INTRODUCTION

THE SCIENCE OF MINERALOGY

Mineralogy is the science of minerals – their crystallography,

chemical composition, physical properties, and genesis, their
identification, and their classification. Mineralogy is the
subdivision of geology, since minerals constitute the rocks of
the earth‟s crust, mantle and deeper interior of our planet
and are scattered in the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
However, meteorites, lunar rocks and the smallest particles
of cosmic dust provide us with samples of minerals from
outside the earth, and geophysical measurements furnish
some indication of the nature of the minerals below the
accessible crust.
Definition of the term mineral range from the historical
(any material that is neither animal nor vegetable) through
the legalistic (something valuable that may be extracted
from the earth and is subjected to depletion) to the scientific
(a naturally occurring homogenous solid, generally
formed by inorganic processes, with an ordered
internal arrangement of atoms and a chemical
composition and physical properties that either are
fixed or that vary within some definite range). A good
introduction to the science of mineralogy can be gained by
examining each part of this scientific definition.
The qualification naturally occurring is considered
necessary by some mineralogist and superfluous by others.
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Gemologists consider it particularly important to subscribe to
this aspect of the definition. In fact, they consider it
imperative that man-made substances especially those that
are essentially identical to naturally occurring gem minerals,
be referred to as synthetic (e.g., synthetic diamond and
synthetic ruby…).Artificial minerals or synthetic minerals are
those produced (synthesized) by man.
The requirement that a mineral be solid eliminates liquids
and gases. This may seem arbitrary in that ice is thereby
called a mineral whereas water is not. In practice, a few
mineralogists ignore this restriction and include water and
native mercury as minerals.
The phrase generally formed by inorganic processes is
probably superfluous. Its purpose is merely to remind us of
a former view that even the inorganic substances that are
naturally produced by plants and animals (e.g., the
aragonite that makes up the shells and pearls produced by
oysters) should be called minerals. This former restriction,
however, never did eliminate the possibility of an organic
compound‟s being classified as a mineral; a few such
substances (certain solid hydrocarbons, calcium oxalates,
and similar compounds) have long enjoyed the status of
minerals.
An ordered internal arrangement of atoms is the criterion of
the crystalline state. Another way of expressing this is to say
that minerals are crystalline solids. Under favorable

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conditions of formation, the ordered atomic arrangement
may be expressed by an external crystal form. In fact, more
than a century before X-ray provided the means of
demonstrating the presence of an ordered internal
arrangement of “building blocks” within crystalline solids;
their existence had already been deduced from the external
regularity of crystals. [A few minerals, such as opal, are not
crystalline initially but become at least partly crystalline with
the passing of geological time; also, a few other minerals,
generally referred to as metamict, have had their original
crystallinity partially destroyed as a result of irradiation by
their radioactive constituents.]
Strictly speaking, the last part of the definition-a chemical
composition and physical properties that either are fixed or
vary within some definite range-merely adds the
requirement of a defined chemical composition. As long as
the internal atomic arrangement of their constituents is set,
minerals with fixed chemical compositions also have fixed
physical properties (The crystal structure restriction is
required because of polymorphism 1) As the definition also
indicates, however, the chemical composition and
consequently the physical properties of a mineral may vary
within a definite range. (This phenomenon is related to solid
2)
solution
1
An element or compound that can exist in more than one crystallographic structure is said to exhibit
Polymorphism e.g., diamond and graphite
2
A solid that has an homogeneous crystal in which some equivalent sites are occupied by differen t ions
e.g., albite (NaAlSi3O 8) and anorthite (C aAl2Si2O 8)

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THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

INTRODUCTION

A close connection exists between the physical properties of

a mineral, its crystal structure, and its chemical composition.
Thus, the study of physical properties may enable you to
make deductions about crystal structure and about chemical
composition. In addition, physical properties may be of great
technological significance because a mineral may have
important industrial uses that depend upon its physical
properties. Two examples are the extreme hardness of
diamond, which makes it highly abrasive, and the
piezoelectric nature of quartz, which is the basis for its use
in electronic equipments. Furthermore, physical properties
are of great practical significance to, for example, the
geologist or the prospector, in that they afford readily
determined characteristics for mineral identification; several
physical properties, which are more quickly and more easily
determined than crystal structure or chemical composition,
are uniquely diagnostic for certain minerals.

(1) Characters depending upon light, such as color, streak,

luster, diaphaneity (light transmission) and
luminescence (phosphorescence and fluorescence).

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(2) Characters depending upon atomic structure and state of
aggregation, such as crystal form, crystal habit,
hardness, tenacity, fracture and cleavage.

(3) The specific gravity of minerals.

(4) Characters depending upon magnetism, and

electricity.

(5) Properties depending upon certain senses, such as those

of taste, odour and feel (Sensate properties).

(6) Radioactivity

1. CHARACTERS DEPENDANT ON LIGHT

COLOR

In most minerals, the impression of color is produced by the

selective absorption of some of the wavelengths that
constitute white light, the resultant color being, in effect,
white light minus the absorbed wavelengths. When white
light, which consists of all of the colors in the visible part of
the electromagnetic spectrum (3900 Ǻ-7700Ǻ), strikes the
surface of the crystalline material, some of the wavelengths
are transmitted and reflected while others are absorbed.
When nearly all wavelengths are transmitted, the substance

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appears colorless or white; when nearly all wavelengths are
absorbed, it appears dark or nearly black; when a relatively
narrow bands or mixtures of relatively narrow bands of
wavelengths, are transmitted (the others being absorbed),
some color is perceived by the normal eye- that is, the color
perceived is complementary to the color absorbed. Two
examples are the green of an emerald, which represents
transmission in the 5000-5500 Ǻ range, and the purplish-red
of a fine quality of ruby, which represents transmission of a
wavelengths in the red-orange (~ 6000-700 Ǻ) and blue (~
4400-4800 Ǻ) ranges.

Emerald Ruby
Mineral that have a constant and characteristic color are
generally termed idiochromatic, or their color is termed
inherent. In these minerals, the color absorbing qualities –
typically ions or groups of ions that absorb certain
wavelengths- are essential to the makeup of the mineral.
Minerals whose color may differ from specimen to specimen
are called allochromatic, or their color is referred to as

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exotic. In these minerals, color absorbing mechanism do or
do not occur in any given specimen. In addition, some
minerals exhibit apparent color or colors that are not true
color but, instead, a “play of color(s)” produced by certain
physical effects; these should be characterized as
pseudochromatic. Their appearance depends on such
phenomena as diffraction or scattering of wavelengths of
light by, for example, specially oriented inclusions.
In minerals with inherent color; the color depends upon the
nature and arrangement of its constituent ions. Thus
minerals containing Al, Ca, Na, K, Zr, Ba and Sr as their
main ions are generally light colored or colorless, while those
with Fe, Ti, Mn, Cr, Co, Ni, V and Cu are usually colored –
often deeply. Different types of bonding of the carbon
atoms are responsible for the color differences between
diamond (colorless) and graphite (black).

Diamond Graphite
Each type of color, but especially inherent color, can be used
as one of the more useful determinative physical properties

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of a mineral. In fact such use of color often requires both
experience and sharp discrimination. The color of a mineral
is often its most striking property. However, for the purpose
of its identification the colors exhibited by minerals vary
greatly; even the minerals belonging to the same mineral
group may possess quite different colors.
Thus, for example, in the quartz group of minerals, the
mineral quartz (SiO2) is usually colorless or white; but some
of its varieties will appear brown (the variety citrine), or pink
(rose quartz), or purple (amethyst), due to the amount of
certain trace elements included in the minerals composition.

Transparent Milky Quartz Grey Pink Quartz Violet Quartz Brown/Yellow

Quartz Quartz (Amethyst) Quartz (Citrine)

The two precious varieties of the mineral beryl, emerald and

aquamarine, also exhibit different colors – green and blue
respectively on account of different trace elements being
present; Chromium & Iron respectively.

Emerald Aquamarine

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On the other hand, minerals belonging to different groups
and obviously of different composition may have strikingly
similar colors; e.g. metallic minerals such as hematite
(Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe3O4), Chromite (FeCr2O4), pyrolusite
(MnO2) and psilomelane (hydrated manganese oxide) exhibit
grey to black color.

Hematite Magnetite Chromite Pyrolusite Psilomelane

Some minerals, when rotated or observed from different

directions, display a changing series of prismatic colors
similar to those seen in a rainbow or when looking through a
glass prism, called play of colors. This is best shown by
diamond and quartz, and is produced by a splitting
(dispersion) up of ray of white light into its colored
constituents as it enters and leaves the mineral. Change of
color is a somewhat similar phenomena extending over
broader surfaces, the succession of colors being produced as
the mineral is turned. Certain varieties of the mineral
plagioclase feldspar show these changes of color very well.
The change in color is caused by the interference of light
reflected from thin plates of other minerals enclosed or
exsolved in parallel planes within the feldspar crystals. Such

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a phenomena is similar to that of schiller, an almost
metallic luster exhibited by the orthopyroxene minerals,
particularly hypersthene, where reflection of colors takes
place on mineral plates exsolved on parallel planes within
the crystals. Some minerals display iridescence, a play of
colors due to the interference of rays of light either by
minute globules of water trapped in the crystal lattice, as in
opal (also called opalescence), or by distortions in the
atomic lattice, as in labradorite.

Opal Labradorite

Some minerals tarnish on the surface when exposed to air,

and may exhibit iridescent colors. Tarnishing may result
either from oxidation, or from the chemical action of sulfur
and other agents present in the atmosphere. Tarnish may be
distinguished from the true color of the mineral by
scratching or chipping the mineral, when the superficial
nature of the tarnish is revealed. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2) and
bornite (Cu5FeS4) often tarnish to an iridescent mixture of

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colors, the later mineral sometimes being known as
„peacock ore‟.

Chalcopyrite Bornite

STREAK

Streak is the color of the fine powder of a mineral. It is often

used as a diagnostic property for mineral identification. It
may used to distinguish between inherent and exotic color in
most mineral. Most exotic colors, which are much more
common in non-metallic than in metallic minerals, are not
perceptible in mineral powders; for example, dark colored
plagioclase feldspars give white streak.
Fine powders of a minerals used for checking their streak
can be obtained by grinding, scratching, or otherwise
bruising the surface of the mineral, or by drawing the
mineral across a piece of white unglazed porcelain – usually
called a streak plate.( A streak plate cannot be used for
minerals that are harder than the plate – H ~ 6 ½ .) Streak
is more constant and hence more reliable than color as
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perceived for larger specimens because it eliminates
spurious effects such as those attributable to grain size
differences. The streak of a mineral may be quite different
from that of the mineral in mass. Streak is most useful for
characterizing minerals with metallic lusters; for example,
grey galena (PbS) gives a black streak, and brassy yellow
pyrite (FeS2) also gives a black streak. Two ores of iron
namely hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) may
resemble in color but their streak is totally different;
hematite has brownish whereas magnetite has black streak.

LUSTER

Luster, an optical property closely related to reflection, can

be defined as the appearance of a material in reflected light.
Two classes of luster are prevalent and recognized in
minerals – those termed metallic and those termed non-
metallic. Strictly speaking, however no sharp division can be
made between the two classes, and minerals that appear to
be neither, or either, are usually said to be submetallic.

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The impression of luster is produced by the amount and
nature of light reflected from the surface of the mineral. It
depends largely on the character of the surface and the
quantity of reflected light. It is quite apparent that a smooth
cleavage surface will reflect more light than an uneven
fracture will, even if both are on the same mineral; in fact,
every detail of surface configuration is important. It is quite
obvious that different crystallographic directions, especially
in anisotropic minerals, are likely to absorb different
percentages of light and consequently reflect different
amounts of incident light, thus, even different surfaces of
individual specimens of a single mineral may have different
lusters.
In general, the greater a mineral‟s refractive index, the
higher the luster. This relationship has been described in
different ways (compare the following descriptions with the
values given in Table 1.
Table 1: Luster and index of refraction (according to
Povarennykh, 1964*)
Luster Index of Example (mean
Refraction index)
Subvitreous 1.3-1.5 Fluorite (1.434)
Vitreous 1.5-1.8 Topaz (1.620)
Subadamantine 1.8-2.2 Zircon (1.964)
Adamantine 2.2-2.7 Diamond (2.417)
Adamantine- 2.7-3.4 Cinnabar (3.093)
splendent

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* For opaque to sub-translucent minerals, Povarennykh also
uses the following terms and examples; submetallic,
ilmenite; metallic, molybdenite; and metallic-splendent,
gold.
Metallic luster: Minerals that
absorb visible radiations strongly,
being opaque or nearly opaque even
in very thin fragments (although
they may be transparent to infrared
Pyrite
radiation), generally have metallic luster. Their refractive
indices are 3 or greater. The native metals and most of the
sulfides are in this group.

Submetallic luster: Minerals with

refractive indices between 2.6 and 3,
most of them being nearly opaque or
opaque, generally have sub-metallic

Magnetite
luster. Examples are cuprite (n =
2.85), cinnabar (n = 2.9), and hematite (n = 3.0).
Nonmetallic luster (several varieties of which are
recognized):

Adamantine luster: The brilliant luster

typical of a diamond. It is characteristic of
minerals with refractive indices between
1.9 and 2.6. Examples are Zircon (n =

Zircon
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1.92-1.96), Cassiterite (n = 1.99-2.09), Sulfur (n = 2.4),
Sphalerite (n = 2.4), Diamond (n = 2.45), and Rutile (n =
2.6).
The combination of a yellow or brown
color with refractive indices in this
range produces a resinous luster, a
luster like that of resin.

Sphalerite with resinous luster

Vitreous luster:
It is the luster of a glass.
It is characteristic of
minerals with refractive
Quartz Milky White Quartz indices between 1.3 and
(Vitreous) (Sub-vitreous)
1.9. This range includes about 70 % of all minerals,
comprising nearly all silicates, most other oxysalts
(carbonates, phosphates, sulfates etc.), the halides, and
oxides and hydroxides of all the lighter elements such as Al
and Mg. When less well exhibited it is termed subvitreous.

Greasy, waxy, silky, pearly and dull lusters: Variants of

nonmetallic luster, caused by the character of the reflecting
surface. Diamonds often have somewhat greasy luster,
evidently as the result of a microscopically rough surface

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that scatters the reflected light. Cleavage surfaces of Halite
have a vitreous luster when fresh, but they take on a greasy
or waxy appearance after exposure to damp air, which
produces a slightly roughened surface.
The greasy luster common in
nepheline is due to a beginning
alteration.

Nepheline (Greasy)

Cryptocrystalline and amorphous

minerals, such as Chalcedony and
Opal, commonly have a waxy luster.
Chalcedony with waxy luster

Minerals occurring in parallel-fibrous

aggregates, such as Asbestos and
some varieties of Gypsum (Selenite)
are said to have silky luster.
Selenite

Transparent minerals with layer-

lattice structures and accompanying
perfect lamellar cleavage have
characteristically pearly luster

Muscovite
produced by reflection from
successive cleavage surfaces: examples are Talc, the Micas ,
and coarsely crystallized gypsum.

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 Porous aggregates of a mineral such as
the Clays scatter incident light so
completely that they seem to be without
luster and are described as dull or
earthy.
Kaolinite

(Note: The luster of a mineral can also be correlated with

the type of bonding, color and light transmission **)

The luster of minerals may be of ranging degrees of

intensity, depending on the amount of light reflected from
their surfaces. When the surface of a mineral is so brilliant
that it reflects objects distinctly, as a mirror would do, it is
said to be splendent. When the surface is less brilliant
and objects are reflected indistinctly, it is said to be
shining. When the surface has no luster at all it is
described as dull.

DIAPHANEITY (LIGHT TRANSMISSION)

The degree to which a mineral transmits light is generally

termed diaphaneity.
As you can see small grains, or along the thin edges of large
grains, nearly all minerals are either transparent or opaque.
Many minerals, however, cannot be seen to be transparent
in any but extremely small grains, although they do transmit

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light; they are generally termed translucent. The widely
subscribed –to definitions of these three adjectives are as
follows:

Transparent: Said of minerals capable of transmitting light

and through which an object can be seen clearly. A clear
crystal of Quartz is a good example.

Translucent: Said of minerals capable of transmitting light

but through which an object cannot be discerned, except
possibly in outline and generally distorted. (Most
translucencies depend on either absorption of light because
of a material‟s dark color or scattering of light within the
material.)
Opaque: Said of minerals that are incapable of transmitting
light. This condition refers, of course, to the mineral in hand-
specimen, since many opaque minerals, especially
Some Transparency Examples:

TRANSPARENT TRANSLUCENT OPAQUE

** Mineralogy by Berry, Mason and Dietrich; second edition. CBS Publishers & Distributors
*** Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy; 27 th edition, revised by C.D.Gribble, CBS Publishers &
Distributors

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Among the silicates, become translucent when cut into thin
slices, or even transparent when reduced to thin sections
suitable for microscope examination. Some minerals, mostly
oxides and sulfides such as Magnetite, Hematite, Ilmenite
and Galena, are always opaque, even in thin section.
Several other terms are also used to describe diaphaneity;
for example, semitransparent (subtransparent),
subtranslucent to describe the intermediate states.
Diaphaneity is correlative with luster and consequently with,
for example, predominant bond type. In general, materials
with metallic luster are opaque, whereas those with
nonmetallic lusters are not.

LUMINESCENCE

Luminescence is the emission of light as the result of any

processes other than incandescence. Such light is dependent
on energy conversions. The kind of energy thus far shown to
cause luminescence include those usually referred to as
electromagnetic (optical and nuclear), electric, mechanical,
chemical, and bio-chemical energy.
The luminescence most frequently observed in minerals is
generally termed photoluminescence. It is usually stimulated
by irradiation with ultraviolet light and is best observed in
total darkness. Fluorescence is the emission of light at the
same time as the irradiation; phosphorescence is continued
emission of light after the irradiation is terminated. Both
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natural and man-made materials that exhibit luminescence
are widely referred to as phosphors.

PHOSPHORESCENSE

Phosphorescence is the property by which some

substances emit light after having been subjected to certain
conditions such as heating, rubbing, or exposure either to
radiation or to ultraviolet light. Some varieties of fluorite,
when powdered and heated on an iron plate, display bright
phosphorescence. When rubbed together in a dark room,
pieces of quartz emit a phosphorescent light. Exposure to
sunlight or even ordinary diffused light can produce
phosphorescence from many minerals, seen by transferring
them rapidly to a dark room. Diamond, Ruby and few other
minerals exhibit brilliant phosphorescence after exposure to
X-rays, a property employed in some mines to make sure
that this mineral has been completely extracted from its ore.
Some minerals emit light whilst exposed to certain electrical
radiations. This phenomenon is best displayed by Fluorite,
and for this reason is called fluorescence.

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2. CHARACTERS DEPENDING UPON ATOMIC
STRUCTURE AND STATE OF AGGREGATION

CRYSTAL FORM

Under favorable conditions minerals assume a definite

crystal form. The requirements are that the crystal has
been free to grow outwards into the solution or melt from
which it formed, neither obstructed by other solid matter nor
hindered by a shortage of the constituents needed for
growth. In such an environment, the mineral develops as a
crystal with a regular pattern of faces and angles between
adjoining faces which are characteristic of a particular
mineral. The study of this regularity of form, and of the
internal structure to which it is related, is called
crystallography. The following general descriptive terms
are associated with the crystal characters of minerals:
Crystallized: A term denoting that the mineral occurs as
well developed crystals. Minerals are bounded by smooth
plane surfaces and assume regular geometric form known as
crystals. Most of the beautiful mineral specimens in the
museums are of crystallized minerals.
Crystalline: A term denoting that no definite crystals are
developed, but that a confused aggregate of imperfect
crystal grains have formed, interfering with one another
during their growth. The crystalline minerals have ordered

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arrangement of atoms in the crystal structure but lacks
outward geometric shape.
Cryptocrystalline: A term denoting that the mineral
possesses traces of crystalline structure. The crystallinity of
such minerals cannot be resolved with the microscope but
can be detected by X-ray diffraction techniques.
Amorphous: A term used to describe the complete absence
of crystalline structure, a condition common in natural rock
glasses but rare in minerals. Naturally occurring amorphous
substances are designated as mineraloids.
CRYSTAL HABIT

The habit or appearance of single crystals as well the

manner in which crystal grow together in aggregates are of
considerable aid in mineral recognition. The development of
an individual crystal, or an aggregate of crystals, to produce
a particular shape, depends upon the conditions during
formation. Terms used to express habit and states of
aggregation are given below.

1. Minerals in isolated or distinct crystals may be

described as:

(a) Acicular: Slender needle like crystals. e.g.

Natrolite

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(b) Capillary and filiform: Hairlike or threadlike
crystals. e.g. Native silver

(c) Bladed: Elongated crystals flattened like a knife

blade. e.g. Kyanite

(d) Prismatic: Elongation of crystal in one direction,

as in hornblende.

2. For groups of crystals the following terms are used:

(a) Dendritic: Arborescent, in slender divergent

branches, somewhat plantlike. e.g. dendrites of
manganese oxide.

(b) Reticulated: Lattice like groups of slender

crystals or cross-mesh pattern, like a net. e.g. Rutile
needles found within the crystals of Quartz.
(c) Divergent or radiated: Radiating
crystal groups. e.g.
Barite, Natrolite.

(d) Drusy: A surface covered with a layer of small

crystals. e.g. Quartz

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3. Parallel or radiating groups of individual crystals, are
described as:
(a) Columnar: Stout, column like individual crystal of
quartz.

(b) Bladed: An aggregate of many flattened blades.

(c) Fibrous: Aggregate of slender fibrous, parallel or
radiating. e.g. Satin-spar

(d) Stellated: Radiating individuals forming star like

or circular group. e.g. Wavellite

(e) Globular: Radiating individuals forming spherical

or hemispherical groups ex.Malachite

(f)Botryoidal: Globular form resembling , as the word

derived from the Greek implies, a “bunch of grapes”
e.g. Psilomelane

(g) Reniform: Radiating individuals terminating in

round kidney-shaped masses. e.g. variety of
Hematite called kidney-iron ore.

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 (h) Mamillary: Large rounded masses resembling
mammae, formed by radiating individuals. e.g.
Goethite, Malachite

(i) Colloform:
Spherical forms composed of radiating individuals
without regard to size; this includes botryoidal,
reniform, and mammilary.
4. A mineral aggregate composed of scales or lamellae is
described as:

(a) Foliated: Easily separable into plates or leaves

e.g. sheet silicates.Ex. Talc

(b) Micaceous: Similar to foliated, but splits into

exceedingly thin sheets, as in the micas

(c) Lamellar or tabular: Flat, plate like individuals

superimposed upon and adhering to each other.

Wollastonite (Lamellar) Orthoclase (Tabular)

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(d) Plumose: Fine scales with divergent or featherlike
structure.e.g. Tridymite.

5. A mineral aggregates composed of grains is granular.

e.g. Olivine, when the mineral resembles
lumps of sugar the term saccharoidal is
used.
6. Miscellaneous terms:

(a) Stalactitic: Pendent cylinders, or cones,

stalactites form by deposition from mineral-bearing
waters dripping from the roofs of caves. e.g. Calcite

(b) Concentric: More or less spherical layers

superimposed upon one another about a common
center. Concretionary and nodular forms are typically
exhibited by flint nodules.

(c) Pisolitic: Rounded masses about the size of peas.

e.g. Bauxite

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(d) Oölitic: A mineral aggregate formed of small
spheres resembling fish ore. e.g. Calcite.

(e) Banded: A mineral in narrow bands of differing

colors or texture. e.g. Agate.

(f)Massive: Compact mineral without form or

distinguishing features. Ex. Pink Rosy Quartz

(g) Amygdaloidal: A rock such as Basalt containing

almond-shaped nodules. e.g.
amygdales of Zeolites in
Basalts.
Geode: A rock cavity lined by mineral material but not
wholly filled. Geodes may be banded as in agate, due
to successive depositions of material, and the inner
surface is frequently covered with
projecting crystals. Ex. Amethyst

(h) Concretion: Masses formed by deposition of

material about a nucleus. Some concretions are roughly
spherical, whereas others assume a great variety of
shapes. Ex Phosphate nodule

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HARDNESS

Hardness of a mineral is generally defined as its resistance

to scratching (i.e.abration); designated as H. The degree of
hardness is determined by observing the comparative ease
or difficulty with which one mineral is scratched by another,
or by file or knife. The hardness of the mineral might then
be said to be its “scratchability.” The evaluation of hardness
is the assessment of the reaction of a crystal structure to
stress without rupture (cleavage, parting, and fracture are
various forms of rupture). It is, of course, another property
that manifests the internal cohesiveness of a material. For
some materials or minerals with metallic bonded crystals,
such as copper, hardness measures plastic deformation.
Scratching results in groove. For other materials, such as
most brittle minerals with ionic and/or covalent bonding, it
measures stress required for micro fracturing (rupture on a
very small scale). In any case, relative hardness has been
employed as a useful diagnostic property ever since the
beginning of systematic mineralogy and in 1824 it was given
qualitative precision by Austrian mineralogist, Friedrich
Mohs, who proposed a scale for measuring degree of
hardness. A series of 10 common minerals was chosen as a
scale, by comparison with which the relative hardness of any
mineral can be told.

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The following minerals arranged in order of increasing
hardness comprise what is known as the Mohs scale of
hardness:
1. Talc 6. Orthoclase
2. Gypsum 7. Quartz
3. Calcite 8. Topaz
4. Fluorite 9. Corundum
5. Apatite 10. Diamond

The above minerals are arranged in an order of increasing

relative hardness. The hardness of these same minerals can
be measured by more quantitative techniques than a scratch
test, and this leads to an absolute hardness scale.
The relative position of minerals in the Mohs scale is
preserved, but corundum, for example, is 2 times as hard as
Topaz but 4 times harder than Quartz.
Talc, number 1 in the Mohs scale, has a structure made up
of plates so weakly bound to one another that the pressure
29
of the fingers is sufficient to slide one plate over the other.
At the other end of the scale is diamond with its constituent
carbon atoms so firmly bound to each other that no other
mineral can force them apart to cause a scratch.
In order to determine the relative hardness of any mineral in
terms of this scale, it is necessary to find which of these
minerals it can and which it cannot scratch. In, making the
determination, the following should be observed: Sometimes
when one mineral is softer than another, portions of the first
will leave the mark on the second that may be mistaken for
a scratch. Such a mark can be rubbed off, whereas a true
scratch will be permanent. The surfaces of some minerals
are frequently altered to material that is much softer than
the original mineral. A fresh surface of the specimen to be
tested must therefore be used. The physical nature of a
mineral may prevent a correct determination of its hardness.
For instance, if the mineral is pulverulent, granular, or
splintery, it may be broken down and apparently scratched
by a mineral by a mineral much softer than itself. It is
always advisable when making the hardness test to confirm
it by reversing the order of procedure; that is, do not only
try to scratch mineral A by mineral B, but also try to scratch
B by A.
The following materials serve in addition to the above scale:
the hardness of a finger nail is a little over 2, a copper coin
about 3, the steel of a pocket knife a little over 5, a window

30
glass 5 ½, and the steel of a file 6 ½ and a streak plate 6 ½.
With a little practice, the hardness of mineral under 5 can be
quickly estimated by the ease with which they can be
scratched with a pocketknife.
The hardness of some crystals varies so greatly with
crystallographic direction that the difference may be
detected by simple scratch tests, thus it is a vector property.
Thus crystals may show varying degree of hardness
depending on the directions in which they are scratched. The
directional hardness differences in most common minerals
are so slight that, if they can be detected at all, it is only
through the use of delicate instruments. Two exceptions are
Kyanite*, H = 5 parallel to the length, but H = 7 across the
length of the crystal. The hardness of Calcite is 3 on all
surfaces except {0001}. On this form, however, it can be
scratched by the fingernail and has a hardness of 2.

1
HARDNESS AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Hardness and chemical composition have been related

according to the following, generalization:
1.Minerals of the heavy metal, such as gold, silver,
copper, mercury, and lead, are soft, few with hardness
exceeding 3 ( exceptions are platinum, H = 4- 4 ½ and
Iron H = 4 ½ ).
2. Most sulfides and sulfosalts are relatively soft (H< 5);
the sulfides of iron, nickel, and cobalt are exceptions.
3. Most hydrous minerals are relatively soft (H >5).

31
 4. Most anhydrous oxides and silicates are hard (H >5 ½).
5. The halide, carbonate, sulfate, and phosphate minerals
are relatively soft (H >5 ½).

1
HARDNESS AND MINERAL STRUCTURE

Correlations between hardness and mineral structure,

which for the most part pertain to minerals within
isomorphic group, have been expressed by the following
generalizations:
1. Hardness is greater the smaller the atoms or ions.
2. Hardness is greater the greater the valence or
charge of the constituent cations.
3. Hardness is greater the greater the packing density.

* An old name for Kyanite being „Disthene‟, from the

Greek words meaning „two strengths‟.
1 read
For details , Mineralogy by Berry, Mason and
Dietrich

All these generalizations are interrelated; for example, the

one dealing with size of atoms and ions (1) and one
dealing with packing density (3) are both related to
interionic distances and consequently to bond density.
Therefore, it also seems worthwhile to note the two
following generalizations:

32
1. Hardness varies inversely with the interatomic distance
– that is, the cation-anion separation.
2. Hardness varies directly with bond density.

TENACITY

Tenacity, also termed tensile strength, is the resistance

that a material offers to mechanical deformation or
disintegration‟ that is, it is the resistance that the atoms
and ions of a material offer to being separated when
submitted to processes that tend to cause bending,
breaking, crushing, or cutting. The tenacity is expressed
by diverse expressions such as brittle, malleable, ductile,
flexible, and elastic. Other descriptive terms for tenacity
include plasticity, and toughness.
1. Brittle: A minerals that breaks and powders
easily. This is characteristic of crystals with
dominant ionic bonding. e.g. Pyrite, Apatite and
Fluorite.
2. Malleable: A mineral that can be hammered out
into thin sheets. e.g. Native Gold, Native Silver,
Native Copper.
3. Sectile: A mineral that can be cut into thin
shavings with a knife. e.g. Graphite, Steatite and
Gypsum.
4. Ductile: A mineral that can be drawn into a wire.
The characteristics described in 2, 3, and 4

33
 (malleable, sectile, ductility) are diagnostic of
materials held together by metallic bonding. The
metallic bond conveys to crystalline substances
the unique property of yielding to applied stress
by plastic deformation.
5. Flexible: A mineral that bends but does not
resume its original shape when the pressure is
released. Cleavage sheets of Chlorite and Talc are
flexible, but they do not snap back to their original
position after having been bent. In other words,
their deformation is permanent. The bonding
between OH-rich layers in these silicates is by
combination of van der Waals and hydrogen
bonds, whereas the bonding within the tetrahedral
(Si-Al-O) sheets is a mixture of covalent and ionic
bonding. The flexibility of the sheets is the result
of the slippage along OH-layers in the structure.
6. Elastic: A mineral that, after being bent, will
resume its original position upon the release of the
pressure. Sheets of Mica can be bent, and they
will snap back into their original position after the
bending has stopped. In contrast to structure of
Talc and Chlorite, the Mica structure contains K+-
rich layers that exert a much stronger force on the
sheets of Si-Al tetrahedral than do the hydrogen
or van der Waals bonding mechanism. The ionic

34
 bonding between K+ ions and the Si-Al tetrahedral
sheets is responsible for the elasticity of Mica.
7. Plasticity: It is for most part, the result of
movements in response to shear parallel to
specific lattice planes. In some cases, however,
the movements are controlled by concentrations of
dislocation defects.
8. Toughness: It can be defined as the amount of
energy that can be absorbed before a material
fractures, is generally much higher for poly
crystalline aggregates (rocks) than for individual
crystal grain. e.g. Diamond, Jade.

TENACITY

Tenacity is not related directly to hardness; note, for

example, that Diamond (H = 10) has much lower
tensile strength, because of its ready cleavage, than
Jade (H = 6), which typically comprises extremely
tough polycrystalline mass.

FRACTURE

In some crystal structure the strength of the bonds is

approximately the same in all directions. Breaking of such

35
crystals generally will not follow a particular crystallographic
direction. The way minerals break when they do not yield
along cleavage or parting surfaces is their fracture. Fracture
patterns can be distinctive and highly diagnostic in mineral
identification. Different kinds of fracture are designated as
follows:
(a) Conchoidal: The minerals break with a
curved concave or convex fracture. The smooth,
curved fracture resembling the interior surface of
a shell i.e. it shows concentric and gradually
diminishing undulations, e.g. Quartz, Natural
Glasses, particularly obsidian. When less well
displayed is termed, subconchoidal.
(b) Even: The fracture surface is flattish, as in
Chert.
(c) Uneven or irregular: Fracture producing
rough and irregular surfaces. Most minerals have
uneven fracture.
(d) Splintery or fibrous: Resembling split wood.
Typically displayed by mineral Asbestos.
(e) Hackly: Jagged fracture with sharp edges or
jagged elevations, as in Cast Iron. Ex.Native Gold

36
 Conchoidal Even Uneven Splintery Hackly

Obsidian Chert Magnetite Chrysotile Native Gold

CLEAVAGE

Cleavage is the tendency of minerals to break parallel to

atomic planes that are identified by Miller indices, just as the
faces of the external form of a crystal. Cleavage may be
very well developed (perfect) in some crystals, as shown by
the basal cleavage of Micas, or it may be fairly obscure as in
Beryl and Apatite. In some minerals it is completely absent.
Graphite, for example, has a well developed cleavage,
parallel to the basal plane, that is, parallel to {0001}. Within
these cleavage plates there is a strong covalent bond
between the carbon ions, but across the plates there is the
weak van der Waals bond giving rise to the cleavage.
A weak bond is usually accompanied by a large interplanar
spacing between because the attractive force cannot hold
the planes closely together. Diamond has only one bon type,
the covalent bond, and its excellent cleavage parallel to the
octahedron {111} takes place along atomic planes having
the largest interplanar spacing. The relationship between
internal, atomic structure and the resultant cleavage

37
directions is well shown by the structure image of a
pyroxene. The planes of lowest bond density (i.e. the planes
of lowest relative electron density) coincide with the two
directions of the prism, {110}, the intersection of which is
parallel to the axis. The internal angle between these two
cleavage directions is approximately 88º.
In describing a cleavage its quality and crystallographic
direction should be given. The quality is expressed as
perfect, good, fair, and so forth. The direction is expressed
by the name or indices of the form which the cleavage
parallels, such as cubic {001}, octahedral {111},
rhomobedral {10ī1}, prismatic {110}, or pinacoidal {001}.
Cleavage is always consistent with the symmetry; thus, if
one octahedral cleavage direction is developed, it implies
that there must be three other symmetry related directions;
it similarly implies five other symmetry related directions.
Not all minerals show cleavage, and only a comparatively
few show it in an eminent degree, but in these it serves as
an outstanding diagnostic criteria.

38
3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity (G) or relative density1 is a number that

expresses the ratio between the weight of a substances and
the weight of an equal volume of water at 4ºC. Thus a
mineral with a specific gravity of 2, weights twice as much
as the same volume of water. The specific gravity of a
mineral is frequently an important aid in its identification,
particularly in working with fine crystals or gemstones, when
other tests would injure the specimens.
The specific gravity of a crystalline substance depends on
(1) the kind of atoms of which it is composed, and (2) the

39
manner in which the atoms are packed together. In
isostructural compounds in which the packing is constant,
those with elements of higher atomic weight will usually
have higher specific gravities.
In solid solution series, there is a continuous change in
specific gravity (for density) with change in chemical
composition. For example, the mineral Olivine, (Mg,Fe)
2 SiO4 , is a solid solution series between Fosterite, Mg2SiO4
(G 3.3), and Fayalite, FeSiO4 (G 4.4).Thus from
determination of specific gravity one can obtain a close
approximation of the chemical composition of an Mg-Fe
Olivine. A similar relationship in an amphibole series can be
noted.
The influence of the packing of atoms on specific gravity is
well illustrated in polymorphous compounds. In these
compounds the composition the remains constant, but the
packing of the atom varies.

1
Density and specific gravity are sometimes used
interchangeable. However, density requires the citation of
units, for example, grams per cubic centimeter or pounds
per cubic foot.
The most dramatic example is given by Diamond and
Graphite, both elemental carbons. Diamond with specific
gravity 3.5 has a closely packed structure, giving a high
density of atoms per unit volume; whereas in Graphite,

40
specific gravity 2.23, the carbon atoms are loosely
packed.

AVERAGE SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Most people from everyday experience have acquired a

sense of relative weight even in regard to minerals. For
example, Ulexite (G 1.96) seems light, whereas Barite (G
4.5) seems heavy for nonmetallic minerals. This means
that one has developed an idea of an average specific
gravity or a feeling of what a nonmetallic of a given size
should weigh. This average specific gravity can be
considered to be between 2.65 and 2.75. The reason for
this is that the specific gravities of Quartz (G 2.65),
Feldspar (G 2.60 – 2.75), and Calcite (G 2.72), the most
common and abundant nonmetallic minerals, fall mostly
within this range. The same sense may be developed in
regard to metallic minerals: Graphite (G 2.23) seems
light, whereas Silver (G 10.5) seems heavy. The average
specific gravity for metallic minerals is about 5.0, that of
Pyrite. Thus, with a little practice, one can, by merely
lifting specimens, distinguish minerals that have
comparatively small differences in specific gravity.

41
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

In order to determine the specific gravity accurately, the

mineral must be homogenous and pure, requirements
frequently difficult to fulfill. It must also be compact with
no cracks or cavities within which bubbles or films air
could be imprisoned. For normal mineralogical work, the
specimen should have a volume of about one cubic
centimeter. If these conditions cannot be met, a specific
gravity determination by any rapid and simple method
means little.
The necessary steps in making an ordinary specific gravity
determination are, briefly, - as follows: the mineral is first
weighed in air. Let this weight be represented by W a . It is
then immersed in water and weighed again. Under these
conditions it weighs less, because in water it is buoyed up
by a force equivalent to the weight of the water displaced.
Let the weight in water is represented by Ww . Then Wa –
Ww equals the apparent loss of weight in water, or the
weight of an equal volume of water. The expression W a /
(Wa -Ww ) will therefore yield a number which is specific
gravity.

42
4. CHARACTERS DEPENDING UPON MAGNETISM,
AND ELECTRICITY.

MAGNETISM

Magnetite, Fe2O4, and Pyrrhotite, Fe 1-xS, are the only

common minerals attracted to a small hand magnet
(Horseshoe magnet). They are referred to as
ferromagnetic, a term which refers to material that
show strong magnetic attraction when subjected to a
magnetic field. It also includes materials that are
magnetic in absence of any applied magnetic field. The
only naturally occurring example of such a material is
Lodestone, a variety of magnetite, a natural magnet with
the attracting power and polarity of a true magnet. The
natural magnetism of lodestone is attributed to nit having
cooled from the molten state (as part of igneous rock) in
the presence of the earth‟s weak magnetic field. The best
and most commonly used magnetic material does not
occur naturally but is an iron alloy, which when drawn into
a shape of a bar is magnetized by a strong magnetic field.
When ferromagnetic materials are heated above a specific
temperature, their strong magnetic properties will be
replaced by a comparatively weak magnetism, which is a
function of the strength of the applied magnetic field.
Materials exhibiting such weak magnetism, as a result of
a strong applied magnetic field, are known as
43
paramagnetic. The temperature at which the
spontaneous magnetism of Magnetite changes to
paramagnetism is 85ºC. The same change in magnetic
iron occurs at 770 ºC. This critical temperature of
ferromagnetism is known as the Curie temperature,
after Pierre Curie who contributed much basic research to
the concept of paramagnetism. A third term, which can be
applied to all minerals, is diamagnetic. This term refers
to a very weak magnetic response in a direction opposite
that of any extremely applied field.

ELECTRICITY

Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ease of transfer

of an electric charge from one point to another within the
material (e.g. a mineral) that is placed in an electric field.
The transfer requires the presence of charge carriers,
which are valence electrons in most minerals. Valence
electrons are free to act as carriers where they occur
delocalized around the outer shells of metal atoms within
minerals having metallic bond; valence electrons cannot
participate in this way where they are, so to speak, locked
in place because of sharing (e.g. as in minerals having
covalent bonds) or where there specific transfers (e.g.
minerals having ionic bonds).
On the basis of their electrical properties, minerals can be
divided into two groups- the conductors and the non-

44
conductors. Some scientists, however, subdivide
conductors into conductors, per se, and semiconductors.
The electrical nature of many minerals can be correlated
directly with bonding, thus conduction of electricity in
crystals is related to the type of bonding. Minerals with
pure metallic bonding, such as the native metals, are
excellent electrical conductors, whereas those, in which
the bonding is partially metallic, as in some sulfide
minerals, are semiconductors, ionic or covalent bonded
minerals are usually nonconductors. For nonisometric
minerals, electrical conductivity is a vectorial property
varying with crystallographic direction. For example, the
hexagonal mineral, Graphite, is a far better conductor at
right angles to the c axis than parallel to it. Electrical
conductivity of minerals can vary with temperature and
pressure. In some non-conducting minerals, it is possible
to induce electrical charges by changes in temperature
(pyroelectricity) or directed pressure (piezoelectricity).

Pyroelectricity
Temperature changes in a crystal may cause the
simultaneous development of positive and negative
charges at opposite ends of a polar axis. This property of
pyroelectricity is observed, as is piezoelectricity, only on
crystals with polar axes. Crystals that belong to the 10
crystal classes having a unique polar axis are considered

45
to show “true” or primary piezoelectricity. Examples:
Tourmaline
Piezoelectricity
Polar axes are present only in crystals that lack a center
of symmetry. Of the 32 crystal classes, 21 have no center
of symmetry and of these but one, the gyroidal class, has
at least one polar axis with different crystal forms at
opposite ends. If pressure is exerted at the ends of a
polar axis, a flow of electrons toward one end produces a
negative electrical charge, whereas a positive charge is
induced at the opposite end. This is piezoelectricity, and
any mineral crystallizing in one of the 20 classes with
polar axes should show it. However, in some minerals the
charge developed is too weak to be detected. The
examples of excellent piezoelectricity are Quartz,
Tourmaline.

Static electricity
Sometimes referred to as, frictional electricity can be
produced by rubbing some nonconductor minerals with
silk or fur; this characteristic of amber has been observed
for many centuries. Many minerals exhibit this effect. It is
rather curious that some gemstones show this property
after being cut and polished even though they do not
exhibit the property in their rough state.

46
5. PROPERTIES DEPENDING UPON CERTAIN SENSES,
SUCH AS
THOSE OF TASTE, ODOUR AND FEEL

Taste and odour are sometimes referred to as sensate

properties.

TASTE

Minerals that are water-soluble may have the following

tastes
(a) Astringent or puckering: Alums such as
Melantrite(green vitrol) FeSO4.7H2O
(b) Bitter: Epsom salt( MgSO4.7H2O); Sylvite (KCl)
(c) Saline or Salty: Halite (NaCl)
(d) Alkaline: Potash alum (KAl(SO4)2.12H2O and
Soda-niter (NaNO3)
(e) Cooling: Nitre(Saltpeter) KNO3

ODOUR

Some minerals have characteristic odour when struck,

rubbed, breathed upon or heated.
(a) Acrid or Sulfurous: That of burning sulfur, given
off by Pyrite (FeS2); Chalcocite (Cu2S) when heated.
(b) Alliaceous: That of garlic, given off when arsenic
compounds are heated. E.g. Arsenopyrite (FeAsS)

47
 (c) Fetid: That of rotten eggs given off by heating or
rubbing certain varieties of Quartz or Limestone;
Pyrrhotite with HCl; Sphalerite(ZnS) gives off odour of
H2S
(d) Horse-radish: That of decaying horse-radish,
given off when Selenium compounds are heated.
(e) Argillaceous, clayey or musty: Clay minerals
when breathed on emit musty odour.
FEEL

Smooth, greasy or unctuous, harsh, meager or rough are

kinds of feel of minerals may help in their identification. Also
some minerals adhere to the one‟s tongue e.g. Kaolinite,
(China clay, Kaolin)
Al4 [Si 4O10] (OH) 8

7. RADIOACTIVITY
All ordinary matter is made up of combinations of chemical
elements, each with its own atomic number, indicating the
number of protons in the atomic nucleus. Additionally,
elements may exist in different isotopes, with each isotope
of an element differing only in the number of neutrons in the
nucleus. A particular isotope of a particular element is called
a nuclide. Some nuclides are inherently unstable. That is, at
some random point in time, an atom of such a nuclide will
be transformed into a different nuclide by the process known
as radioactive decay. This transformation is accomplished by

48
the emission of particles such as electrons (known as beta
decay) or alpha particles.
While the moment in time at which a particular nucleus
decays is random, a collection of atoms of a radioactive
nuclide decays exponentially at a rate described by a
parameter known as the half-life, usually given in units of
years when discussing dating techniques. After one half-life
has elapsed, one half of the atoms of the substance in
question will have decayed. Many radioactive substances
decay from one nuclide into a final, stable decay product (or
"daughter") through a series of steps known as a decay
chain. In this case, usually the half-life reported is the
dominant (longest) for the entire chain, rather than just one
step in the chain. Nuclides useful for radiometric dating have
half-lives ranging from a few thousand to a few billion years.
Many minerals contain elements that are subjected to
radioactive decay throughout the geological time.
Radioactive minerals are rare, mainly occurring as salts of
uranium and thorium, and can be detected in the field by
using a Geiger counter or a scintillometer. However, many
minerals contain certain radioactive isotopes which are
subject to decay when the unstable parent isotopes break
down into stable daughter products. The more common pairs
of elements are given below, with the atomic weight of the
element given above the symbol:

49
 Parent isotope Daughter Half
isotope life(years)
232 208
Thorium Th Lead Pb 14 billion
235 207
Uranium U Lead Pb 704 million
238 206
Uranium U Lead Pb 4.5 billion
Rubidium 87Rb Strontium 87
Sr 48.8billion
Potassium 40K Argon 40
Ar 1.3 billion
14 14
Carbon C Nitrogen N 5730 years

A mass spectrometer is used to analyze for the stable and

unstable isotopes in a mineral.

Compiled by:
Mr. Anil Karambelkar
Associate Professor
Dept. of Geology
Govt. College,
Sanquelim – Goa.

Reference:
Berry, L.G., Mason, B and Dietrich, R.V. Mineralogy, Second Edition,
CBS Publishers & Distributors.

Milovsky, A.V., Kononov, O.V. Mineralogy, Mir Publishers Moscow

Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy; 27th edition, revised by C.D.Gribble,

CBS Publishers & Distributors

50