FOOD CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR OF PEOPLE IN RURAL NEPAL

A CASE STUDY OF CHOOMRUNG

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

SUBMITTED BY

SAGAR SUNUWAR
EXAM ROLL NO. :19610059

2018 BATCH

SUBMITTED TO

Dr. BADRI ARYAL

SUPERVISOR
PROJECT WORK I
SCHOOL OF DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
POKHARA UNIVERSITY

NOVEMBER 2022
 Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Background of the Study:............................................................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Statement of Problem.................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Research Objectives:...................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Significance of the Study:............................................................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................................. 7
2.1. General Review................................................................................................................................................................ 7
2.2. Concept of Food:.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3. Food Consumption Behavior/ Food Choice:..................................................................................................... 7
2.4. Factors Affecting Food Consumption Behavior:............................................................................................. 7
2.4.1 Availability of Food.............................................................................................................................................. 10
2.4.2 Lifestyle of a Person............................................................................................................................................ 10
2.4.3 Social Background................................................................................................................................................ 10
2.4.4 Culture....................................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.5 Religion...................................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.4.6 Personal skills and experience..................................................................................................................... 11
2.4.7 Persons Beliefs and Knowledge.................................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Pattern of Food Consumption Around the World........................................................................................ 11
2.6. Pattern of Food Consumption of the Asian Countries..............................................................................13
2.7. Pattern of Food Consumption in Nepal:........................................................................................................... 13
2.8. Food Consumption in Rural Area:....................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................................... 15
3.1. Study Area........................................................................................................................................................................ 15
3.2. Research Design............................................................................................................................................................ 15
3.3. Study Population, Sample Size and Sampling Procedure:......................................................................15
3.4. Nature and Sources of Data:................................................................................................................................... 15
3.5. Plan of Data Collection:............................................................................................................................................. 15
3.5.1 Structured Questionnaire................................................................................................................................ 15
3.5.2 Key Informant Interview(KII):...................................................................................................................... 15
3.6. Plan of Data Analysis:................................................................................................................................................. 15
3.7. Reliability and Validity:............................................................................................................................................ 16
3.8. Ethical Consideration:................................................................................................................................................ 16
Limitations of the Study:........................................................................................................................................................ 16
References:.................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study:
Consumer behavior refers to the attitude that the consumer shows during the search, purchase
and consumption of a certain product (Rani, 2014). Studying consumer behavior is a
multidisciplinary phenomenon as it covers every aspect such as health, economic, marketing
and others. Food Consumption behavior is one of the important issues because food is an
essential element for humans to live and sustain life and a key determinant of nutritional
adequacy and overall health of the population of a country. The food consumption of a group
of people/community can be described as the reasons for eating, the methods used while
eating, the types of food eaten, and the mode of storage. Food consumption behavior has a
major impact on society and the development of nutritional status and culture. In most cases,
food consumptions behaviors are subjected to age, gender, environmental changes,
acculturation, religious beliefs, personal health, and the financial status of an individual. Food
consumption may vary from one individual or family to another.
Nepal is a landlocked Mountainous country surrounded by the two emerging economic giants
of the world; China in the North and India in three sides. Nepal is one of the developing nations
and has rich cultural and natural heritages. Developing countries like Nepal usually face duality
of economy i.e. presence of rural and urban area. The social, economic, demographic and
cultural settings of rural and urban areas are different from each other. Generally, in
developing countries like Nepal has rural areas less developed than urban areas. Rural areas
are backbone of every country but it has problems like backwardness of agriculture, low
income, low employment opportunities, poverty, low infrastructural development, illiteracy,
low labour productivity, lower prices of agricultural products, high level of migration and high
dependency on natural resources and nature.
Since, rural and urban is socially, economically, naturally and culturally different from urban
areas, the food consumption behavior of rural area is also different from urban areas. Generally
in the context of the world, the people living in rural areas tend to consume fresh and
internally produced foods as compared to urban areas (Pocol, 2015).
Food consumption pattern in rural areas of Nepal is also quite significantly different from the
food consumption pattern of urban areas (Annual household survey, 2015/2016). Annual
household survey of Nepal and study conducted by other independent researchers found that
the amount of consumption of food in rural areas is slightly less than urban areas and people of
rural areas has been consuming products (like meat, alcohol, rice) in a large quantity. However,
NLSS III found that household consumption expenditure on food in rural area is 65.6% which is
far greater than urban area (46.0%). This data concludes that household of rural area tends to
spend more on food as compared to urban. Furthermore, it is generally found that in rural
areas people are suffering from food insecurity and children are usually suffering from
malnutrition as compared to the urban areas. Therefore, it becomes inevitable to study the
consumption pattern of rural areas.
1.2 Statement of Problem
Nepal is a developing country with geographical hurdles. The unequal development practice of
Nepal has given birth to the inequality between rural and urban areas of Nepal. HDI of rural
areas is 0.561 whereas HDI of urban area is 0.647(UNDP,2020). This shows that there is a huge
discrepancy of development between rural and urban areas of Nepal. Similarly, GNI per capita
of urban area is 3550 (US $) whereas GNI per capita of rural area is 2217 (US $) (UNDP,2020).
These indicators show that rural area is far behind urban area. The social, economic and
cultural conditions of rural area has significant impact on the food consumption behavior of
people living in rural areas. Since, food is an essential component in our life as it determines
the nutritional status and overall development of person’s anatomy. The study of food
consumption behavior is very important in the context of development studies. Food
consumption behavior of rural area helps to determine the overall nutritional status of people
living in rural area; the level of dietary intake followed by rural areas; overview of the food
consumed by rural people and more importantly the food security status of rural area.
However, all these mentioned things are not directly addressed by this study but they are the
latent variables that this research tend to highlight. Similarly, the people living in rural areas
are highly dependent on agriculture but due to the growing trends of foreign employment and
urban migration; there has been a significant structural change in every aspect of rural settings
and rural people. Therefore, there is a huge issue of analyzing the overall food consumption
pattern of people living in rural areas with different occupations and furthermore different
caste/ethnicity and other social indicators backgrounds. Therefore this research has been
organized with following research questions and is the attempt to find out answers of them:

1. What is the overall food consumption pattern of people living in rural area?
2. What is the difference between food consumption pattern of people with different
occupational and social backgrounds?
3. What are the different types of food consumed by people living in rural areas?

1.3 Research Objectives:

The general objectives of this research is to assess the food consumption behavior of people
living in rural areas. However, the specific objectives of this research will be:

 To identify the different types of food consumed by people living in rural areas.
 To explore the varieties of meals and methods of taking those meals taken by rural
people.
 To compare the consumption pattern of people with different social and economic
backgrounds

1.3 Significance of the Study:

Food consumption is dynamic in nature. The food consumption behavior is affected by various
factors as mentioned in various literature. Unfortunately, there has been very few studies that
has been carried out in food consumption behavior especially in the context of rural Nepal. As a
result, there has been a huge research gap. Therefore, this study will help to fill this research
gap and solely focuses only on food consumption behavior of rural area.
The result obtained from this study will help to assess the overall nutritional status of people
living in rural area; the level of dietary intake followed by rural areas; overview of the food
consumed by rural people and more importantly the food security status of rural area.
Furthermore, this study will also help the undergraduate students of development studies to
understand the overall food consumption patterns of rural people.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. General Review
Review of Literature is an essential part of all studies. It is essential to understand what is
already known about a topic. a review of the literature provides a foundation upon which to
base new knowledge: bearing about what has already been done on a problem will typically
provide adequate justification of the need to conduct research in a particular area which also
help to formulate a theoretical framework. During the course of literature review many books,
articles, and old and new, journals, midline research; new bulletin and many professional and
non-professional journals were searched. Very few concerned literatures about hydropower
tourism of Nepal were found through there were various literatures about these topic in
contest of other countries. Searched materials concerning the study subject are as follows.

2.2. Concept of Food:

Food is an essential element for humans to live and sustain life. Every person needs to have an
adequate diet to lead an active and healthy life. Food consumption is a key determinant of
nutritional adequacy and overall health of the population of a country. A healthy population
provides human capital and productive labor force essential for fueling economic growth and
productivity. However, currently about one-eighth of total world population suffers from
chronic hunger (FAO;IFAD;WFP, 2013). Food is any substance that is taken by a living being to
help in the production of energy and growth. This definition addresses only the biological side
of food, but there are other aspects of food. The pertinent question is why people eat. People
eat for various reasons other than for metabolic purposes. Such reasons include eating to pass
the time, have fun, bond, and celebrate. In addition, food can be used as a remedy for stress,
among other reasons. Owing to such reasons, food plays an important role in people’s lives
beyond the biological processes.

2.3. Food Consumption Behavior/ Food Choice:

Food consumption is a periodic behavior. It is triggered at various moments of the day by a
number of converging factors (time of day, need state, sensory stimulation, social context, etc.)
[Blundell,1987].

Food Consumption Behavior patterns are defined as the quantities, proportions, variety or
combinations of different foods and beverages in diets, and the frequency with which they are
habitually consumed (USDA, 2015). Commonly, the food consumption behavior is described
the food that shared by populations, individuals or households in specific communities. It's also
reflected the nature, quality, quantities, and proportion of different foods and drinks that
consumed in a diet. Accordingly, there are some aspects the influencing the food consumption
pattern among them; the ecological niches, physical environment, traditions, religions, or
choices (WCRF, 2007). The food consumption pattern is expressed the local food that available
in the specific region or country.

2.4. Factors Affecting Food Consumption Behavior:

Steenkamp developed a taxonomy of determinants of food consumption behavior which
distinguished between three types of factors, viz. properties of the food, factors related to the
person, and environmental factors. He developed a model for consumer behavior with respect
to food.
The model distinguished between the consumer's decision process with respect to foods, and
the factors influencing this decision process. Four stages have been identified in the consumer
decision process: need recognition, search for information, evaluation of alternatives, and
choice. Figure identified a number of specific variables relating to each group of factors.
Properties of the food include physical and chemical properties, and nutrient content, such as
physical form, proportions of macronutrients, amount of fiber, energy value, and amounts of
specific substances (sugar, salt, seasoning, etc.). These food properties affect consumer
behavior through their physiological (e.g., hunger, satiation, appetite) and sensory effects.
Factors related to the person include biological factors (e.g., age, sex, body weight),
psychological factors, and sociodemographic factors, Environmental factors include economic,
cultural, and marketing factors. Although the three types of factors will interact, this paper will
discuss each group of factors separately to keep the presentation manageable and because
most research evidence concerns the effects of a single type of determinants in isolation.
Figure 1: Conceptual Model for consumer behavior with respect to food developed by Steenkamp

C. Bywalec and L. Rudnicki [Rudnicki & Bywalec, 1999] interpreting the impact of various
factors on consumer behavior distinguished the following factors:

• biological and ecological aspects, which include the impact of human physiology to their
needs, purchasing behavior and consumption; there can be extracted features that have a
particular impact on the nutritional needs, such as: age, height, weight, physical fitness;
Emphasizing the biological-ecological determinants of consumption there must also be
indicated the environmental impact on the level and quality of consumption and there may be
noted that as economic growth, nutrition education and development of trade, the equalization
of living standards of various regions, it has been observed more frequently unification levels
and lifestyles, and the Europeans regardless of where they live more often similarly nourish;

• economic, among which are: the resource, and the availability of food, household income and
the percentage of income spend for food, the level and the relationship of price of the consumer
goods, the supply of consumer goods; there must be indicated here the impact of the
environment and to seize and following the standard model, like others;

• demographic and social, which include: the number of household members, their age, sex,
activity and professional standing, education, resources and use of leisure time;

• cultural factors, which include: customs, national traditions and local interaction patterns of
consumption, consumer education. European integration by facilitating the distribution of food
goods, thus increasing demographic and social mobility, as well as the widespread
development of means of mass communication, unfortunately systematically limits the
influence of traditions, customs and regionalism on the model of consumption, particularly
among urban environments.

E. Babicz-Zielinska [Babicz 7 Zielinska, 1999] showed classification of factors determining the

specific behaviors of buyers, which includes the following:

• factors associated with a product that determine its nutritional value, sensory properties
(taste, smell, appearance, texture), functional characteristics (packaging, availability,
convenience);

• factors associated with the consumer and refer to his personal characteristics such as age,
sex, education, psychological factors (personality, experience, mood), physiological factors
(hunger, thirst, health status), dietary habits;

• environmental factors, among which especially economic factors are noteworthy (price,
income), social (social status, fangle, environmental influences) and cultural (traditions,
beliefs).

The researches of J. Szwacka-Salmonowicz [Szwacka & Salmonowicz, 2003] showed that

factors in the hierarchy of the choice made by the consumer in the first place are sensory
values of the product, the following ones: price, nutritional value and health, conditions of
purchase, as well as information and marketing activities which, in the intensification
substitution processes between groups and within products, play an increasing role.

According to studies by B. Grzybowska and M. Juchniewicz [Juchniewicz & Grzybowska, 2007]

consumers' market decisions regarding the selection and purchase of a particular product,
were usually the result of a confrontation of their needs and capabilities of the product features
and potential benefits that can meet those needs. The increasing rate of change of these needs
and the factors, of which influence are formed causing a wide variety of consumer behavior in
the market. The study shows that surveyed consumers are choosing food products mainly
directed by sensory characteristics (smell, general appearance, texture), palatability and habit.
While the portion size, durability and brand were not significant determinants of market
decisions of consumers.

According to B. Lenart and T. Sikora [Lenart & Sikora, 2004], and M.J.A. Schrö der [Schroder,
2003] consumer when shopping and selecting specific products usually does this consciously,
but this process may affect a number of factors which consumers are unwittingly controlled.
These factors are grouped as follows:

• psychological (needs, motivations, learning, beliefs, attitudes, personality),

• social (cultural life, social groups, reference groups, family, social status),

• demographic and economic (age, sex, occupation, education, economic activity, economic
conditions, place of residence, lifestyle, and family status).
Another literature has found others aspects that might affect the food consumption behavior of
the individuals. These factors are:

2.4.1 Availability of Food

People have a tendency to eat what is readily available (Dindyal, 2003). For example, junk
foods are readily available and cheap. Consequently, a majority of people end up eating junk
foods due to availability, despite the desire to have a healthy lifestyle. The cost and season of
food determine its availability. Rare foods are expensive, and thus they are not readily
available. Most people live on an average income, and thus they can only afford to buy what is
readily available because it is affordable. Foods that are in season tend to be cheap and readily
available as opposed to those out of season (Dindyal, 2003). Therefore, factors like the
availability and the season of the food make food habits seasonal and flexible. In addition, such
factors tend to define the identity of the person relying on them to determine his/her food
habits.

2.4.2 Lifestyle of a Person

People with medical conditions that require the consumption of a specific diet will adopt a
certain lifestyle. For example, a person suffering from diabetes or blood pressure will tend to
avoid foods that have excessive sugar (Kulkarni, 2004). On the other hand, such an individual
will concentrate on foods that are rich in specific nutrients. Vegetarians will eat foods that are
void of animal products. Strict vegetarians avoid all animal products, whether they have meat
or not, while other vegetarians avoid animal products that have meat only. Some people have
also adopted healthy lifestyles, and thus they cannot buy or take any foods that are deemed
unhealthy (Kittler et al., 2012).

Therefore, such people cannot take junk food even when it is readily available. People take
such personal measures to ensure healthy living coupled with avoiding lifestyle diseases. For
example, some people will take white meat only and avoid red meat. According to such people,
white meat is safer than red meat. Such aspects can be used to determine the eating habits of a
person.

2.4.3 Social Background

Eating is considered a social issue. Therefore, social circles influence the eating habits of
different individuals (Lasn, 2000). It is very had to maintain a personal eating habit when
spending time with different people. For example, when people spend a lot of their time at
work or school, they are highly likely to adopt the eating habits of the people that they socialize
within the different settings, thus forsaking their personal eating habits (Montanari &
Sonnenfeld, 2006).

2.4.4 Culture
Culture is the fourth factor that influences food habits. Interactions with different cultures
influence the food habits of the involved people (Helstosky, 2009). As people interact, they
tend to borrow or copy from each other, and food habits differ from one culture to another.
Culture influences how people prepare, store, cook, consume, and get rid of their food (Messer,
2007). For eg: the culture of Gurung is different than the culture of Brahmin as a result the food
consumption behavior of Brahmin is different from culture.

2.4.5 Religion
Religion plays a major role in influencing individuals’ food consumption behavior (Pena &
Lawrence, 2011). Certain religions prohibit their believers from taking certain foods. For
example, the Muslim and Jewish religions discourage their followers from eating pork because
the source of the meat is an allegedly cursed animal according to their beliefs. In addition, the
Hindus do not take beef because they believe that the source of the meat is holy and a symbol
of their god. Some religions view the consumption of wine as a form of drunkenness, while
others have no problem with such issues (Counihan & Esterik, 2008). Therefore, people who
subscribe to these religions will adopt a food culture that does not contravene such teachings
and beliefs.

2.4.6 Personal skills and experience

These also play an important role in defining the food habits of an individual (Dindyal, 2003).
Some people love making food, and thus they have perfected their culinary skills. Such people
prefer to make their own food and experiment with new recipes, and they would love to make
their own foods as opposed to visiting restaurants. Other people are not passionate about food
or the kitchen, and thus they prefer buying ready-made food. Such people do not mind eating
from restaurants and cafes. In such a case, the person’s perceptions of food and the process of
preparing it to influence his/her food habits and culture.

2.4.7 Persons Beliefs and Knowledge

Some people are very keen on the nutritional benefits of different foods, and thus they engage
in research on different meals. Such people are considered as food enthusiasts (Freedman,
2007). Other people hold a certain belief on certain foods, and thus they will avoid or take it
even more. For example, some people consider pizza and burgers as junk, hence unhealthy.
Such people will adopt a food habit that does not include pizza and burgers in their diet. Others
hold the belief that beetroot is nutritious, and it helps to increase the blood levels in the body.
Therefore, such people will ensure that they increase their intake of beetroot. Such perceptions
develop a food habit that becomes part of a person’s lifestyle.

A person’s schedule can also determine his/her food habit (Dindyal, 2003). For example,
people who are constantly busy to make their own food will develop a habit of ordering food or
eating from food joints. Others will tend to skip certain meals or take light meals due to their
tight schedules. Such conducts determine the food habit that the affected individual will adopt.

2.5 Pattern of Food Consumption Around the World

Rice is the staple food of most people in the world for more than half of the world’s population
(Pallegedara, 2019). Further, one-quarter of global per capita energy consumption comes from
rice consumption (GRiSP, 2013).
Cereals are one of the most important food sources in the world However, with changes in food
consumption habits, the contribution of cereal to energy consumption in developing and
industrialized countries has changed significantly. Cereals account for 70% of energy
consumption in developing countries such as Africa (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012).
Globally, wheat flour consumption is higher than other cereals. This tendency can be traced
back to many developing countries (Kearney, 2010). Cereal consumption worldwide has
significantly declined over the past few decades, whereas consumption of meat and animal
products has sizably increased. For example, meat consumption in Brazil has risen sharply
over the past 30 years (Monteiro et al., 2000), and in Chile consumption of meat such as beef,
pork, and chicken has increased, and less portion of income is spent on cereals. Overall, fish
consumption has declined (Vio & Albala, 2000). Many Americans have changed/modified their
diet and reduced their intake of nutritious foods, such as fruits and vegetables, which are
essential for a healthy diet (Altman et al., 2009). Additionally, many U.S. consumers are
increasingly turning/resorting to food consumption from sources other than home, such as
restaurants and cafes (Dev & Sharma, 2010; Darshini, 2012; Arunachalam & Ayyappan, 2013;
Chand & Jumrani, 2013). Thus, food consumption from home-based food sources declined in all
three upper, middle, and lower-income groups (Smith et al., 2013).

Over time, the food supply in many Latin American countries has changed rapidly (Rosen,
1999). Cereals are the main source of energy in the Latin American diet, and a decline is
observed in the consumption of roots and legumes. Nevertheless, consumption of meat,
poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and dairy products has increased (Bermudez & Tucker, 2003).
Consumption of vegetable products in the traditional diet of Central America has been high in
fiber consumption. The people of Salvador consume more fiber-rich foods, while the people of
Panama consume less fiber-rich foods. However, it is noteworthy that fiber-rich foods in every
country have declined over time (Acevedo & Bressani, 1989). Beans are one of the staple food
of Latin American diets and make a significant contribution to dietary fiber (Bazzano et al.,
2001). The latest trend in the current diet in Latin America is to cut down the consumption of
fruits and vegetbles and increase the consumption of fat and sugar. Thus, reducing/cutting
down the consumption of fruits and vegetables will lead to an increase in chronic diseases
(Ford & Mokdad, 2001). Consumption of root crops and fruits in countries such as Brazil has
also declined over time (Monteiro et al., 2000). Remarkably, the UK is one of the lowest red
meat-consuming countries in Europe, and its consumption has declined over the past three
decades. Although globally the consumption of chicken has shown a tendency to increase, beef
is the category of meat that has not shown any increase in consumption. That is, beef
consumption in countries such as North America and Europe has fallen highly moderately
(Kearney, 2010). Per capita, egg consumption per day in developing countries has doubled
compared to that of industrialized countries. However, many countries in sub-Saharan Africa
do not show a significant increase in egg consumption, while egg consumption in countries
such as Brazil and China has increased rapidly. Egg consumption has declined in the United
States and Oceania in recent years (Kearney, 2010).

A study conducted by Abdallah and Taha in Sudan found that About 69.4% of the households
mentioned that food prepared at home is adequate. The dietary food pattern depends largely
upon cereal foods, particularly; sorghum products, bread made from wheat and wheat flour.
The frequency consumption of red meat is highly compared to the poultry meat. Nonetheless,
the frequency consumption of fish is quit low. The daily consumption of fresh milk is higher
than that of powder milk. The findings also reveal the low consumption of both vegetables and
fruits since they depend on their availability in the market and household's income as well.
Similarly, majority of the respondents stated that they consume food at home (Abdallah &
Taha, 2015).

2.6. Pattern of Food Consumption of the Asian Countries

Food consumption patterns in many Asian countries, such as Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, which
are growing rapidly, have changed dramatically over the past two-three decades. The country’s
cereal consumption is on a declining trend and consumption of meat, fish, and dairy products is
increasing (Huang & David, 1993; Huang & Bouis, 2001). Further, food consumption patterns
in developing countries such as Bangladesh and India have changed over time (Rao, 2000;
Mottaleb & Mishra, 2017a; Mottaleb et al., 2018a, 2018b). For example, a historical analysis of
per capita food consumption shows that rice consumption in Asian countries has declined and
in contrast, wheat flour consumption has increased (FAO, 2016; Mottaleb & Mishra, 2017).
That is, the shift to food consumption patterns in the West has led to a shift in consumption
patterns in Asian countries to wheat flour consumption

Countries in the Asian region account for more than 90% of the world’s rice production and
consumption (Abdullah et al., 2006). Economic growth, urbanization, income growth, and
globalization have been instrumental in moving Asian diets away from staple foods to more
livestock, vegetables, and fruits, dairy products, fats, and oils. As household income levels rise,
people can be seen shifting away from traditional rice consumption to a more Westernized diet
(Pingali, 2007). Globalization, rapid expansion of the global supermarket chain and fast-food
outlets around the world reinforces the above trends (Pingali, 2007).

2.7. Pattern of Food Consumption in Nepal:

According to Annual Household Survy, 2015/16: some major consumed food in kg were Coarse
rice 92.8, Fine rice 38.5, Potato 29.4, Wheat 24.5, and Banana 21.8. The poorest 20% consumed
5.7 kg of food whereas the richest 20% consumed 8.1 kg. The per capita consumption of Fine
rice by all over Nepal was 44.13 kg and Coarse rice was 83.6 kg in 2014/15. By quantile groups,
the consumption of Fine rice is increasing from first to fifth consumption group the
consumption group the consumption of Corse rice is found to decline suddenly in the fifth
quintile. The first quintile group consumed 11.6 kg of Fine rice and the fifth quantile group
consumed 80.2. The first quantile group consumed 106.6 kg of Coarse rice while the forth
quantile group consumed 103.8 kg and fifth quantile group consumed 46.5 kg.

NLSS III found that Cereal crops dominate cropping pattern in Nepal. Paddy, maize, wheat,
millet and legumes are the major crops grown in the country; proportion of agricultural
households cultivating main paddy is 72 percent, 57 percent cultivate wheat, 64 percent
cultivate summer maize and 38 percent of agricultural households in the country cultivate
millet; 27 percent of households cultivate soybean, 31 percent cultivate lentil, 53 percent
cultivate winter-potato, 39 percent cultivate mustard, 36 percent onion, 41 percent garlic, 72
percent winter-vegetables and 69 percent cultivate summer-vegetables.

2.8. Food Consumption in Rural Area:

In research from Jacob et al. the food habits of rural people are based on several foods, mostly
local. Tubers (yam, taro), roots (cassava), plantain, cereals (rice, maize, millet, sorghum) are
used as main dishes, prepared under various recipes (foutou, attieke, toh, placali, etc.). These
main courses are accompanied by sauces made of vegetables and fruits (okra, eggplant,
peanuts, palm seeds, chili peppers, tomatoes...), vegetable leaves, meat, game, fish, insects...
However, these peoples have many totems, taboos and food prohibitions of animal and
vegetable origin which are likely to affect their nutritional state and even their health. (2022).
A study conducted among the food consumption patterns in rural and urban area found the
major consumption patterns in rural area(Chakma, Hoque &Alam, 2015).:

1. Consumption of food products was more diversified in the rural areas.

2. Rural peoples took their foods which originated at home.
3. rural people were getting more fresh vegetable than the urban counter part

Similar findings were obtained in research from Pocol that a high consumption rate of fresh
fruits and vegetables and large quantity consumed being covered by the internal household
production in rural area. (2015)

A study conducted among rural and urban adolescents in Africa found that rural adolescents
used to take less junk food and more traditional food consumption as compared to urban
adolescents (Janlert,Nouedoui & Hå glin,2005)

According to research most respondents spent a larger portion of their monthly food budget on
high-calorie and high-protein foods, owing to reduced costs and family preferences. Rice,
sugar, and green leafy vegetables were the most popular foods, with vegetables, fruits, and
dairy products falling in second and the third. The respondents do not appear to prefer healthy
food, which might be due to the higher price on the market, which they cannot afford. (“Food
Consumption and Food Belief Among Paddy Farmers Households in Rural Area, Kedah,
Malaysia,” 2021)

Annual Household Survey conducted in 2015/16 found that food is the major expenditure item
than other non-food categories in both urban and rural areas in 2015/16 having a proportion
of 59.8% in rural and 44.9% in urban area which means people living in rural areas tend to
spend more in food as compared to urban areas. Similarly, this survey also found that Nepalese
individual on an average spends Rs. 9,896 on grains which slightly vary across urban and rural
area (Urban Rs. 9,879 and Rural Rs. 9,906). Per capita expenditure on meat and fish is Rs. 5,354
which is slightly higher in the urban area (Rs.5,864) as compared to the rural (Rs. 5,046). Per
capita expenditure of urban individuals is higher than rural area for all categories except
grains. The per capita expenditure on fruit is Rs. 1,388 which is higher in urban (Rs. 1,958)
than in rural (Rs. 1,044). Also, per capita expenditure on alcohol is high in both urban and rural
area which is Rs. 3,118 in urban and Rs. 1,427 in rural whereas the national average is Rs.
1,256. However, the per capita consumption of alcohol has reduced from the previous year. In
AHS 2014/15 alcohol consumption was Rs 2,180 which is a reduction of Rs 924 and this
reduction is more significant in urban area than in rural area (Annual Household Survey,
2015/16).

A study conducted in Patarasi Rural Municipality of Jumla district found that cereal rice and oil
are only purchased from markets by rural people, while other food items such as pulse 82.2%,
vegetables 4.4% and others 6.7% i.e. tea, sugar, and condiment purchased from the markets
and remaining percent relied on their production. This shows the people of this area are not
solely dependent on their agriculture production, but on the market too(Limbu, Kharel &
Marahatta, 2021).

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Methodology is a useful bridge to solve the research problem in systematic way. It describes
the methods and process applied to the entire aspect of the study. In other words, methodology
is the way to gather information. Different tools and techniques are used in different phase of
this study. Thus the framework of methodology contains population, sample, instrument, data
collection procedure and data analysis procedure. This chapter shows the design of plan and
procedure of the study. It determines the size of sample, method of sampling sources, methods
of techniques of data collection, instrument of data collection and procedure of data analysis.

3.1. Study Area: The study is going to be conducted Chhomrung.

3.2. Research Design: In this research, cross-sectional, exploratory and descriptive research
design will be adopted. This study will especially framed to examine overall food consumption
pattern of rural people. Both qualitative and quantitative information will be collected. In this
study both descriptive and exploratory research design will be applied. By descriptive research
design adequate information based on fact will be collected. Whereas exploratory research
design will be applied to know in depth study of the respondents. Furthermore, cross-sectional
research design helps to collect data of one time.

3.3. Study Population, Sample Size and Sampling Procedure: In this research, the
study population will be the population of Chhomrung. Convenience sampling will be
conducted and the total sample will be 50.

3.4. Nature and Sources of Data: This study will be mainly based on primary data. The
primary information will be collected from field survey. Both Quantitative and Qualitative data
will be collected for this research. For the study, primary sources of data will be collected using
structured questionnaire with closed-ended question. Similarly, qualitative data will also be
collected using semi-structured checklist.

3.5. Plan of Data Collection: Primary data will be collected by using structured
questionnaire with close-ended questions. Qualitative data will be collected by using Key
Informant Interview (KII) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD).
3.5.1 Structured Questionnaire
The structured questionnaires will be prepared for the information collection of the study area
for the local people. Closed questions will be included. The local people of the particular area
will be requested to fill up the questionnaires. They will be either interviewed or facilitated by
the researchers to fill up the answers.

3.5.2 Key Informant Interview(KII):

Key informant interview schedule will be used in the study as the tool for collecting data. The
main aim of this method is to maximize and bring variations in the range of information. Key
informant interview will be conducted by the checklist to those people applicable to literate
and professionals, intellectual matured persons included both Men and Women.

3.6. Plan of Data Analysis: The questionnaire will be pre-coded, but in case of open-ended
questions, coding will be done after tinterviewshe completion of field work. All the collected
quantitative data will be edited, filtered and entered in SPSS version 26 for the analysis.
Descriptive statistic will be used for further anlaysis. Output will be showed by using
frequency, percentage, cross tabulation, pie-chat, mean, minimum value and maximum value.
Similarly, qualitative data will be analysed by using thematic analysis focusing on core
arguments obtained from KII and FGD.

3.7. Reliability and Validity: For assessing the reliability of the study, a pilot study will be
conducted to assess the efficiency of questionnaire with 10% of the total sample population.
For assessing the validity of the study, the questionnaire will be sent to the supervisor of this
study to verify the construct validity of the questionnaire.

3.8. Ethical Consideration: The consent of the participants will be asked before asking
them questions. The primary objective of the study will be explained to the respondents.

Limitations of the Study:

The major limitations of this study are mentioned below:

1. Since this study is cross-sectional in nature, it ignores the important aspect of study of
consumption behavior that consumption should be studied on a longitudinal way rather
than one time field survey.
2. It considers only one village and the result obtained from this study cannot be
generalized as the overall food consumption behavior of rural Nepal because the rural
setting of every rural areas of Nepal is very different.
3. The sample population of this study is few.
4. This study is solely based on the respondent’s information and ignores the observations
of respondent’s consumption hence this study faces the probability of false information
provided by the respondents.
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