3.1.4.2.

Cognitive Complexity theory (CCT)

I t was introduced by Kieras and polson.
The basic premises of CCT is goal decomposition
It enriches the model to provide more analytical power.
There are two parallel descriptions:
ar User's goal
It is based on a GOMS like goal hierarchy
It is expressed by using production rule. i.e if condition then action
some

Where condition is statement about the contents of working memoory

If the condition is true then the production rule is said to be fire.

Action may consist of one or more elementary actions which may be either
or external action such as key stroke.
changes to the working memory,
program in LISP like language.
Production rule may be written as

Device/ Computer goal

networks
CCT uses generalized transition
network
It is a forms of state transition

I t is covered under dialogue models.

text editor
task using the UNIX vi
Consider the example of an editing

W e had written CCT. text on page

memory where 4 rules in the
ere the production rules are in long-term
425.
 H u a n C o m p u e r tntwraction

3.12

CCTas
unit task
(GOAL pertorm

insert space)
(TEXTtask is
3.
(TEXT task isat 5 23)
(CURSOR 8 7)

inserting a space 1S
Four rules to model

Active rules New working memory

SELECT INSERT 3PAC
(GOAL insert space)
INSERT-SPACE-MOVR-PIRST
insert space)
INSERT SPACE- DOI7
(N0TE exe cut inq
(LINE 5) (cOLIM 23)
TNSERT-SPACE-DONE

SELECT-INSERT-SPACE

matches current working memory

(SELECT-INSERT-SPACE
IF (AND (TEST-GOA perforn unit task)
(TEST-TEXT task 1a insert space)
(NOT (TEST-GOAL insert space))
(NOT (TEST-NOTE execut ing insert space)))

THEN (ADD-GOAL in3ert space)

(ADD-NOTE executing insert space)
(LOOK-TEXT task 13 at 4LINE icOLUMN) ))

Some notes on CCT:

The rules did not fire in the order they were written
The rules are all active and at each moment any rule that has its conditions
may fire. Some rules may never fire; the same rule may fire repeatedly.
The rules can fire simultaneously in parallel model
The rules may be represented by experts

3.1.4.3. Problems and Extensions of goal hierarchies

The description can be enormous in goal hierarchies
Goal
hierarchies
computer dialog
post hoc technique where the risk is that it is defined by
are a
and not a user one
1
Expert and also novice can also use this model at their level. Hence the represet ntation

of model for any

problem is different by both experts and novice.
3.1.5 Ling uistie Models
Usually, Language is a tool for user can interact with
computer.
Understanding the user's behaviour and cognitive difficulty based is
language between user and system.
on anaiy
 Models and Theories 3.13

There are two types of Linguistic dialogue models

Backus-Naur Form (BNE)
Task-Action Grammar (TAG)

3..5. (a) Backus-Naur Form(BNF)

It is a very common notation from computer Science

BNF rules are used to
describe the dialog grammar
It is purely syntact1c view of dialogue. It just ignores semantics
BNF has been used widely to specify the syntax of computer programming language.
There are two types of description used here: Terminals and Non lerminals.

Terminals
It shown in upper case letter

It represents the lowest level of user behaviour

e.g. CLICK-MOUSE, MOVE-MOUSE

Nonterminals
It is shown in lower case letter
It represents the higher level of abstraction

e.g. select-menu, position-mouse

Non-terminals are defined in terms of other non-terminals and terminals by
a definition of the fonn

Name::= expression
Where symbol is read as
'is defined as'
only appear on the left hand side.
Non-termitiats

Consider the following example

An expression
nonterminals
contains terminals and

in sequence (+) or as alternatives ()

combined
last point
draw line select line +
choose points +
mouse + CLICK MOUSE
select line pos

choOse one
t choose points
choose points:= choose one
choose one pos
mouse +CLICK MOUSE
MOUSE
pos
mouse + DBL CLICK
last point mouse
MOVE MOUSE+ pos
pos mouse
NULL |
 Human Computer Interaction
3.14

Measurement with BNF

3.
measure and the follou
analyze the BNF we could consider the following factory
In order to
where the more rules an interface reauin
Count the number of rules requires t0 use
more complicated it is.
Not all the rules are so good.
it, the
Count the number of + and l' operators. This would be in effect, Denal:
rule.
enale
the more complex single

3.1.5. (b) Task Action Grammar(TAG)

BNF ignores the advantages of consistency both in the language's structure andin

its use of command names and letters..

TAG makingconsistency more explicitly.

It uses parameterized grammar rules t0 emphasize consistency and encoding the
user's world knowledge.
Inorder to illustrate the consistency, we considerthethree UNX commands:cp(Copy
mv(Move) and In(link)
Each has two possible forms in BNF

In BNF, three UNIX commands would be described as:

copy ::= cp +filename +filename | cp +filenames +directory
move := mv +filename + filename mv +filenames + directory

link I n +filename +filename | In +filenames + directory

No BNF measure could distinguish between this and a less consistent grammar m
which
link I n +filename +filename | In + directory + filenames
In TAG, this consistency of argument order can be made explicit using a parame
or semantic feature for file operations.

Feature Possible values

Op copy, more.link }
Rules here are:

file-op[Op]:=command[Op] +filename+filename
command[Op] + filenames + directory

command[Op =copy cP
command{Op = move] ::=mv
command[Op = link] : = In
 and Device Models
31.6. Physical
There are two types:

The Keystroke Level Model (KLM)

Buxton's 3-state model
. It is based on
empirical knowledge of human motor system.
User's task here is acquisition and execution. It only addresses the execution.

This model is complementary with goal hierarchy.

s.1.6. (a) Keystroke Level Model (KLM)
It is lowest level of GOMS

I t predicts the user performance based on deep cognitive understanding

I t is aimed at unit tasks within interaction

The assumption is that these more complex tasks would be split into sub task before
the user attempts to map them into physical action
The tasks is split in to 2 phases

Acquisition ofthe task -

ie the user builds mental representation of the task

Execution of the task using the system's facilities.

It is related to GOMS model

The model decomposes the execution phase in to S different physical motor operators.
a mental operator and a system response operator.

Physical motor: K-keystroking

P- pointing
H- homing
D drawing
M - mental preparation
Mental
R - response
System occurrence of the various operators
involve interleaved
The execution of a tasks will
empirically determined by
The execution time are
eT+T,+T,+ T, +T+T based editor where if we notice a single
mouse
Consider the example, we are using and
error, delete the character and retype it,
point at the
character error we will ofprevious example and its time
KLM model
then return to previous typing point.
calculation are as follows:
 Hme Conputer laneractio

GOAL: ICONISE-W INDOW

(select
GOAL: USE-CLOSE-METHOOD
MOVE-MoUSE-TO- FILE-MENU
PULL-DOWN-FILE-MENU
CLICK-OVER-CLOSE-OPTION
GOAL: USE-CTRIL-W-METHOD
PRESS-CONTROL-W-KEY]
compare alternatives:
USE-CTRL-W-METHOD vs.
USE-CLOSE-METHOD
assume hand starts on mouse

USE-CTRL-W-METHOD USE-CLOSE-METHOD

Hto kbd 0.40 P[to menu] 1.1

M 1.35 B[LEFT down] 0.1

K[ctrlW key] 0.28 M 1.35

Pito option] 1.1

BLEFT up] 0.1

Total 2.03 s Total 3.75s

3.1.7. Cognitive Architecture Model

All of cognitive models make assumptions about the architecture ofthe hunk
GOMS is based on divide and conquer method where the concept oftaking P
and solving it by divide and conquer method
h ore product"
 Contextual Tnquiry
. It is an ethnographic approach developed by Hoitzblatt
The model of investigator
being apprenticed user learn about
to to work
The investigation takes
place in workpiace detailed interviews, observation.
analysis of communications, phy sicai workpiace. antefacts
The number of models created:
sequence. physical, fiow, cultural, artefact
models consolidated across users
The output indicates task sequences. artefacts and communication channels needed

and physical and cultural constraints

MODELS
COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATION
3.3 involve more than one
email or conferencing systems,
Groupware systems, such
as

person.
3.28 Human Computer Interaction

T h e field of computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) encompasses

es
specific groupware systems and the effects of compu on cooperative workin bot
general.
king n
Effective communication underlies much collaborative work and many systeme.
to support communication at a distance. aim
Face-to-face communication is often seen as the ideal to which computer-mediat.
communication should aim.
diated

3.3.1. Face to Face Communication

It is the most primitive and most subtle form of communication
It is often seen as the paradigm for computer mediated communication
It involves not just speech and hearing, but also the subtle use of body language and
eyegaze.

3.3.1. (a) Transfer effects and personal space

Face-to-face communication can carry forward our expectations and social noms
by using computer-mediated forms of communication.
People are very adaptable and can learn new norms to go with new media (for
example, the use of 'over' for turn-taking when using a walkie-talkie).
The success with new media is often dependent on whether the participants can use
their existing norms.
Furthermore, the rules of face-to-face conversation are not conscious.
It may interpret failure as rudeness of colleague

e.g. personal space

video may destroy mutual impression of distance
happily the 'glass wall' effect helps

3.3.1. (b) Eye Contactand gate

Normal conversation uses eye contact extensively, if not as intently.
Our eyes tell us whether our colleague is listening or not; they can convey intet
confusion or boredom
Video may spoil direct eye contact.
A role in establishing rapport between the participants. eyegaze is Uset
ful i
establishing the focus of the conversation.

3.3.1. c) Gestures and body lunguage

for
Much of our communication is through our bodies gesture (and eye gaze) us
deictic reference
 Models and Theories 3.29

The head and shoulders video loses this

s is ealled deictic reference

Even the participants are in the same room, the existence of electronic equipment
can interfere with the body language used in normal face-to-face communication.

The fact that attention is focused on keyboard and screen can reduce the opportunities
for eye contact.

Also, large monitors may block participants' views of one another's bodies, reducing
their ability to interpret gestures and body position.
Most computer-supported meeting rooms recess monitors into the desks to reduce
these problems.

3.. (d) Back channels, confirmation and interruption

It is easy to think of conversation as a sequence of utterances
i.e., A says something, then B says something, then back to A.

This process is called turn-taking

It is one of the fundamental structures of conversation.

Consider the following transcript:

Alison: Do you fancy that film...er... 'The Green'um.. .it
starts at eight.
Brian: Great!

It is not just the word

shoulder and small noises are
shrugs of the
Once it includes the nods, grimaces,
called back channels.
at a level below the turn-

information back from the listener to the speaker

They feed
conversation
taking of the usually has no back channels
in electronic conferencing,
Text-based communication,

3.3.1. (e) Turn Taking and listener are exchanged.

by which the roles of speaker
Turn-taking is the process
process.
often a crucial part ofthis
B a c k channels
are
of a second gap) and
the floor (fraction
offers
meeting, speaker small noise)
n example, in a expression,
listener requests
the floor (facial
the:
can be used by
and ah's,
Grunts, 'um's
floor
listener toclaim the
the floor
speaker to hold channels
half-duplex
but often
too quiet for
J.30 Human Computer me

Trans-continental
conferences special problem
e.g.
exceed the turn taking gap
lag can

. . .
leads to a monologue!

3.3.2. Conversation
focuses on two-person conversations, but this can
Most analysis of conversation
informal social chat over the telephone to formal courtroom croOSs-
range from
examination.
CSCW.
T h e r e are three uses for theories of conversation in
for example from an electronic
First. they can be used to analyze transeripts,
how well the participants are conima
conference. This can help us to understand
with electronic communication.
for design decisions an understanding
be used as a guide
Secondly, they can
avoid blunders in the design of
of normal human-human conversation can help
electronic media.

Thirdly, and most controversially, they can be used to drive design -

structuring
the system around the theory.

3.3.2. (a) Basic Conversational Structure

Consider the conversation between two person

Alison: Do you fancy that film?
Brian: The uh (500 ms) with the black cat The Green whatsit?
Alison: Yeah, go at uh...(looks at watch . 2 s).. 20 to?
Brian: Sure.

The most basic conversational structure is turn taking.

The speech within each turn is called an utterance
Ifthere is a gap in the conversation, the same party may pick up thethread, even
she was the last speaker.
However, such gaps are normally of short duration, enough to allow turn-claiming
required, but short enough to consider the speech a single utterance.
The utterances of the conversation can be grouped into pairs: a question and
answer, a statement and
agreement.
an

The answer
response will normally follow directly after the question or statet
ment
or

and so these are called

adjacency pairs. The above mentioned conversation cBrian
mentioned in two adjacency
pair. In the above example First, Alison as
whether he knows about the film and he responds. Second, she suggests a time to ge
and he agrees. We can
codify this structure as:
A-x, B-x, A-y, B-y,
 Models and Theories 3.31
where the first letier
denotes the
labels the adjacency pait. speaker (Alison or
Brian) and the second letter
. 2 (6) Context

Utterances are
highly ambiguous
We use context to
disarnbiguate:
Brian: (points) 1hat
post is
leaning a bit
Alison: that's ihe one
you put in
There are two
types uf contexu:
external context ielerence to
the environment
e.g., Brian's "that' the
thing pointed to
internal contexu Telerence
to
previous conversation
e.g., Alison's 'that' the last
thing
--

Often contextual utterances spoken of

involve indexicals:
that, this, he, she, I
These may be used for internal
or external
context
Also descriptive
pBhrases may be used:
external: *the corner post is a bit leaning
internal: 'the post you mentioned
S.3.2. (c) Topics, focus and forms of utterance
The conversation 1s So
dependent on context, it is importarnt that the
participants
have a shared focus.
Consider the example,
Alison: Oh, looK at your roses:
Brian: mmm, but 1:ve had trouble with greenfly.
Alison: they're the symbol ofthe English summer.

Brian greenfiy?
Alison: no roses silly!
In the above conversation, Tracing topics is one way to analyse conversation.

Alison begins 1opic is roses

Brian shifts topic to greenily

Alison misses shift in focus... breakdown
 Human Computer Interaction
3.32

3.3.2. (d) Breakdown and repair

Breakdown happens at all levels:

topic, indexicals, gesture

Breakdowns are frequent, but

redundancy makes detection easy

(Brian cannot interpret "they're ...

summer)
correction after breakdown is called repair.
people very good at repair
(Brain and Alison quickly restore shared focus)
Electronic media may lose some redundancy
breakdown more severe

3.3.2. (e) Speech act theory

A particular form of conversational analysis, speech act theory, has been bot
infiuential and controversial in CSCW.
Not only is it an analytic technique, but it has been used as the guiding force behin
the design of a commercial system, Coordinator.
The basic premise of speech act theory is that utterances can be characterized t
what they do.
For example, if you say 'I'm
hungry', this has a certain propositional meaning-
you are feeling hungry.

Speech act theory concerns itself with the way utterances interact with the tions
acu
of the participants.
The act of saying the words changes the state of the couple. Other acts inclut
promises by the speaker to do something and requests that the hearer do someuing
These basic acts are called illocutionary points.
6.5.1. SHNEIDERMAN'S EIGHT GOLDEN RULES OF INTERFACE DESIGN
The eight golden rules are
1. Strive for consistency in action sequences,
layout, terminology, command use
and so on.
2. Enable frequent users to use shortcuts, such as abbreviations, special key
sequences and macros, to perform regular, familiar actions more
quickly.
3. Offer informative feedback for every user action, at a level appropriate to the
magnitude of the action.
4. Design dialogs to yield closure so that the user knows when they have
completed a task.
 Human Compuler Interaction
6.10
handling so that, ideally, users are
prevention and simple error
5. Offer error
offered clear
mistakes and, if they do, they are and
d
prevented from making
informative instructions to enable
them to recover.
and encourage
Permit easy reversal of actions in order to relieve anxiety
6.
always return to the previous
exploration, since the user knows that he can

state.
7. Support internal locus of control so that the user is in control of the system,

which responds to his actions.

8. Reduce short-term memory load by keeping displays simple, consolidating
multiple page displays and providing time for learming action sequences.

6.5.2. NORMAN'S SEVEN PRINCIPLES FOR TRANSFORMING DIFFICULT

TASKS INTO SIMPLE ONES

The seven principles are

1. Use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head - provide the

necessary knowledge within the environment and their operation should be

transparent
2. Simplify the structure oftasks.
3. Make things visible - bridge the gulfs of execution and evaluation

4. Get the mappings right.

5. Exploit the power of constraints, both natural and artificial. Constraints are
things in the world that make it impossible to do anything but the correct action
in the correct way.
66. Design for error- anticipate the errors the user could make and design recovery
into the system
7. When all elsefalls, standardize.
6.6. HCI PATTERNS

Pattern is an approach to reuse knowledge about successful design solutions.

A pattern is an invariant solution to a recurrent problem within a specific contex