara (1905) and The
Doctor's Dilemma (1906), display Shaw's matured views, for he was approaching 50 when he wrote
them. From 1904 to 1907, several of his plays had their London premieres in notable productions
at the Court Theatre, managed by Harley Granville-Barker and J. E. Vedrenne. The first of his new
plays to be performed at the Court Theatre, John Bull's Other Island (1904), while not especially
popular today, made his reputation in London when King Edward VII laughed so hard during a
command performance that he broke his chair.
By the 1910s, Shaw was a well-established playwright. New works such as Fanny's First Play
(1911) and Pygmalion (1912), had long runs in front of large London audiences. Shaw had
permitted a musical adaptation of Arms and the Man (1894) called The Chocolate Soldier (1908),
but he had a low opinion of German operetta. He insisted that none of his dialogue be used, and
that all the character names be changed, although the operetta actually follows Shaw's plot quite
closely, in particular preserving its anti-war message. The work proved very popular and would
have made Shaw rich had he not waived his royalties, but he detested it and for the rest of his life
forbade musicalization of his work, including a proposed Franz Lehár operetta based on Pygmalion.
Several of his plays formed the basis of musicals after his death—most famously the musical My
Fair Lady—it is officially adapted from the screenplay of the film version of Pygmalion rather than
the original stage play (keeping the film's ending), and librettist Alan Jay Lerner kept generous
chunks of Shaw's dialogue, and the characters' names, unchanged.
Shaw's outlook was changed by World War I, which he uncompromisingly opposed despite
incurring outrage from the public as well as from many friends. His first full-length piece,
presented after the War, written mostly during it, was Heartbreak House (1919). A new Shaw had
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emerged—the wit remained, but his faith in humanity had dwindled. In the preface to Heartbreak
House he said:
It is said that every people has the Government it deserves. It is more to the point that every
Government has the electorate it deserves; for the orators of the front bench can edify or
debauch an ignorant electorate at will. Thus our democracy moves in a vicious circle of
reciprocal worthiness and unworthiness.
Shaw had previously supported gradual democratic change toward socialism, but now he saw
more hope in government by benign strong men. This sometimes made him oblivious to the
dangers of dictatorships. Near his life's end that hope failed him too.
In 1921, Shaw completed Back to Methuselah, his "Metabiological Pentateuch". The massive,
five-play work starts in the Garden of Eden and ends thousands of years in the future; it showcases
Shaw's postulate that a "Life Force" directs evolution toward ultimate perfection by trial and error.
Shaw proclaimed the play a masterpiece, but many critics disagreed. The theme of a benign force
directing evolution reappears in Geneva (1938), wherein Shaw maintains humans must develop
longer lifespans in order to acquire the wisdom needed for self-government.
Methuselah was followed by Saint Joan (1923), which is generally considered to be one of his
better works. Shaw had long considered writing about Joan of Arc, and her canonization in 1920
supplied a strong incentive. The play was an international success, and is believed to have led to
his Nobel Prize in Literature. The citation praised his work as "...marked by both idealism and
humanity, its stimulating satire often being infused with a singular poetic beauty". At this time
Prime Minister David Lloyd George was considering recommending to the King Shaw's admission
to the Order of Merit, but the place was instead given to J. M. Barrie. Shaw rejected a knighthood.
It was not until 1946 that the government of the day arranged for an informal offer of the Order
of Merit to be made: Shaw declined, replying that "merit" in authorship could only be determined
by the posthumous verdict of history.
He wrote plays for the rest of his life, but very few of them are as notable—or as often
revived—as his earlier work. The Apple Cart (1929) was probably his most popular work of this
era. Later full-length plays like Too True to Be Good (1931), On the Rocks (1933), The Millionairess
(1935), and Geneva (1938) have been seen as marking a decline. His last significant play, In Good
King Charles Golden Days has, according to St. John Ervine, passages that are equal to Shaw's major
works.
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Shaw's published plays come with lengthy prefaces. These tend to be more about Shaw's
opinions on the issues addressed by the plays than about the plays themselves. Often his prefaces
are longer than the plays they introduce.

Pygmalion
Pygmalion is a play by George Bernard Shaw, named after a Greek mythological character. It
was first presented on stage to the public in 1912.
Professor of phonetics Henry Higgins makes a bet that he can train a bedraggled Cockney
flower girl, Eliza Doolittle, to pass for a duchess at an ambassador's garden party by teaching her
to assume a veneer of gentility, the most important element of which, he believes, is impeccable
speech. The play is a sharp lampoon of the rigid British class system of the day and a commentary
on women's independence.

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In ancient Greek mythology, Pygmalion fell in love with one of his sculptures, which then
came to life. The general idea of that myth was a popular subject for Victorian era English
playwrights, including one of Shaw's influences, W. S. Gilbert, who wrote a successful play based
on the story called Pygmalion and Galatea first presented in 1871. Shaw also would have been
familiar with the burlesque version, Galatea, or Pygmalion Reversed. Shaw's play has been adapted
numerous times, most notably as the musical My Fair Lady and the film of that name.

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Based on classical myth, Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion plays on the complex business of human
relationships in a social world. Phonetics Professor Henry Higgins tutors the very Cockney Eliza
Doolittle, not only in the refinement of speech, but also in the refinement of her manner. When
the end result produces a very ladylike Miss Doolittle, the lessons learned become much more far
reaching. The successful musical My Fair Lady was based on this Bernard Shaw classic.

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My Fair Lady is a 1964 musical film adaptation of the Lerner and Loewe stage musical of the
same name, based on the 1938 film adaptation of the original stage play Pygmalion by George Bernard
Shaw. Directed by George Cukor, the film depicts misogynistic and arrogant phonetics professor
Henry Higgins as he wagers that he can take flower girl Eliza Doolittle (Audrey Hepburn) and turn
her Cockney accent into a proper English one, thereby making her presentable in high society.
The film won eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actor, and Best Director.

ლექცია 1
შესავალი. ინგლისური ლიტერატურა მე-20 ს. II ნახევარში
Great Briatin in 2nd Half of 20th Century
The century saw a major shift in the way that vast numbers of people lived, as a result
of changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and
medicine. Terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage.
Scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, drastically changed
the worldview of scientists, causing them to realize that the universe was fantastically more
complex than previously believed, and dashing the strong hopes at the end of the 19th century
that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. Accelerating
scientific understanding, more efficient communications, and faster transportation
transformed the world in those hundred years more rapidly and widely than in any previous
century. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended
with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses,
Western society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced
by automobiles and buses within the span of a few decades. These developments were made
possible by the large-scale exploitation of fossil fuel resources (especially petroleum), which
offered large amounts of energy in an easily portable form, but also caused widespread
concerns about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. Humans explored outer
space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon.
Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers,
paperback books, public education, and the Internet) made the world's knowledge more
widely available. Many people's view of the world changed significantly as they became much
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 თამარ სირაძე
more aware of the struggles of others and, as such, became increasingly concerned with human
rights.[citation needed] Advancements in medical technology also improved the welfare of
many people: the global life expectancy increased from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid
technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of
destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave
humankind the means to annihilate or significantly harm itself in a very short period of time.
The world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with developments in
transportation and communications technology, popular music and other influences of
Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a true global economy by
the end of the 20th century.
 As the century began, Paris was the artistic capital of the world, where both French
and foreign writers, composers and visual artists gathered.
 Movies, music and the media had a major influence on fashion and trends in all aspects
of life. As many movies and much music originate from the United States, American
culture spread rapidly over the world.
 1952 saw the glamorous coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, an iconic figure of the
century.
 Visual culture became more dominant not only in movies but in comics and television
as well. During the century a new skilled understanding of narrativist imagery was
developed.

I and the Village by Marc Chagall, a modern painter

 Computer games and internet surfing became new and popular form of entertainment
during the last 25 years of the century.
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 In literature, science fiction, fantasy (with well-developed fictional worlds, rich in
detail), alternative history fiction gained unprecedented popularity. Detective fiction
gained unprecedented popularity between the two world wars.
 Tango was created in Argentina and became extremely popular in the rest of America
and Europe. Blues and jazz music became popularized during the 1910s and 1920s in
the United States. Blues went on to influence rock and roll in the 1950s, which only
increased in popularity with the British Invasion of the mid-to-late 1960s. Rock soon
branched into many different genres, including heavy metal, punk rock, and alternative
rock and became the dominant genre of popular music. This was challenged with the
rise of hip hop in the 1980s and 1990s. Other genres such as house, techno, reggae, and
soul all developed during the latter half of the century and went through various
periods of popularity.
 Modern Dance is born in America as a 'rebellion' against centuries-old European ballet.
Dancers and choreographers such as Isadora Duncan, Ruth St. Denis, Martha Graham,
Jose Limon, Doris Humphrey, Merce Cunningham and Paul Taylor re-defined
movement, struggling to bring it back to its 'natural' roots and along with Jazz, created
a solely American art form.
 In classical music, composition branched out into many completely new domains,
including dodecaphony, aleatoric (chance) music, and minimalism.
 Synthesizers began to be employed widely in music and crossed over into the
mainstream with new wave music in the 1980s. Electronic instruments have been
widely deployed in all manners of popular music and have led to the development of
such genres as house, synthpop, electronic dance music, and industrial.
 The art world experienced the development of new styles and explorations such as
expressionism, Dadaism, cubism, de stijl, abstract expressionism and surrealism.
 The modern art movement revolutionized art and culture and set the stage for
Modernism and its counterpart postmodern art as well as other contemporary art
practices.
 Art Nouveau began as the most advanced architecture and design but went
unfashionable after World War I. The style was very dynamic and highly inventive,

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however the depression of the Great War made it difficult to keep up such a high
standard.
 In Europe, modern architecture departed radically from the excessive decoration of the
Victorian era. Streamlined forms inspired by machines became more commonplace,
enabled by developments in building materials and technologies. Before World War II,
many European architects moved to the United States, where modern architecture
continued to develop.
 The automobile vastly increased the mobility of people in the Western countries in the
early-to-mid-century and in many other places by the end of the 20th century. City
design throughout most of the West became focused on transport via car.
 The popularity of sport increased considerably—both as an activity for all, and as
entertainment, particularly on television.
After the war most English writers chose to focus on aesthetic or social rather than
political problems; C. P. Snow was perhaps the notable exception. The novelists Henry Green,
Ivy Compton-Burnett, Joyce Cary, and Lawrence Durrell, and the poets Robert Graves, Edwin
Muir, Louis MacNeice, and Edith Sitwell tended to cultivate their own distinctive voices.
Other novelists and playwrights of the 1950s, often called the angry young men, expressed a
deep dissatisfaction with British society, combined with despair that anything could be done
about it.
While the postwar era was not a great period of English literature, it produced a variety
of excellent critics, including William Empson, Frank Kermode, and F. R. Leavis. The period
was also marked by a number of highly individual novelists, including Kingsley Amis,
Anthony Burgess, William Golding, Doris Lessing, Iris Murdoch, and Muriel Spark. Anthony
Powell and Richard Hughes continued to work in the expansive 19th-century tradition,
producing a series of realistic novels chronicling life in England during the 20th cent.
Some of the most exciting work of the period came in the theater, notably the plays of
John Osborne, Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard, David Storey, and Arnold Wesker. Among the
best postwar British authors were the Welsh poet Dylan Thomas and the Irish expatriate
novelist and playwright Samuel Beckett. Thomas's lyricism and rich imagery reaffirmed the
romantic spirit, and he was eventually appreciated for his technical mastery as well. Beckett,
who wrote many of his works in French and translated them into English, is considered the
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greatest exponent of the theater of the absurd. His uncompromisingly bleak, difficult plays
(and novels) depict the lonely, alienated human condition with compassion and humor.
Other outstanding contemporary poets include Hugh MacDiarmid, the leading figure
of the Scottish literary renaissance; Ted Hughes, whose harsh, post-apocalyptic poetry
celebrates simple survival, and Seamus Heaney, an Irish poet who is hailed for his exquisite
style. Novelists generally have found as little in the Thatcher and Major eras as in the previous
period to inspire them, but the work of Margaret Drabble, John Fowles, David Lodge stands
out, and the Scottish writer James Kelman stands out.
Angry Young Men
Angry young men, term applied to a group of English writers of the 1950s whose heroes
share certain rebellious and critical attitudes toward society. This phrase, which was originally
taken from the title of Leslie Allen Paul's autobiography, Angry Young Man (1951), became
current with the production of John Osborne's play Look Back in Anger (1956). The word
angry is probably inappropriate; dissentient or disgruntled perhaps is more accurate. The group
not only expressed discontent with the staid, hypocritical institutions of English society—the
so-called Establishment—but betrayed disillusionment with itself and with its own
achievements. Included among the angry young men were the playwrights John Osborne and
Arnold Wesker and the novelists Kingsley Amis, John Braine, John Wain, and Alan Sillitoe.
In the 1960s these writers turned to more individualized themes and were no longer
considered a group.

The "angry young men" were a group of mostly working and middle class British
playwrights and novelists who became prominent in the 1950s. The group's leading members
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included John Osborne and Kingsley Amis. The phrase was originally coined by the Royal
Court Theatre's press officer to promote John Osborne's 1956 play Look Back in Anger. It is
thought to be derived from the autobiography of Leslie Paul, founder of the Woodcraft Folk,
whose Angry Young Man was published in 1951. Following the success of the Osborne play,
the label was later applied by British media to describe young British writers who were
characterised by disillusionment with traditional English society. The term, always imprecise,
began to have less meaning over the years as the writers to whom it was originally applied
became more divergent, and many of them dismissed the label as useless.
The playwright John Osborne was the archetypal example, and his signature play Look
Back in Anger (1956) attracted attention to a style of drama contrasting strongly with the
genteel and understated works of Terence Rattigan which had been in fashion. Osborne's The
Entertainer (1957) secured his reputation, with Laurence Olivier playing the protagonist
Archie Rice. Osborne was a successful entrepreneur, starting his own film company along with
Tony Richardson. In addition to being seen as archetypal, John Osborne was claimed to be one
of the leading literary figures of the Angry Young Men 'movement'. This 'movement' was
identified after the Second World War as some British intellectuals began to question orthodox
mores. Osborne expressed his own concerns through his plays and could be relied upon to
provide controversial “angry” pronouncements, delivered with an immaturity compared to
impatient youth. Many critics ridiculed Osborne for a lack of maturity in his statements, and
fuelled a debate about his politics and those of the 'movement'. Osborne also had consistent
and often sarcastic criticism of the British Left. In 1961, he made public headlines with “Letter
to my Fellow Countrymen” that represented a “damn you, England” mentality. and protested
against Britain’s decision to join the arms race. Osbourne strongly expressed anger at what
Britain had become at that time, but also at what he felt it had failed to become.

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John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger was the monumental literary work that
influenced the concept of the Angry Young Man. Osborne wrote the play to express what it
felt like to live in England during the 1950s. The main issues that Angry Young Men had were
“impatience with the status quo, refusal to be co-opted by a bankrupt society, an instinctive
solidarity with the lower classes. Referred to as “kitchen sink realism,” literary works began to
deal with lower class themes. In the decades prior to Osborne and other authors, less attention
had been given to literature that illuminated the treatment and living circumstances
experienced by the lower classes. As the Angry Young Men movement began to articulate
these themes, the acceptance of related issues was more widespread. Osborne depicted these
issues within his play through the eyes of his protagonist, Jimmy.

Throughout the play, Jimmy was seeing “the wrong people go hungry, the wrong
people be loved, the wrong people dying”. Post world war, the quality of life in England for
lower class citizens was extremely poor; Osborne used this theme to demonstrate how the state
of Britain was guilty of neglect towards those that needed assistance the most. In the play there
are comparisons of educated people with savages, illuminating the major difference between
classes. Alison remarks on this issue while she, Jimmy and Hugh are sharing an apartment,
stating how “she felt she had been placed into a jungle”. Jimmy was represented as an
embodiment of the young, rebellious post-war generation that questioned the state and its
actions. Look Back in Anger provided some of its audience with the hope that Osborne’s work
would revitalise the British theatre and enable it to act as a “harbinger of the New Left”.
Associated writers:

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Kingsley Amis, John Arden, Stan Barstow, Edward Bond, John Braine, Michael
Hastings, Thomas Hinde, Bill Hopkins, John Osborne, Harold Pinter, Alan Sillitoe, David
Storey, Kenneth Tynan, John Wain, Keith Waterhouse, Arnold Wesker, Colin Wilson.
ლექცია 2
გრემ გრინი. უილიამ გოლდინგი
Henry Graham Greene
Henry Graham Greene, OM, CH, (2 October 1904 – 3 April 1991) was an English writer,
playwright and literary critic. His works explore the ambivalent moral and political issues of the
modern world. Greene was noted for his ability to combine serious literary acclaim with
widespread popularity.
Although Greene objected strongly to being described as a Roman Catholic novelist rather
than as a novelist who happened to be Catholic, Catholic religious themes are at the root of much
of his writing, especially the four major Catholic novels: Brighton Rock, The Power and the Glory,
The Heart of the Matter and The End of the Affair. Several works such as The Confidential Agent,
The Third Man, The Quiet American, Our Man in Havana and The Human Factor also show an
avid interest in the workings of international politics and espionage.

Greene suffered from bipolar disorder, which had a profound effect on his writing and personal
life. In a letter to his wife Vivien, he told her that he had "a character profoundly antagonistic to
ordinary domestic life", and that "unfortunately, the disease is also one's material". William
Golding described Greene as "the ultimate chronicler of twentieth-century man's consciousness

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and anxiety." Greene never received the Nobel Prize in Literature, though he finished runner-up
to Ivo Andrić in 1961.
After graduating with a second-class degree in History, Greene worked for a period of time as
a private tutor and then turned to journalism – first on the Nottingham Journal, and then as a sub-
editor on The Times. While in Nottingham, he started corresponding with Vivien Dayrell-
Browning, a Catholic convert, who had written to him to correct him on a point of Catholic
doctrine. Greene was an agnostic at the time, but when he began to think about marrying Vivien,
it occurred to him that, as he puts it in A Sort of Life, he "ought at least to learn the nature and
limits of the beliefs she held". In his discussions with the priest to whom he went for instruction,
he argued "on the ground of dogmatic atheism", as his primary difficulty was what he termed the
"if" surrounding God's existence. However, he found that "after a few weeks of serious argument
the 'if' was becoming less and less improbable". Greene converted to Catholicism in 1926 (described
in A Sort of Life) when he was baptised in February of that year. He married Vivien in 1927; and
they had two children, Lucy Caroline (b. 1933) and Francis (b. 1936). In 1948, Greene separated
amicably from Vivien. Although he had other relationships (Dorothy Glover, Catherine Walston
among them), he never divorced or remarried.
Greene's first published novel was The Man Within (1929). Favourable reception emboldened
him to quit his sub-editor job at The Times and work as a full-time novelist. The next two books,
The Name of Action (1930) and Rumour at Nightfall (1932), were unsuccessful; and he later
disowned them. His first true success was Stamboul Train (1932) which was taken on by the Book
Society and adapted as the film Orient Express (1934).
He supplemented his novelist's income with freelance journalism, book and film reviews for
The Spectator, and co-editing the magazine Night and Day, which folded in 1937. Greene's film
review of Wee Willie Winkie, featuring nine-year-old Shirley Temple, cost the magazine a lost
libel lawsuit. Greene's review stated that Temple displayed "a dubious coquetry" which appealed
to "middle-aged men and clergymen". It is now considered one of the first criticisms of the
sexualisation of children for entertainment.
Greene originally divided his fiction into two genres: thrillers (mystery and suspense books),
such as The Ministry of Fear, which he described as entertainments, often with notable philosophic
edges; and literary works, such as The Power and the Glory, which he described as novels, on
which he thought his literary reputation was to be based.
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As his career lengthened, both Greene and his readers found the distinction between
entertainments and novels increasingly problematic. The last book Greene termed as
entertainment was Our Man in Havana in 1958. When Travels with My Aunt was published eleven
years later, many reviewers noted that Greene had designated it a novel, even though, as a work
decidedly comic in tone, it appeared closer to his last two entertainments, Loser Takes All and Our
Man in Havana, than to any of the novels. Greene, they speculated, seemed to have dropped the
category of entertainment. This was soon confirmed. In the Collected Edition of Greene's works
published in 22 volumes between 1970 and 1982, the distinction between novels and
entertainments is no longer maintained. All are novels.

Greene also wrote short stories and plays, which were well-received, although he was always
first and foremost a novelist. His first play, The Living Room, debuted in 1953. He collected the
1948 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for The Heart of the Matter. In 1986, he was awarded
Britain's Order of Merit.
Greene was one of the most "cinematic" of twentieth century writers; most of his novels and
many of his plays and short stories would eventually be adapted for film or television. The Internet
Movie Database lists 66 titles based on Greene material between 1934 and 2010. Some novels were
filmed more than once, such as Brighton Rock in 1947 and 2011, The End of the Affair in 1955 and

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1999, and The Quiet American in 1958 and 2002. The early thriller A Gun for Sale was filmed at
least five times under different titles. Greene received an Academy Award nomination for the
screenplay for the 1948 Carol Reed film The Fallen Idol, adapted from his own short story The
Basement Room. He also wrote several original screenplays. In 1949, after writing the novella as
"raw material", he wrote the screenplay for the classic film noir, The Third Man, also directed by
Carol Reed, and featuring Orson Welles. In 1983, The Honorary Consul, published ten years
earlier, was released as a film under its original title, starring Michael Caine and Richard Gere.
Author and screenwriter Michael Korda contributed a foreword and introduction to this novel in
a commemorative edition.
In 2009, The Strand Magazine began to publish in serial form a newly discovered Greene novel
entitled The Empty Chair. The manuscript was written in longhand when Greene was 22 and
newly converted to Catholicism.
The literary style of Graham Greene was described by Evelyn Waugh in Commonweal as "not
a specifically literary style at all. The words are functional, devoid of sensuous attraction, of
ancestry, and of independent life". Commenting on this lean, realistic prose and its readability,
Richard Jones wrote in the Virginia Quarterly Review that "nothing deflects Greene from the main
business of holding the reader's attention." His novels often have religious themes at the centre. In
his literary criticism he attacked the modernist writers Virginia Woolf and E. M. Forster for having
lost the religious sense which, he argued, resulted in dull, superficial characters, who "wandered
about like cardboard symbols through a world that is paper-thin". Only in recovering the religious
element, the awareness of the drama of the struggle in the soul carrying the infinite consequences
of salvation and damnation, and of the ultimate metaphysical realities of good and evil, sin and
divine grace, could the novel recover its dramatic power. Suffering and unhappiness are
omnipresent in the world Greene depicts; and Catholicism is presented against a background of
unvarying human evil, sin, and doubt. V. S. Pritchett praised Greene as the first English novelist
since Henry James to present, and grapple with, the reality of evil. Greene concentrated on
portraying the characters' internal lives – their mental, emotional, and spiritual depths. His stories
often occurred in poor, hot, and dusty tropical backwaters, such as Mexico, West Africa, Vietnam,
Cuba, Haiti, and Argentina, which led to the coining of the expression "Greeneland" to describe
such settings.

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A stranger with no shortage of calling cards: devout Catholic, lifelong adulterer, pulpy hack,
canonical novelist; self-destructive, meticulously disciplined, deliriously romantic, bitterly cynical;
moral relativist, strict theologian, salon communist, closet monarchist; civilized to a stuffy fault
and louche to drugged-out distraction, anti-imperialist crusader and postcolonial parasite, self-
excoriating and self-aggrandizing, to name just a few.
The novels often powerfully portray the Christian drama of the struggles within the individual
soul from the Catholic perspective. Greene was criticized for certain tendencies in an unorthodox
direction – in the world, sin is omnipresent to the degree that the vigilant struggle to avoid sinful
conduct is doomed to failure, hence not central to holiness. Friend and fellow Catholic Evelyn
Waugh attacked that as a revival of the Quietist heresy. This aspect of his work also was criticized
by the theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar, as giving sin a mystique. Greene responded that
constructing a vision of pure faith and goodness in the novel was beyond his talents. Praise of
Greene from an orthodox Catholic point of view by Edward Short is in Crisis Magazine, and a
mainstream Catholic critique is presented by Joseph Pearce.
Catholicism's prominence decreased in the later writings. According to Ernest Mandel in his
Delightful Murder: a Social History of the Crime Story: "Greene started out as a conservative agent
of the British intelligence services, upholding such reactionary causes as the struggle of the
Catholic Church against the Mexican revolution (The Power and the Glory, 1940), and arguing the
necessary merciful function of religion in a context of human misery (Brighton Rock, 1938; The
Heart of the Matter, 1948). The better he came to know the socio-political realities of the third
world where he was operating, and the more directly he came to be confronted by the rising tide
of revolution in those countries, the more his doubts regarding the imperialist cause grew, and the
more his novels shifted away from any identification with the latter." The supernatural realities
that haunted the earlier work declined and were replaced by a humanistic perspective, a change
reflected in his public criticism of orthodox Catholic teaching. Left-wing political critiques
assumed greater importance in his novels: for example, years before the Vietnam War, in The Quiet
American he prophetically attacked the naive and counterproductive attitudes that were to
characterise American policy in Vietnam. The tormented believers he portrayed were more likely
to have faith in communism than in Catholicism.
In his later years Greene was a strong critic of American imperialism, and supported the Cuban
leader Fidel Castro, whom he had met. For Greene and politics, see also Anthony Burgess' Politics
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in the Novels of Graham Greene. In Ways of Escape, reflecting on his Mexican trip, he complained
that Mexico's government was insufficiently left-wing compared with Cuba's. In Greene's opinion,
"Conservatism and Catholicism should be .... impossible bedfellows".
Despite his seriousness, Graham Greene greatly enjoyed parody, even of himself. In 1949,
when the New Statesman held a contest for parodies of Greene's writing style, he submitted an
entry under the pen name "N. Wilkinson" and won second prize. His entry comprised the first two
paragraphs of a novel, apparently set in Italy, The Stranger's Hand: An Entertainment. Greene's
friend, Mario Soldati, a Piedmontese novelist and film director, believed that it had the makings of
a suspense film about Yugoslav spies in postwar Venice. Upon Soldati's prompting, Greene
continued writing the story as the basis for a film script. Apparently he lost interest in the project,
leaving it as a substantial fragment that was published posthumously in The Graham Greene Film
Reader (1993) and No Man's Land (2005). The script for The Stranger's Hand was penned by
veteran screenwriter Guy Elmes on the basis of Greene's unfinished story, and cinematically
rendered by Soldati. In 1965 Greene again entered a similar New Statesman competition
pseudonymously, and won an honourable mention.
The Quiet American is an anti-war novel by English author Graham Greene, first published in
the United Kingdom in 1955 and in the United States in 1956. It was adapted into films in 1958
and 2002. The book draws on Greene's experiences as a war correspondent for The Times and Le
Figaro in French Indochina 1951–1954. He was apparently inspired to write The Quiet American
in October 1951 while driving back to Saigon from Ben Tre province. He was accompanied by an
American aid worker who lectured him about finding a “third force in Vietnam”.
Thomas Fowler is a British journalist in his fifties who has been covering the French war in
Vietnam for over two years. He meets a young American idealist named Alden Pyle, a CIA agent
working under cover. Pyle lives his life and forms his opinions based on the books written by York
Harding, who writes books on foreign policy, with no real experience in matters of Southeast Asia
at all. Harding's theory is that neither Communism nor colonialism are the answer in foreign lands
like Vietnam, but rather a "Third Force" — usually a combination of traditions — works best.
When Pyle and Fowler first meet, Pyle says he would be delighted if Fowler could help him
understand more about the country. Fowler is much older, more realistic and more cynical.

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Fowler has a live-in lover, Phuong, who is only 20 years old and was previously a dancer at
The Arc-en-Ciel (Rainbow) on Jaccareo Road, in Cholon. Her sister's intent is to arrange a marriage
for Phuong that will benefit herself and her family. The sister disapproves of their relationship, as
Fowler is already married and an atheist. So, at a dinner with Fowler and Phuong, Pyle meets her
sister, who immediately starts questioning Pyle about his viability for marriage with Phuong.
Towards the end of the dinner, Pyle dances with Phuong, and Fowler notes how poorly he dances.
Fowler goes to Phat Diem to cover a battle there. Pyle travels there to tell him that he has been
in love with Phuong since the first night he saw her, and that he wants to marry her. They make
a toast to nothing and Pyle leaves the next day. Fowler gets a letter from Pyle thanking him for
being so nice. The letter annoys Fowler because of Pyle's arrogant confidence that Phuong will
leave Fowler to marry him. Meanwhile, Fowler's editor wants him to transfer back to England.
Pyle comes to Fowler's residence and they ask Phuong to choose between them. She chooses
Fowler, unaware that he is up for a transfer. Fowler writes to his wife to ask for a divorce in front
of Phuong.
Fowler and Pyle meet again in a war zone. They end up in a tower, and their discussion topics
range from their sexual experiences to religion. As they escape, Pyle saves Fowler's life. Fowler
goes back to Saigon, where he lies to Phuong that his wife will divorce him. Pyle exposes the lie
and Phuong moves in secretly with Pyle. After receiving a letter from Fowler, his editor decides

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that he can stay in Indo-China for another year. Fowler goes into the midst of the battlefield to
cover the unfolding events.
When Fowler returns to Saigon, he goes to Pyle's office to confront him, but Pyle is out. Pyle
comes over later for drinks and they talk about his upcoming marriage to Phuong. Later that week,
a car bomb is detonated and many innocent civilians are killed from the blast. Fowler puts the
pieces together and realizes that Pyle is behind the bombing. Realising that Pyle is causing
innocent people to die, Fowler takes part in an assassination plot against him. Although the police
believe that Fowler is involved, they cannot prove anything. Phuong goes back to Fowler as if
nothing had ever happened. In the last chapter, Fowler receives a telegram from his wife in which
she states that she has changed her mind and that she will start divorce proceedings. The novel
ends with Fowler reflecting on his first meeting with Phuong, and the death of Pyle.
William Golding
Sir William Gerald Golding CBE (19 September 1911 – 19 June 1993) was an English novelist,
poet, playwright and Nobel Prize in Literature laureate, best known for his novel Lord of the Flies.
He was also awarded the Booker Prize for literature in 1980 for his novel Rites of Passage, the first
book of the trilogy To the Ends of the Earth.
Golding was awarded both CBE and later elevated to a Knight Bachelor. In 2008, The Times
ranked Golding third on their list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945".
William Golding was born in his grandmother's house, 47 Mountwise, Newquay, Cornwall
and he spent many childhood holidays there. He grew up at his family home in Marlborough,
Wiltshire, where his father (Alec Golding) was a science master at Marlborough Grammar School
(1905 to retirement). Alec Golding was a socialist with a strong commitment to scientific
rationalism, and the young Golding and his elder brother Joseph attended the school where his
father taught.[6] His mother, Mildred (Curnroe), kept house at 29, The Green, Marlborough, and
supported the moderate campaigners for female suffrage. In 1930 Golding went to Oxford
University as an undergraduate at Brasenose College, where he read Natural Sciences for two years
before transferring to English Literature.

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Golding took his B.A. degree with Second Class Honours in the summer of 1934, and later that
year his first book, Poems, was published in London by Macmillan & Co, through the help of his
Oxford friend, the anthroposophist Adam Bittleston.
William Golding joined the Royal Navy in 1940. During World War II, Golding fought in the
Royal Navy (on board a destroyer) briefly involved in the pursuit and sinking of the German
battleship Bismarck. He also participated in the invasion of Normandy on D-Day, commanding a
landing ship that fired salvoes of rockets onto the beaches, and then in a naval action at Walcheren
in which 23 out of 24 assault craft were sunk. At the war's end, he returned to teaching and writing.
Soon after Golding's third novel, The Spire (1964) had been published, critical opinion was
divided, and the author hoped for a positive boost from the BBC. But the programme turned sour
with a vehement review. In retrospect, it marked the beginning of more than a decade in which
Golding underwent a profound personal and artistic crisis, drove his wife and children to the brink
of despair, and began the obsessive compilation of an extraordinary dream diary that charted his
pain. Over more than 20 years, the diary's volumes would run to thousands of pages and some two
million words. The grim and protracted aftermath of The Spire's troubled publication was all the
more poignant because, as a batch of recently discovered colour photographs demonstrates, the
1950s had seen Golding enjoying some of his happiest, most carefree years.

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In September 1953, Golding sent a manuscript to Faber & Faber of London. Initially rejected
by a reader there, the book was championed by Charles Monteith, then a new editor at the firm.
He asked for various cuts in the text and the novel was published in September 1954 as Lord of the
Flies. It was shortly followed by other novels, including The Inheritors, Pincher Martin and Free
Fall.
Publishing success made it possible for Golding to resign his teaching post at Bishop
Wordsworth's School in 1961, and he spent that academic year in the United States as writer-in-
residence at Hollins College, near Roanoke, Virginia. Having moved in 1958 from Salisbury to
nearby Bowerchalke, he met his fellow villager and walking companion James Lovelock. The two
discussed Lovelock's hypothesis that the living matter of the planet Earth functions like a single
organism, and Golding suggested naming this hypothesis after Gaia, the goddess of the earth in
Greek mythology.
In 1970, Golding was a candidate for the Chancellorship of the University of Kent at
Canterbury, but lost to the politician and leader of the Liberal Party Jo Grimond. Golding won the
James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 1979, and the Booker Prize in 1980. In 1983 he was awarded
the Nobel Prize for Literature, a choice which was, according to the Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, "an unexpected and even contentious choice, with most English critics and academics
favouring Graham Greene or Anthony Burgess". In 1988 Golding was appointed as a Knight
Bachelor.
Golding's often allegorical fiction makes broad use of allusions to classical literature,
mythology, and Christian symbolism. No distinct thread unites his novels (unless it be a
fundamental pessimism about humanity), and the subject matter and technique vary. However his
novels are often set in closed communities such as islands, villages, monasteries, groups of hunter-
gatherers, ships at sea or a pharaoh's court. His first novel, Lord of the Flies (1954) dealt with an
unsuccessful struggle against barbarism and war, thus showing the moral ambiguity and fragility
of civilization. It has also been said that it is an allegory of World War II. The Inheritors (1955)
looked back into prehistory, advancing the thesis that humankind's evolutionary ancestors, "the
new people" (generally identified with Homo sapiens sapiens), triumphed over a gentler race
(generally identified with Neanderthals) as much by violence and deceit as by natural superiority.
The Spire (1964) follows the building (and near collapse) of a huge spire onto a medieval cathedral
church (generally assumed to be Salisbury Cathedral); the church and the spire itself act as a potent
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symbols both of the dean's highest spiritual aspirations and of his worldly vanities. His 1956 novel
Pincher Martin concerns the last moments of a sailor thrown into the north Atlantic after his ship
is attacked. The structure is echoed by that of the later Booker Prize winner by Yann Martel, Life
of Pi. The 1967 novel The Pyramid comprises three separate stories linked by a common setting (a
small English town in the 1920s) and narrator. The Scorpion God (1971) is a volume of three
novellas set in a prehistoric African hunter-gatherer band ('Clonk, Clonk'), an ancient Egyptian
court ('The Scorpion God') and the court of a Roman emperor ('Envoy Extraordinary'). The last of
these is a reworking of his 1958 play The Brass Butterfly.
Golding's later novels include Darkness Visible (1979), The Paper Men (1984), and the comic-
historical sea trilogy To the Ends of the Earth, comprising the Booker Prize-winning Rites of
Passage (1980), Close Quarters (1987), and Fire Down Below (1989).
Lord of the Flies is a novel by Nobel Prize-winning English author William Golding about a
group of British boys stuck on an uninhabited island who try to govern themselves with disastrous
results. Its stances on the already controversial subjects of human nature and individual welfare
versus the common good earned it position 68 on the American Library Association’s list of the
100 most frequently challenged books of 1990–1999. In 2005 the novel was chosen by TIME
magazine as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005. It was awarded a place
on both lists of Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 41 on the editor's list, and 25
on the reader's list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 70 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.

Published in 1954, Lord of the Flies was Golding’s first novel. Although it was not a great
success at the time—selling fewer than 3,000 copies in the United States during 1955 before going
out of print—it soon went on to become a best-seller, and by the early 1960s was required reading
in many schools and colleges; the novel is currently renowned for being a popular choice of study

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for GCSE English Literature courses in the United Kingdom. It has been adapted to film twice in
English, in 1963 by Peter Brook and 1990 by Harry Hook, and once in Filipino (1976).
The book indicates that it takes place in the midst of an unspecified nuclear war. Some of the
marooned characters are ordinary students, while others arrive as a musical choir under an
established leader. Most (with the exception of the choirboys) appear never to have encountered
one another before. The book portrays their descent into savagery; left to themselves in a
paradisiacal country, far from modern civilization, the well-educated children regress to a
primitive state.
At an allegorical level, the central theme is the conflicting human impulses toward
civilization—living by rules, peacefully and in harmony—and toward the will to power. Themes
include the tension between groupthink and individuality, between rational and emotional
reactions, and between morality and immorality. How these play out, and how different people
feel the influences of these, form a major subtext of Lord of the Flies.

ლექცია 3
აირის მერდოკი. ჯონ ფაულზი
Dame Iris Murdoch (15 July 1919 – 8 February 1999) was an Irish-born British author
and philosopher, best known for her novels about good and evil, sexual relationships, morality,
and the power of the unconscious. Her first published novel, Under the Net, was selected in
1998 as one of Modern Library's 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 1987,
she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In 2008, The Times
ranked Murdoch twelfth on a list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945".

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Jean Iris Murdoch was born in Phibsborough, Dublin, Ireland, on 15 July 1919. Her
father, Wills John Hughes Murdoch, came from a mainly Presbyterian sheep farming family
from Hillhall, County Down, in Northern Ireland. Her mother, Irene Alice Richardson, who
had trained as a singer before Iris was born, was from a middle class Church of Ireland family
in Dublin. Hughes Murdoch, a civil servant, enlisted as a soldier in King Edward's Horse in
1915 and served in France during World War I before being promoted to Second lieutenant.
Iris Murdoch's parents first met in Dublin when he was on leave, and were married in 1918.
Iris was the couple's only child. When she was a few weeks old the family moved to London,
where her father had joined the Ministry of Health as a second class clerk.
She was educated in private progressive schools, entering the Froebel Demonstration
School in 1925, and attending Badminton School in Bristol as a boarder from 1932 to 1938. She
went to Somerville College, Oxford in 1938 with the intention of studying English, but
switched to Greats. At Oxford she studied philosophy with Donald M. MacKinnon and
attended Eduard Fraenkel's seminars on Agamemnon. She was awarded a First Class Honours

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degree in 1942. After leaving Oxford she went to work in London for HM Treasury. In June
1944 she left the Treasury and went to work for the UNRRA. At first she was stationed in
London at the agency's European Regional Office. In 1945 she was transferred first to Brussels,
then to Innsbruck, and finally to Graz, Austria, where she worked in a refugee camp. She left
the UNRRA in 1946.
She studied philosophy as a postgraduate at Newnham College, Cambridge, where she
met Ludwig Wittgenstein. In 1948, she became a fellow of St Anne's College, Oxford. She
received Honorary Degrees from the University of Bath (DLitt,1983), University of Cambridge
(1993) and Kingston University (1994).
She wrote her first novel, Under the Net, in 1954, having previously published essays
on philosophy, and the first monograph about Jean-Paul Sartre published in English. It was at
Oxford in 1956 that she met and married John Bayley, later to be a professor of English
literature and also a novelist. She went on to produce 25 more novels and other works of
philosophy and drama until 1995, when she began to suffer the early effects of Alzheimer's
disease, the symptoms of which she at first attributed to writer's block. She died, aged 79, in
1999, and her ashes were scattered in the garden at the Oxford Crematorium.
Her philosophical writings were influenced by Simone Weil (from whom she borrows
the concept of 'attention'), and by Plato, under whose banner she claimed to fight. In re-
animating Plato, she gives force to the reality of the Good, and to a sense of the moral life as a
pilgrimage from illusion to reality. From this perspective, Murdoch's work offers perceptive
criticism of Sartre and Wittgenstein ('early' and 'late'). Her most central parable concerns a
mother-in-law 'M' who works to see her daughter-in-law 'D' "justly or lovingly". The parable
is partly meant to show (against Oxford contemporaries including R. M. Hare and Stuart
Hampshire) the importance of the 'inner' life to moral action. Seeing another aright can
depend on overcoming jealousy, and discoveries about the world involve inner work.
Her novels, in their attention and generosity to the inner lives of individuals, follow
the tradition of novelists like Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, George Eliot, and Proust, besides showing
an abiding love of Shakespeare. There is however great variety in her achievement, and the
richly layered structure and compelling realistic comic imagination of The Black Prince (1973)
is very different from the early comic work Under The Net (1954) or The Unicorn (1963). The
Unicorn can be read as a sophisticated Gothic romance, or as a novel with Gothic trappings,
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or perhaps as a parody of the Gothic mode of writing. The Black Prince, for which Murdoch
won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize, is a study of erotic obsession, and the text becomes
more complicated, suggesting multiple interpretations, when subordinate characters
contradict the narrator and the mysterious "editor" of the book in a series of afterwords.
Though novels differ markedly, and her style developed, themes recur. Her novels often
include upper-middle-class male intellectuals caught in moral dilemmas, gay characters,
refugees, Anglo-Catholics with crises of faith, empathetic pets, curiously "knowing" children
and sometimes a powerful and almost demonic male "enchanter" who imposes his will on the
other characters—a type of man Murdoch is said to have modelled on her lover, the Nobel
laureate Elias Canetti.
Murdoch was awarded the Booker Prize in 1978 for The Sea, the Sea, a finely detailed
novel about the power of love and loss, featuring a retired stage director who is overwhelmed
by jealousy when he meets his erstwhile lover after several decades apart. An authorized
collection of her poetic writings, Poems by Iris Murdoch, appeared in 1997, edited by Paul
Hullah and Yozo Muroya. Several of her works have been adapted for the screen, including
the British television series of her novels An Unofficial Rose and The Bell. J. B. Priestley's
dramatisation of her 1961 novel A Severed Head starred Ian Holm and Richard Attenborough.
In 1997, she was awarded the Golden PEN Award by English PEN for "a Lifetime's
Distinguished Service to Literature".
Under the Net was the first novel of Iris Murdoch, published in 1954. Set in London, it
is the story of a struggling young writer, Jake Donaghue. Its mixture of the philosophical and
the picaresque has made it one of Murdoch's most popular.
It was dedicated to Raymond Queneau. When Jake leaves Madge's flat in Chapter 1,
two of the books he mentions taking are Murphy by Samuel Beckett, and Pierrot mon Ami by
Queneau, both of which are echoed in this story. The epigraph, from John Dryden's Secular
Masque, refers to the way in which the main character is driven from place to place by his
misunderstandings.
In 2005, the novel was chosen by TIME magazine as one of the one hundred best
English-language novels from 1923 to present. The editors of Modern Library named the work
as one of the greatest English-language novels of the twentieth century.
Explanation of the title
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The "net" in question is the net of language. In Chapter 6, a quotation from Jake's book
The Silencer includes the passage: "All theorizing is flight. We must be ruled by the situation
itself and this is unutterably particular. Indeed it is something to which we can never get close
enough, however hard we may try as it were to crawl under the net."
Chapters 1-5: Thrown out
Jake Donaghue has just arrived back in London from a trip to France. Finn, a distant
relative who is so obliging that he is sometimes mistaken for a servant, tells Jake that they are
being thrown out of Madge's house, where they have been living rent-free for eighteen
months. A conversation with Madge reveals that they are being moved to make way for her
new lover, the rich bookmaker Sammy Starfield.
He goes with his suitcase to the cat-filled corner shop of Mrs Tinckham to check he has
all his manuscripts and figure out where to live. Only one manuscript is missing: his translation
of Le Rossignol de Bois, a novel by Jean-Pierre Breteuil. It is a mediocre work which he has
done for money. He thinks of an old friend, a philosopher named Dave Gellman, and goes to
his flat. A political meeting is being held there, and Dave is dismissive, but allows him to leave
his suitcase. Finn suggests that he ask Anna Quentin, a singer he once fell in love with.
Jake has not seen Anna for several years. He eventually tracks her down to the Riverside
Miming Theatre, on Hammersmith Mall, and finds her in a prop room "like a vast toy shop".
She is happy to see him, but somewhat uncomfortable when he asks about her new project,
involving mime. She suggests that he ask her film-star sister, Sadie, for help. After she leaves
he spends the night sleeping in the prop room.

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The next morning Jake goes to Welbeck Street to look for Sadie, and learns that she is
at her Mayfair hairdresser. He spruces himself up, and goes to talk to her. She is very happy to
see him there, and asks him to look after her flat while she hides from an admirer named Hugo
Belfounder, a fireworks manufacturer who now owns a film studio.
It so happens that Hugo was a former friend of Jake's. They had met long ago as fellow
participants in a cold-cure experiment, and had had long philosophical discussions which Jake,
without Hugo's knowledge, had turned into a book called The Silencer. Because Hugo believed
that language was corrupt, Jake felt that creation of the book was a kind of betrayal, and had
unilaterally broken off the friendship after its publication, not wishing to face Hugo's anger.
Jake goes back to Madge's to fetch his radio, and finds Sammy there. Jake is prepared to
fight, but the bookmaker is friendly and even offers him money to leave. This leads to a bet
being placed by phone; they win £633 10s, and Sammy promises to send him a cheque.

Chapters 6-10: Anna and Hugo

Jake goes to Sadie's flat to begin housesitting, and is surprised to see a copy of The
Silencer on a bookshelf—did Hugo give it to her? His pleasure in the flat's luxury is soon
destroyed: firstly by a call from Hugo, asking for Miss Quentin (he hangs up when he hears
Jake), and secondly by the discovery that he has been deliberately locked in. He calls from the

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window to his friends, Dave and Finn, who pick the lock and rescue him. Jake resolves to find
Hugo, who must love Anna, and have given her the idea for the mime theatre.
The three men take a taxi to Holborn Viaduct. They find Hugo's door open, and a note
left saying "Gone to the pub". This begins a pub crawl; they do not find Hugo, but get very
drunk. At the Skinners' Arms, they are joined by Lefty Todd, a political activist. After Lefty
subjects Jake to a kind of Socialist catechism, they go for a walk, and all but Dave have a swim
in the Thames. The next morning, Dave belatedly hands Jake a letter from Anna; she wants to
see him as soon as possible. He rushes to the Riverside Theatre, but everything has been packed
up, and she is gone. Devastated, he takes a ride in the lorry carrying away the contents of the
prop room.
Jake goes back to Sadie's flat to purloin her copy of The Silencer, but on approaching
her door he overhears a conversation between her and Sammy about his most recent
translation. His prolonged eavesdropping attracts the puzzled attention of neighbours, but he
manages to deduce that Sadie and Sammy are planning to use his translation of Le Rossignol
de Bois as the basis of a film proposal, and that they are not planning to recompense him for
its use. He is furious.
Chapters 11-13: Mister Mars
With the help of Finn, Jake breaks into Sammy's flat in Chelsea in order to take the
typescript, but they cannot find it; instead, on the spur of the moment, Jake decides to kidnap
Sammy's filmstar dog, an Alsatian named Mr Mars, for the purposes of blackmail. They cannot
open the dog's cage, and so with great difficulty they carry the whole cage away and file
through the bars to get the dog out. A brief newspaper article reveals to Jake that Anna is
travelling to Hollywood, via Paris.

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Accompanied by Mr Mars, Jake's search for Hugo takes him to Bounty Belfounder
Studio, in South London. A huge crowd has gathered on a film set of Ancient Rome; they are
listening to a political speech delivered by Lefty Todd. It is the first time in years that Jake has
seen Hugo, and he drags him away in order to talk to him, but the sudden arrival of the United
Nationalists causes a riot, and they have to run. Their attempts to escape the violence, which
involve the improvised use of explosives, cause the collapse of the set. When the police arrive
and announce that "no-one is to leave", Jake manages to evade questioning by telling Mr Mars
to play dead, and carrying him out in his arms, supposedly in order to find a vet.
Jake has to walk all the way back, and spends the night sleeping on a bench. On arriving
back at Dave's he finds the cheque from Sammy for £600. Wondering what to do with Mr
Mars, Jake asks Dave for help in drafting a blackmail letter, and after much discussion they
decide to demand £100. Two telegrams arrive from Madge, bearing a job offer in Paris and an
order of £30 for travel expenses. But Dave has to tell Jake that Sammy has cancelled the huge
cheque. In dismay, they together decide to pool £50 for a bet on Lyrebird; then Jake leaves for
France.
Chapters 14-16: Paris
In Paris, Jake is amazed to discover that Jean-Pierre Breteuil's latest novel, Nous les
Vainqueurs, has won the Prize Goncourt, and having dismissed Breteuil's work for so long he is
amazed and envious. Madge's offer turns out to be a kind of film industry sinecure, and he finds
himself refusing it with distaste for reasons that he cannot explain.

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He realises that it is Bastille Day, and he wanders the city for hours in a daze. In the
evening, he is watching fireworks when he sees Anna. He tries to follow her, but the crowd
impedes him. He nearly catches up with her in a park, after she leaves her shoes in order to
walk barefoot on the grass. But he briefly loses sight of her, and the woman he accosts is not
her.
Jake returns to London the next morning to find that Lyrebird has won at long odds, 20-
1. Finn has taken his share of the money and disappeared. Several torpid days of inactivity
follow, to the despair of Dave.
Chapters 17-20: The Hospital
Jake takes a job as an orderly at a hospital. When Hugo is admitted (he has been hit in
the head with a brick at a political meeting), Jake sees his chance for a serious conversation with
his old friend. But as an orderly he is strongly discouraged from talking to patients, and he
decides to come back in the middle of the night. He leaves the window of a store-room open.
With an immensity of pains, Jake succeeds in reaching Hugo's room shortly after one in
the morning. The conversation is not at all what he expected: Hugo is not at all angry with Jake,
and it turns out that while Anna is indeed besotted with Hugo, Hugo himself is in love with
Sadie, and Sadie with Jake—not a love triangle, but a one-way love diamond. Hugo demands
that Jake help him escape. Jake does so, but they are seen by the hostile porter, Stitch, and Jake
knows that he has lost his job.
When Jake next goes to Hugo's flat, he finds that Hugo has gone, leaving all he owns to
Lefty and his political party. At Mrs Tinckham's, he reads letters from Finn and Sadie. Finn has
gone back to Ireland, as he always said he would; Sadie is suggesting he buy Mr Mars for £700,
and although this puts Jake back at square one financially, he decides it is the only possible
course of action. With Mrs Tinckham, he listens to Anna singing on the radio, and having made
his peace with Hugo and with The Silencer he realises that his literary career is just beginning.

John Fowles
John Robert Fowles (31 March 1926 – 5 November 2005) was an English novelist, much
influenced by both Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, and critically positioned between
modernism and postmodernism.

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After leaving Oxford, Fowles taught at a school on the Greek island of Spetses, a sojourn
that inspired The Magus, an instant bestseller that was directly in tune with 1960s "hippie"
anarchism and experimental philosophy. This was followed by The French Lieutenant's
Woman, a period romance set in Lyme Regis, Dorset, another location in which Fowles was
deeply absorbed. Later fictional works include The Ebony Tower, Daniel Martin, Mantissa, and
A Maggot.
Fowles was named by the Times newspaper as one of the 50 greatest British writers
since 1945.
Fowles was born in Leigh-on-Sea in Essex, England, the son of Gladys May Richards
and Robert John Fowles. Robert Fowles came from a family of middle-class merchants of
London. Robert's father Reginald was a partner of the firm Allen & Wright, a tobacco importer.
Robert's mother died when he was 6 years old. At age 26, after receiving legal training, Robert
enlisted in the Honourable Artillery Company and spent three years in the trenches of Flanders
during World War I. Robert's brother Jack died in the war, leaving a widow and three children.
During 1920, the year Robert was demobilized, his father Reginald died. Robert became
responsible for five young half-siblings and the children of his brother, and though he had
hoped to practise law, the obligation of raising an extended family forced him into the family
trade of tobacco importing.
Gladys Richards belonged to an Essex family originally from London as well. The
Richards family moved to Westcliff-on-Sea in 1918, as Spanish Flu swept through Europe, for
Essex was said to have a healthy climate. Robert met Gladys Richards at a tennis club in
Westcliff-on-Sea in 1924. Though she was ten years younger, and he in bad health from the
war, they were married a year later on 18 June 1925. Nine months and two weeks later Gladys
gave birth to John Robert Fowles.
Fowles spent his childhood attended by his mother and by his cousin Peggy Fowles, 18
years old at the time of his birth, who was his nursemaid and close companion for ten years.
Fowles attended Alleyn Court Preparatory School. The work of Richard Jefferies and his
character Bevis were Fowles's favourite books as a child. He was an only child until he was 16
years old.
In 1939, Fowles won a position at Bedford School, a two-hour train journey north of
his home. His time at Bedford coincided with the Second World War. Fowles was a student at
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Bedford until 1944. He became Head Boy and was also an athletic standout: a member of the
rugby-football third team, the Fives first team and captain of the cricket team, for which he was
a bowler.
After leaving Bedford School in 1944, Fowles enrolled in a Naval Short Course at
Edinburgh University and was prepared to receive a commission in the Royal Marines.
In 1947, after completing his military service, Fowles entered New College, Oxford,
where he studied both French and German, although he stopped studying German and
concentrated on French for his BA. Fowles was undergoing a political transformation. Upon
leaving the marines he wrote, "I ... began to hate what I was becoming in life—a British
Establishment young hopeful. I decided instead to become a sort of anarchist."
It was also at Oxford that Fowles first considered life as a writer, particularly after
reading existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. Though Fowles did not identify
as an existentialist, their writing, like Fowles's, was motivated from a feeling that the world was
absurd.
Fowles spent his early adult life as a teacher. His first year after Oxford was spent at the
University of Poitiers. At the end of the year, he received two offers: one from the French
department at Winchester, the other "from a ratty school in Greece," Fowles said: "Of course, I
went against all the dictates of common sense and took the Greek job."
In 1951, Fowles became an English master at the Anargyrios and Korgialenios School
of Spetses on the Peloponnesian island of Spetsai, a critical part of Fowles's life, as the island
would be where he met his future wife Elizabeth Christy, née Whitton, wife of fellow teacher
Roy Christy, and would later serve as the setting of his novel The Magus. Fowles was happy in
Greece, especially outside of the school. He wrote poems that he later published, and became
close to his fellow exiles. But during 1953 Fowles and the other masters at the school were all
dismissed for trying to institute reforms, and Fowles returned to England.

On the island of Spetsai, Fowles had grown fond of Elizabeth Christy, who was married
to one of the other teachers. Christy's marriage was already ending because of the relationship
with Fowles, and though they returned to England at the same time, they were no longer in
each other's company. It was during this period that Fowles began drafting The Magus. His
separation from Elizabeth did not last long. On 2 April 1954, they were married and Fowles
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became stepfather to Elizabeth's daughter from her first marriage, Anna. After his marriage,
Fowles taught English as a foreign language to students from other countries for nearly ten years
at St. Godric's College, an all-girls in Hampstead, London.

In late 1960, though he had already drafted The Magus, Fowles began working on The
Collector. He finished his first draft in a month, but spent more than a year making revisions
before showing it to his agent. Michael S. Howard, the publisher at Jonathan Cape was
enthusiastic about the manuscript. The book was published in 1963 and when the paperback
rights were sold in the spring of that year it was "probably the highest price that had hitherto
been paid for a first novel," according to Howard. British reviewers found the novel to be merely
an innovative thriller, but several American critics detected a serious promotion of existentialist
thought.
The success of his novel meant that Fowles was able to stop teaching and devote himself
full-time to a literary career. The Collector was also optioned and became a film in 1965.[9]
Against the counsel of his publisher, Fowles insisted that his second book published be The
Aristos, a non-fiction collection of philosophy. Afterward, he set about collating all the drafts
he had written of what would become his most studied work, The Magus, based in part on his
experiences in Greece.

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In 1965 Fowles left London, moving to a farm, Underhill, in Dorset, where the isolated
farm house became the model for The Dairy in the book Fowles was then writing, The French
Lieutenant's Woman (1969). The farm was too remote, "total solitude gets a bit monotonous,"
Fowles remarked, and in 1968 he and his wife moved to Lyme Regis in Dorset, where he lived
in Belmont House, also used as a setting for parts of The French Lieutenant's Woman. In the
same year, he adapted The Magus for cinema.
The film version of The Magus (1968) was generally considered awful; when Woody
Allen was asked whether he would make changes in his life if he had the opportunity to do it
all over again, he jokingly replied he'd do "everything exactly the same, with the exception of
watching The Magus." The French Lieutenant's Woman was made into a film in 1981 with a
screenplay by the British playwright Harold Pinter and was nominated for an Oscar.
Fowles lived the rest of his life in Lyme Regis. His works The Ebony Tower (1974),
Daniel Martin (1977), Mantissa (1981), and A Maggot (1985) were all written from Belmont
House. Fowles became a member of the Lyme Regis community, serving as the curator of the
Lyme Regis Museum from 1979–1988, retiring from the museum after having a mild stroke.
Fowles was involved occasionally in politics in Lyme Regis, and occasionally wrote letters to
the editor advocating preservation. Despite this involvement, he was generally considered
reclusive. In 1998, he was quoted in the New York Times Book Review as saying, "Being an
atheist is a matter not of moral choice, but of human obligation."
His first wife Elizabeth died in 1990. With his second wife Sarah by his side, Fowles
died 5 miles from Lyme Regis in Axminster Hospital on 5 November 2005.
The Ebony Tower (1974) by John Fowles is a collection of five short novels with
interlacing themes, built around a medieval myth: The Ebony Tower, Eliduc, Poor Koko, The
Enigma and The Cloud.

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The Ebony Tower

Henry Breasley is an elderly painter whose secluded retirement is invaded by a brash
young artist commissioned to write a biographical study of the great man. Breasley shares his
home with two young English girls, both former art students, Diana and Anne. In this strange
ménage, David is left in no doubt about his host's views on modern abstract art. However, he is
puzzled by the old man's relationship with the girls, especially when he himself is attracted to
Diana.

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ლექცია 4
ჯორჯ ორუელი. ენტონი ბერჯესი
Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), known by his pen name George
Orwell, was an English novelist, and journalist. His work is marked by clarity, awareness of
social injustice, opposition to totalitarianism, and commitment to democratic socialism.
Considered perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture, Orwell wrote
literary criticism, poetry, fiction and polemical journalism. He is best known for the dystopian
novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) and the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945), which
together (as of 2009) have sold more copies than any two books by any other 20th-century
author. His book Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences in the Spanish Civil
War, is widely acclaimed, as are his numerous essays on politics, literature, language, and
culture. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of "The 50 greatest British writers since
1945".
Orwell's work continues to influence popular and political culture, and the term
Orwellian — descriptive of totalitarian or authoritarian social practices — has entered the
language together with several of his neologisms, including Cold War, Big Brother, thought
police, Room 101, doublethink, and thoughtcrime.
Eric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903, in Motihari, Bihar, in India. Eric had two
sisters: Marjorie, five years older, and Avril, five years younger. When Eric was one year old,
his mother took him and his older sister to England. Eric was brought up in the company of his
mother and sisters, and apart from a brief visit in the summer of 1907, they did not see the
husband and father Richard Blair until 1912. His mother's diary from 1905 describes a lively
round of social activity and artistic interests.
During most of his career, Orwell was best known for his journalism, in essays, reviews,
columns in newspapers and magazines and in his books of reportage: Down and Out in Paris
and London (describing a period of poverty in these cities), The Road to Wigan Pier (describing
the living conditions of the poor in northern England, and the class divide generally) and
Homage to Catalonia. According to Irving Howe, Orwell was "the best English essayist since
Hazlitt, perhaps since Dr Johnson."

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Modern readers are more often introduced to Orwell as a novelist, particularly through
his enormously successful titles Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four. The former is often
thought to reflect degeneration in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution and the rise of
Stalinism; the latter, life under totalitarian rule. Nineteen Eighty-Four is often compared to
Brave New World by Aldous Huxley; both are powerful dystopian novels warning of a future
world where the state machine exerts complete control over social life. In 1984, Nineteen
Eighty-Four and Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 were honoured with the Prometheus Award
for their contributions to dystopian literature. In 2011 he received it again for Animal Farm.

Coming Up for Air, his last novel before World War II is the most "English" of his
novels; alarums of war mingle with images of idyllic Thames-side Edwardian childhood of
protagonist George Bowling. The novel is pessimistic; industrialism and capitalism have killed
the best of Old England, and there were great, new external threats. In homely terms, Bowling
posits the totalitarian hypotheses of Borkenau, Orwell, Silone and Koestler: "Old Hitler's
something different. So's Joe Stalin. They aren't like these chaps in the old days who crucified
people and chopped their heads off and so forth, just for the fun of it ... They're something quite
new—something that's never been heard of before".
Literary influences
In an autobiographical piece that Orwell sent to the editors of Twentieth Century
Authors in 1940, he wrote: "The writers I care about most and never grow tired of are:
Shakespeare, Swift, Fielding, Dickens, Charles Reade, Flaubert and, among modern writers,
James Joyce, T. S. Eliot and D. H. Lawrence. But I believe the modern writer who has influenced
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me most is Somerset Maugham, whom I admire immensely for his power of telling a story
straightforwardly and without frills." Elsewhere, Orwell strongly praised the works of Jack
London, especially his book The Road. Orwell's investigation of poverty in The Road to Wigan
Pier strongly resembles that of Jack London's The People of the Abyss, in which the American
journalist disguises himself as an out-of-work sailor in order to investigate the lives of the poor
in London. In his essay "Politics vs. Literature: An Examination of Gulliver's Travels" (1946)
Orwell wrote: "If I had to make a list of six books which were to be preserved when all others
were destroyed, I would certainly put Gulliver's Travels among them."
Other writers admired by Orwell included: Ralph Waldo Emerson, George Gissing,
Graham Greene, Herman Melville, Henry Miller, Tobias Smollett, Mark Twain, Joseph Conrad
and Yevgeny Zamyatin. He was both an admirer and a critic of Rudyard Kipling, praising
Kipling as a gifted writer and a "good bad poet" whose work is "spurious" and "morally
insensitive and aesthetically disgusting," but undeniably seductive and able to speak to certain
aspects of reality more effectively than more enlightened authors. He had a similarly ambivalent
attitude to G. K. Chesterton, whom he regarded as a writer of considerable talent who had
chosen to devote himself to "Roman Catholic propaganda".
Orwell's work has taken a prominent place in the school literature curriculum in
England, with Animal Farm a regular examination topic at the end of secondary education
(GCSE), and Nineteen Eighty-Four a topic for subsequent examinations below university level
(A Levels). Alan Brown noted that this brings to the forefront questions about the political
content of teaching practices. Study aids, in particular with potted biographies, might be seen
to help propagate the Orwell myth so that as an embodiment of human values he is presented
as a "trustworthy guide", while examination questions sometimes suggest a "right ways of
answering" in line with the myth.
Historian John Rodden stated: "John Podhoretz did claim that if Orwell were alive
today, he’d be standing with the neo-conservatives and against the Left. And the question arises,
to what extent can you even begin to predict the political positions of somebody who’s been
dead three decades and more by that time?"
If the book itself, Animal Farm, had left any doubt of the matter, Orwell dispelled it in
his essay Why I Write: 'Every line of serious work that I’ve written since 1936 has been written
directly or indirectly against Totalitarianism ... dot, dot, dot, dot.' "For Democratic Socialism" is
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vaporised, just like Winston Smith did it at the Ministry of Truth, and that’s very much what
happened at the beginning of the McCarthy era and just continued, Orwell being selectively
quoted.
T.R. Fyvel wrote about Orwell: "His crucial experience ... was his struggle to turn
himself into a writer, one which led through long periods of poverty, failure and humiliation,
and about which he has written almost nothing directly. The sweat and agony was less in the
slum-life than in the effort to turn the experience into literature."
In his essay Politics and the English Language (1946), Orwell wrote about the
importance of precise and clear language, arguing that vague writing can be used as a powerful
tool of political manipulation because it shapes the way we think. In that essay, Orwell provides
six rules for writers:
 Never use a metaphor, simile or other figure of speech which you are used to
seeing in print.
 Never use a long word where a short one will do.
 If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
 Never use the passive where you can use the active.
 Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word or a jargon word if you can think
of an everyday English equivalent.
 Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.
The adjective Orwellian connotes an attitude and a policy of control by propaganda,
surveillance, misinformation, denial of truth, and manipulation of the past. In Nineteen Eighty-
Four Orwell described a totalitarian government that controlled thought by controlling
language, making certain ideas literally unthinkable. Several words and phrases from Nineteen
Eighty-Four have entered popular language. Newspeak is a simplified and obfuscatory language
designed to make independent thought impossible. Doublethink means holding two
contradictory beliefs simultaneously. The Thought Police are those who suppress all dissenting
opinion. Prolefeed is homogenised, manufactured superficial literature, film and music, used to
control and indoctrinate the populace through docility. Big Brother is a supreme dictator who
watches everyone.
Orwell may have been the first to use the term cold war, in his essay, "You and the
Atom Bomb", published in Tribune, 19 October 1945. He wrote:
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We may be heading not for general breakdown but for an epoch as horribly stable as
the slave empires of antiquity. James Burnham's theory has been much discussed, but few people
have yet considered its ideological implications;— this is, the kind of world-view, the kind of
beliefs, and the social structure that would probably prevail in a State which was at once
unconquerable and in a permanent state of 'cold war' with its neighbours.
Animal Farm is an allegorical and dystopian novel by George Orwell, published in
England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to the
Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalin era in the Soviet Union. Orwell, a
democratic socialist, was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism,
especially after his experiences with the NKVD and the Spanish Civil War. The Soviet Union,
he believed, had become a brutal dictatorship, built upon a cult of personality and enforced by
a reign of terror. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as a satirical tale
against Stalin "une conte satirique contre Stalin", and in his essay "Why I Write" (1946), he
wrote that Animal Farm was the first book in which he had tried, with full consciousness of
what he was doing, "to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole".

The original title was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story, though the subtitle was dropped by
U.S. publishers for its 1946 publication and subsequently all but one of the translations during
Orwell's lifetime omitted it. Other variations in the title include: A Satire and A Contemporary
Satire. Orwell suggested the title Union des républiques socialistes animales for the French
translation, which recalled the French name of the Soviet Union, Union des républiques
socialistes soviétiques, and which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin for "bear", a symbol of Russia.

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Orwell wrote the book from November 1943–February 1944, when the wartime
alliance with the Soviet Union was at its height and Stalin was held in high esteem in Britain
among the people and intelligentsia, a fact that Orwell hated. It was initially rejected by a
number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, Victor Gollancz. Its
publication was thus delayed, though it became a great commercial success when it did finally
appear partly because the Cold War so quickly followed World War II.
Time magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to
2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It
won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996, and is also included in the Great Books of the
Western World selection.
The novel addresses not only the corruption of the revolution by its leaders, but also
the ways wickedness, indifference, ignorance, greed, and myopia corrupt the revolution. It
portrays corrupt leadership as the flaw in revolution, rather than the act of revolution itself. It
also shows how potential ignorance and indifference to problems within a revolution could
allow horrors to happen if a smooth transition to a people's government is not achieved.
The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into 'a complete
system of thought', which they formally name Animalism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer
indulge in the vices of humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading). Squealer is
employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to
the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs
about themselves and their society.
The original commandments are:
Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.
Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend.
No animal shall wear clothes.
No animal shall sleep in a bed.
No animal shall drink alcohol.
No animal shall kill any other animal.
All animals are equal.

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Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves
of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes
bolded:
No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets.
No animal shall drink alcohol to excess.
No animal shall kill any other animal without cause.
Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal, but some
animals are more equal than others", and "Four legs good, two legs better!" as the pigs become
more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which
were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the
humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision
of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into
malleable propaganda.
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Nineteen Eighty-Four is a dystopian novel by George Orwell published in 1949. The
Oceanian province of Airstrip One (formerly known as Great Britain) is a world of perpetual
war, omnipresent government surveillance, and public mind control, dictated by a political
system euphemistically named English Socialism (Ingsoc) under the control of a privileged
Inner Party elite that persecutes all individualism and independent thinking as thoughtcrimes.
Their tyranny is headed by Big Brother, the quasi-divine Party leader who enjoys an intense
cult of personality, but who may not even exist. Big Brother and the Party justify their rule in
the name of a supposed greater good. The protagonist of the novel, Winston Smith, is a member
of the Outer Party who works for the Ministry of Truth (Minitrue), which is responsible for
propaganda and historical revisionism. His job is to re-write past newspaper articles so that the
historical record always supports the current party line. Smith is a diligent and skillful worker,
but he secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion against Big Brother.
As literary political fiction and dystopian science-fiction, Nineteen Eighty-Four is a
classic novel in content, plot, and style. Many of its terms and concepts, such as Big Brother,
doublethink, thoughtcrime, Newspeak, Room 101, and memory hole, have entered everyday
use since its publication in 1949. Moreover, Nineteen Eighty-Four popularised the adjective
Orwellian, which describes official deception, secret surveillance, and manipulation of the past
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by a totalitarian or authoritarian state. In 2005 the novel was chosen by TIME magazine as one
of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005. It was awarded a place on both lists
of Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 13 on the editor's list, and 6 on the reader's
list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 8 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.

George Orwell "encapsulate[d] the thesis at the heart of his unforgiving novel" in 1944,
and three years later wrote most of it on the Scottish island of Jura, from 1947 to 1948, despite
being seriously ill with tuberculosis. On 4 December 1948, he sent the final manuscript to the
publisher Secker and Warburg and Nineteen Eighty-Four was published on 8 June 1949. By
1989, it had been translated into sixty-five languages, more than any other novel in English at
the time. The title of the novel, its themes, the Newspeak language, and the author's surname
are often invoked against control and intrusion by the state, while the adjective Orwellian
describes a totalitarian dystopia characterised by government control and subjugation of the
people. Orwell's invented language, Newspeak, satirises hypocrisy and evasion by the state: for
example, the Ministry of Love (Miniluv) oversees torture and brainwashing, the Ministry of
Plenty (Miniplenty) oversees shortage and famine, the Ministry of Peace (Minipax) oversees
war and atrocity, and the Ministry of Truth (Minitrue) oversees propaganda and historical
revisionism.
The Last Man in Europe was one of the original titles for the novel, but in a letter dated
22 October 1948 to his publisher Fredric Warburg, eight months before publication, Orwell
wrote about hesitating between The Last Man in Europe and Nineteen Eighty-Four. Warburg
suggested changing the main title to a more commercial one.
In the novel 1985 (1978), Anthony Burgess suggests that Orwell, disillusioned by the
onset of the Cold War (1945–91), intended to call the book 1948. The introduction to the
Penguin Books Modern Classics edition of Nineteen Eighty-Four reports that Orwell originally
set the novel in 1980, but he later shifted the date first to 1982, then to 1984. The final title may

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also be a permutation of 1948, the year of composition. Throughout its publication history,
Nineteen Eighty-Four has been either banned or legally challenged as subversive or
ideologically corrupting, like Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932); We (1924), by Yevgeny
Zamyatin; Kallocain (1940), by Karin Boye; and Fahrenheit 451 (1951), by Ray Bradbury. In
2005, Time magazine included Nineteen Eighty-Four in its list of the one hundred best English-
language novels since 1923. Literary scholars consider the Russian dystopian novel We, by
Zamyatin, to have strongly influenced Nineteen Eighty-Four.

Cultural impact
The effect of Nineteen Eighty-Four on the English language is extensive; the concepts
of Big Brother, Room 101, the Thought Police, thoughtcrime, unperson, memory hole
(oblivion), doublethink (simultaneously holding and believing contradictory beliefs) and
Newspeak (ideological language) have become common phrases for denoting totalitarian
authority. Doublespeak and groupthink are both deliberate elaborations of doublethink, while
the adjective "Orwellian" denotes "characteristic and reminiscent of George Orwell's writings"
especially Nineteen Eighty-Four. The practice of ending words with "-speak" (e.g. mediaspeak)
is drawn from the novel. Orwell is perpetually associated with the year 1984; in July 1984 an
asteroid discovered by Antonín Mrkos was named after Orwell.
In September 2009, the English alternative rock band Muse released The Resistance,
which included songs influenced by 1984.
References to the themes, concepts and plot of Nineteen Eighty-Four have appeared
frequently in other works, especially in popular music and video entertainment. An example is

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the worldwide hit reality television show Big Brother, in which a group of people live together
in a large house, isolated from the outside world but continuously watched by television
cameras.
In November 2011, the United States government argued before the US Supreme Court
that it wants to continue utilizing GPS tracking of individuals without first seeking a warrant.
In response, Justice Stephen Breyer questioned what this means for a democratic society by
referencing Nineteen Eighty-Four. Justice Breyer asked, "If you win this case, then there is
nothing to prevent the police or the government from monitoring 24 hours a day the public
movement of every citizen of the United States. So if you win, you suddenly produce what
sounds like 1984...."

In 1984, the book was made into a movie which starred John Hurt as the central
character of Winston Smith. In 2006, the movie version of V for Vendetta was released, which

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has many of the same running themes and principles as 1984 and, coincidentally, also stars John
Hurt taking on the role of "Big Brother." An episode of Doctor Who called "The God Complex"
depicts an alien ship disguised as a hotel containing Room 101-like spaces, and quotes the
nursery rhyme as well.
Sales of Nineteen Eighty-Four increased by up to 7,000% (seven thousand percent)
within the first week of the 2013 mass surveillance leaks.

Anthony Burgess
John Anthony Burgess Wilson, (25 February 1917 – 22 November 1993) – who published
under the pen name Anthony Burgess – was an English writer. From relatively modest beginnings in
a Manchester Catholic family in the North of England, he eventually became one of the best known
English literary figures of the latter half of the twentieth century.
Although Burgess was predominantly a comic writer, the dystopian satire A Clockwork
Orange remains his best known novel. In 1971 it was adapted into a highly controversial film by
Stanley Kubrick, which Burgess said was chiefly responsible for the popularity of the book. Burgess
produced numerous other novels, including the Enderby quartet, and Earthly Powers, regarded by
most critics as his greatest novel. He also worked as a literary critic, writing studies of classic writers,
most notably James Joyce. He was a longtime literary critic for The Observer and The Guardian.
Burgess was also an accomplished musician and linguist. He composed over 250 musical works,
including a first symphony around age 18, wrote a number of libretti, and translated, among other
works, Cyrano de Bergerac, Oedipus the King and Carmen.
Novels
His Malayan trilogy The Long Day Wanes was Burgess's first published fiction. Its three books
are Time for a Tiger, The Enemy in the Blanket and Beds in the East. It was Burgess's ambition to
become "the true fictional expert on Malaya."[citation needed] In these works, Burgess was working
in the tradition established by Kipling for British India, and Conrad and Maugham for Southeast Asia.
Burgess operated more in the mode of Orwell, who had a good command of Urdu and Burmese
(necessary for Orwell's work as a police officer) and Kipling, who spoke Hindi (having learnt it as a
child). Like his fellow English expats in Asia, Burgess had excellent spoken and written command of
his operative language(s), both as a novelist and speaker, including Malay.

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Burgess's repatriate years (c. 1960–69) produced Enderby and The Right to an Answer, which
touches on the theme of death and dying, and One Hand Clapping, a satire on the vacuity of popular
culture. The Worm and the Ring (1961) had to be withdrawn from circulation under the threat of
libel action from one of Burgess's former colleagues, a school secretary.

His dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange was published in 1962. It was inspired initially by
an incident during the Second World War in which his wife Lynne was robbed, assaulted and violated
by deserters from the U.S. Army in London during the blackout. The event may have contributed to
her subsequent miscarriage. The book was an examination of free will and morality. The young anti-
hero, Alex, captured after a short career of violence and mayhem, undergoes a course of aversion
therapy treatment to curb his violent tendencies. This results in making him defenseless against other
people and unable to enjoy some of his favorite music that, besides violence, had been an intense
pleasure for him. In the non-fiction book Flame Into Being (1985) Burgess described A Clockwork
Orange as "a jeu d'esprit knocked off for money in three weeks, it became known as the raw material
for a film which seemed to glorify sex and violence." He added "the film made it easy for readers of
the book to misunderstand what it was about, and the misunderstanding will pursue me till I die."
Near the time of publication the final chapter was cut from the American edition of the book. Burgess

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had written A Clockwork Orange with twenty-one chapters, meaning to match the age of majority.
"21 is the symbol of human maturity, or used to be, since at 21 you got to vote and assumed adult
responsibility," Burgess wrote in a foreword for a 1986 edition. Needing a paycheck and thinking that
the publisher was "being charitable in accepting the work at all," Burgess accepted the deal and
allowed A Clockwork Orange to be published in the U.S. with the twenty-first chapter omitted.
Stanley Kubrick's film adaptation of A Clockwork Orange was based on the American edition, and
thus helped to perpetuate the loss of the last chapter.
In Martin Seymour-Smith's Novels and Novelists: A Guide to the World of Fiction, Burgess
related that he would often prepare a synopsis with a name-list before beginning a project. Seymour-
Smith wrote: "Burgess believes overplanning is fatal to creativity and regards his unconscious mind
and the act of writing itself as indispensable guides. He does not produce a draft of a whole novel but
prefers to get one page finished before he goes on to the next, which involves a good deal of revision
and correction."
Nothing Like the Sun is a fictional recreation of Shakespeare's love-life and an examination of
the supposedly partly syphilitic sources of the bard's imaginative vision. The novel, which drew on
Edgar I. Fripp's 1938 biography Shakespeare, Man and Artist, won critical acclaim and placed Burgess
among the first rank novelists of his generation. M/F (1971) was listed by the writer himself as one of
the works of which he was most proud. Beard's Roman Women was revealing on a personal level,
dealing with the death of his first wife, his bereavement, and the affair that led to his second marriage.
In Napoleon Symphony, Burgess brought Bonaparte to life by shaping the novel's structure to
Beethoven's Eroica symphony. The novel contains a portrait of an Arab and Muslim society under
occupation by a Christian western power (Egypt by Catholic France). In the 1980s, religious themes
began to feature heavily (The Kingdom of the Wicked, Man of Nazareth, Earthly Powers). Though
Burgess lapsed from Catholicism early in his youth, the influence of the Catholic "training" and
worldview remained strong in his work all his life. This is notable in the discussion of free will in A
Clockwork Orange, and in the apocalyptic vision of devastating changes in the Catholic Church – due
to what can be understood as Satanic influence – in Earthly Powers (1980).
Burgess kept working through his final illness and was writing on his deathbed. The late novel
Any Old Iron is a generational saga of two families, one Russian-Welsh, the other Jewish,
encompassing the sinking of the Titanic, World War I, the Russian Revolution, the Spanish Civil War,
World War II, the early years of the State of Israel, and the rediscovery of Excalibur. A Dead Man in
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Deptford, about Christopher Marlowe, is a companion novel to Nothing like the sun. The verse novel
Byrne was published posthumously.

Critical studies
Burgess started his career as a critic. Aimed at newcomers to the subject, his book English
Literature, A Survey for Students is still used in schools today. He followed this with The Novel To-
day (Longmans, 1963) and The Novel Now: A Student's Guide to Contemporary Fiction (New York:
W.W. Norton and Company, 1967). He wrote the Joyce studies Here Comes Everybody: An
Introduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader (also published as Re Joyce) and Joysprick: An
Introduction to the Language of James Joyce. Also published was A Shorter 'Finnegans Wake,'
Burgess's abridgement. His 1970 Encyclopædia Britannica entry on the novel (under "Novel, the") is
regarded as a classic of the genre. Burgess wrote full-length critical studies of William Shakespeare,
Ernest Hemingway and D. H. Lawrence, as well as Ninety-Nine Novels: The Best in English since
1939. His published lecture Obscenity and the Arts explores issues of pornography.
A Clockwork Orange
A Clockwork Orange is a dystopian novella by Anthony Burgess published in 1962. Set in a
not-so-distant future society that has a culture of extreme youth violence, the novel's teenage anti-
hero gives a first-person narration about his violent exploits and his experiences with state authorities
intent on reforming him. It is an exploration of human violence and human free will to choose
between good and evil and the cost to the individual of restraining it. It is an experiment with
language, written in a Russian-influenced argot called "Nadsat". It may be a satire of youth subcultures
that arose in 1950s Anglo-America.
According to Burgess, the novel was a jeu d'esprit written in just three weeks.
In 2005, A Clockwork Orange was included on Time magazine's list of the 100 best English-
language novels written since 1923, and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the
100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. The original manuscript of the book is located
at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada since that institution purchased the documents
in 1971.
A Clockwork Orange was written in Hove, then a senescent seaside town. Burgess had arrived
back in Britain after his stint abroad to see that much had changed. A youth culture had grown,
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including coffee bars, pop music and teenage gangs. England was gripped by fears over juvenile
delinquency. Burgess claimed that the novel's inspiration was his wife Lynne's beating by a gang of
drunk American servicemen stationed in England during World War II. She subsequently miscarried.
In its investigation of free will, the book's target is ostensibly the concept of behaviourism, pioneered
by such figures as B. F. Skinner.

A Clockwork Orange was originally written with the intent to show that people can change
from their past. The British version of the book ended with Alex transforming into adult life in a
healthy, non-violent manner. The American version however was different. The end was written
making Alex a non-changed man. Alex had his procedure undone and transformed back to his old
self, being violent, disrespectful and able to listen to Ludwig van Beethoven.
Burgess gave three possible origins for the title:
1. He had overheard the phrase "as queer as a clockwork orange" in a London pub in 1945 and
assumed it was a Cockney expression. In Clockwork Marmalade, an essay published in the
Listener in 1972, he said that he had heard the phrase several times since that occasion. He also
explained the title in response to a question from William Everson on the television programme,
Camera Three in 1972, "Well, the title has a very different meaning but only to a particular
generation of London Cockneys. It's a phrase which I heard many years ago and so fell in love
with, I wanted to use it, the title of the book. But the phrase itself I did not make up. The phrase
"as queer as a clockwork orange" is good old East London slang and it didn't seem to me necessary
to explain it. Now, obviously, I have to give it an extra meaning. I've implied an extra dimension.
I've implied the junction of the organic, the lively, the sweet – in other words, life, the orange –

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and the mechanical, the cold, the disciplined. I've brought them together in this kind of
oxymoron, this sour-sweet word." However, no other record of the expression being used before
1962 has ever appeared. Kingsley Amis notes in his Memoirs that no trace of it appears in Eric
Partridge's Dictionary of Historical Slang.
2. His second explanation was that it was a pun on the Malay word orang, meaning "man." The
novel contains no other Malay words or links.
3. In a prefatory note to A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music, he wrote that the title was a
metaphor for "...an organic entity, full of juice and sweetness and agreeable odour, being turned
into a mechanism."
In his essay, "Clockwork Oranges," Burgess asserts that "this title would be appropriate for a
story about the application of Pavlovian or mechanical laws to an organism which, like a fruit, was
capable of colour and sweetness." This title alludes to the protagonist's positively conditioned
responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will. To induce this conditioning,
the protagonist is subjected to a technique in which violent scenes displayed on screen, which he is
forced to watch, are systematically paired with negative stimulation in the form of nausea and
"feelings of terror" caused by an emetic medicine administered just before the presentation of the
films.
Point of view
A Clockwork Orange is written using a narrative first-person singular perspective of a
seemingly biased and unreliable narrator. The protagonist, Alex, never justifies his actions in the
narration, giving a sense that he is somewhat sincere; a narrator who, as unlikeable as he may attempt
to seem, evokes pity from the reader by telling of his unending suffering, and later through his
realisation that the cycle will never end. Alex's perspective is effective in that the way that he
describes events is easy to relate to, even if the situations themselves are not.
Use of slang
The book, narrated by Alex, contains many words in a slang argot which Burgess invented for
the book, called Nadsat. It is a mix of modified Slavic words, rhyming slang, derived Russian (like
baboochka), and words invented by Burgess himself. For instance, these terms have the following
meanings in Nadsat: droog = friend; korova = cow; gulliver ('golova') = head; malchick or
malchickiwick = boy; soomka = sack or bag; Bog = God; khorosho ('horrorshow') = good; prestoopnick

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= criminal; rooka ('rooker') = hand; cal = crap; veck ('chelloveck') = man or guy; litso = face; malenky
= little; and so on. Compare Polari.
One of Alex's doctors explains the language to a colleague as "odd bits of old rhyming slang; a
bit of gypsy talk, too. But most of the roots are Slav propaganda. Subliminal penetration." Some words
are not derived from anything, but merely easy to guess, e.g. 'in-out, in-out' or 'the old in-out' means
sexual intercourse. Cutter, however, means 'money,' because 'cutter' rhymes with 'bread-and-butter';
this is rhyming slang, which is intended to be impenetrable to outsiders (especially eavesdropping
policemen). Additionally, slang like Appypolly loggy(Apology) seems to derive from school boy slang.
This reflects Alex's age of 15.
In the first edition of the book, no key was provided, and the reader was left to interpret the
meaning from the context. In his appendix to the restored edition, Burgess explained that the slang
would keep the book from seeming dated, and served to muffle "the raw response of pornography"
from the acts of violence. Furthermore, in a novel where a form of brainwashing plays a role, the
narrative itself brainwashes the reader into understanding Nadsat.
The term "ultraviolence," referring to excessive and/or unjustified violence, was coined by
Burgess in the book, which includes the phrase "do the ultra-violent." The term's association with
aesthetic violence has led to its use in the media.
In 1976, A Clockwork Orange was removed from an Aurora, Colorado high school because of
"objectionable language". A year later in 1977 it was removed from high school classrooms in
Westport, Massachusetts over similar concerns with "objectionable" language. In 1982, it was
removed from two Anniston, Alabama libraries, later to be reinstated on a restricted basis. Also, in
1973 a bookseller was arrested for selling the novel. Charges were later dropped. However, each of
these instances came after the release of Stanley Kubrick's popular 1972 film adaptation of A
Clockwork Orange, itself the subject of much controversy.

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