Urban Environments

Pearson iGCSE Edexcel

Adam Qureshi
A growing percentage of the world's population lives in urban areas
 
Contrasting trends in urbanisation
 
Urbanisation :
 
 The process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population
 Comes to live in towns and cities (Urban areas)
 It may involve :
- Rural-urban migration
- Natural increase
- Reclassification of rural settlements as they are engulfed into an expanding city
 
The process of urbanisation

 
LLEDCs :
 
 Least Less Economically Developed Countries
 
LEDCs :
 
 Less Economically Developed Countries
 
NICs :
 
 Newly Industrialised Countries
 
MEDCs :
 
 More Economically Developed Countries
 
Suburbanisation :
 
 Outward growth of towns and cities
 To engulf surrounding villages and rural areas
 This may result from the out-migration of population :
- From the inner urban areas to the suburbs
- Or from the inward rural-urban movement
 
Counter-urbanisation :
 
 A process involving the movement of population
 Away from the inner urban areas to smaller urban areas and rural settlements such as :
- New towns
- Commuter towns
- Villages
 On the edge or just beyond the city limits / rural-urban fringe
 
Contrasts level of urbanisation

 
Distinguish between urbanisation and counter urbanisation
 
Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas in a country. In
contrast, counter-urbanisation refers to the movement from larger urban areas to smaller urban
areas and rural areas.
 
Contrast the trends in levels of urbanisation in the image above
 
In Tanzania between 1950 and c.2000 more people lived in rural areas than in urban areas. However,
from the mid-1970s the growth of the urban population was faster than the growth of the rural
population. Tanzania is currently experiencing rapid urbanisation. In contrast, the rural population in
Thailand has remained larger than the urban population but they are predicted to be very similar by
2025. Urbanisation was relatively slow up until about the 1980s. Since c.1990 the rate of urban
population growth has exceeded the rate of rural population growth, and urbanisation has been
rapid. The UK has had a much larger urban population than rural population since the 1950s. The
rural population has been decreasing and the urban population increasing and so the proportion of
population living in urban area has been increasing (urbanisation).
 
Define the term 'least less economically developed countries' (LLEDCs)
 
LLEDCs are the world’s poorest countries.
 
Rapid urbanisation and growth of megacities
 
There are several reasons for rapid urbanisation in LICs and NICs. These include :
 
1. In urban areas, the prospects of finding :
- Employment
- Better paid jobs
- More secure jobs
 This is known as an economic pull factor
 
2. In urban area, better provision of :
- Education
- Health facilities
 This is known as a social pull factor
 
3. In rural areas, there are fewer economical oppurtunities :
- Farming can be paid :
- Low
- Insecure
 This is known as an economic push factor
 
4. In rural areas, there is an increased chance of danger :
- Subject to climate change and natural hazards
 This is known as a physical push factor
 
5. In rural areas, there is poor access to :
- Clean water
- Sanitisation
- Health care
- Education
  This is known as a social push factor
 
Consequently rural-urban migration may be large scale :
 
 Leading to rural depopulation
 The growth of population in urban areas
 The majority of those who migrate are young adults
 
A megacity :
 
 A city with over 10 million people
 By 2018, there were 33 cities with a population over 10 million
 Of these, 27 cities were in developing / emerging countries.
 
Megacity growth may be slowing down. Several factors may help explain this :
 
1. In many cities in the developing world :
- Slow economic growth (or economic decline) has :
- Attracted less investment
- As well as fewer people
 
2. Lower rates of natural increase have occurred :
- As fertility rates have come down
 
Population growth (millions) in selected megacities, 2014-2030

 
Outline the reasons for the rapid growth of urbanisation
 
Reasons for rapid urbanisation include the belief that there will be better chance of employment,
better paid jobs and more secure jobs in urban areas; better provision of education and health
facilities in urban area; better access to clean water and sanitation, health care and education.
 
Define the term 'megacity'
 
A megacity is a city with over 10 million inhabitants.
 
Identify from the table above the megacity with :
 
a. Greatest relative increase
Dhaka
 
b. Largest absolute increase
New Delhi
 
c. Population decline
Tokyo –2%
 
Problems associated with rapid urbanisation
 
For individuals and families, urban areas offer the prospects of quality of life
 
For some, migration to urban areas improves their standard of living
 
For others, migration may result in unemployment, poor quality, housing and deprivation
 
Rapid urbanisation is associated with 5 categories :
 
1. Congestion
2. Transport
3. Employment
4. Crime
5. Environment
 
1. Congestion
 
Rapid urbanisation can lead to :
 
 Large-scale congestion of people (and economic activity)
 
For example :
 
 In Mumbai, up to 1 million people live in the Dharavi slum
 An area that covers about 2 km^2
 Some 99% of houses do not have a private toilet
 Such conditions of congestion fuel the spread of diseases such as COVID-19 in 2020
 
2. Transport
 
Congestion is a problem due to :
 
 Vast numbers of cars on the road
 Poor quality / size of roads in many cities
 
Urban traffic congestion varies with :
 
 Days of the week
  Time of day
 Weather
 Seasons
 
Traffic is more congested on weekdays :
 
 Especially during the peak flow times in the morning and evening
- i.e. getting to and from work/school
 
Congestion may be related to :
 
 Festivals
 Large sporting events
 National holidays
 
By contrast, during the summer, congestion may decrease :
 
 As more people walk / cycle to work
 Schools are closed
 
3. Employment
 
Most migrants are drawn to large cities by the prospect of :
 
 Employment
 Better standard of living
 
For some, this happens, but many are faced with :
 
 Unemployment
 Underemployment (working only occasionally or just a few hours a day/week)
 Low pay
 Lack of job security
 
As a result, many are forced to enter the informal sector :
 
 The unregulated economy
 With mainly casual jobs, for example :
- Selling food on the street
- Domestic service
 
4. Crime
 
In many large urban areas, crime is a problem. This may be partly related to :
 
 Large-scale unemployment
 Lack of job oppurtunities
 
Often, crime is concerntrated in areas of high population density. For example :
 
 In Islamabad, an informal settlement in Zanjan in Iran, crime is highly concerntrated
  The main criminal activities include :
- Violence
- Drug trafficking
- Drug abuse
 
 In Kaduna, northern Nigeria, crime is highest in areas of high population density
 The main criminal activities include :
- Burglary
- Stealing
 
 In wealthier areas
 The more common criminal activities include :
- Car theft
- Damage
 
5. Environment
 
Environmental issues are widespread, major problems include :
 
 Waste products
 Waste disposal
 
In LICs :
 
 25% of urban dwellers have :
- No adequate sanitisation
- No means of sewage disposal
 
Air pollution is common in cities in rapidly industrialising countries :
 
 Delhi has some of the worst air quality in the world
 As a result, this poor air has been linked to higher rates of death
 
Water pollution is widespread as water is used as a dumping ground for :
 
 Agricultural
 Industrial
 Domestic waste for untreated sewage
 
Water shortages have become more frequent in some cities :
 
 In Bangkok, overuse of groundwater has led to subsidence
 
For some people :
 
 Not being connected to a water tap
 Means that they have to buy water from sellers
 Which is very expensive
 
Estimate the population density of Dharavi
 
Population density in Dharavi is about 500,000 per km2
 
Suggest why there are variations in traffic congestion
 
Congestion varies with days of the week, time of day, weather and the seasons. Congestion is
greater on weekdays, especially during the peak flow times in the morning and evening, with more
people traveling to and from work. Congestion is also related to school opening and closing times,
although many students walk/cycle to school. Congestion may be related to festivals, large-sporting
events and national holidays. By contrast, during the summer, congestion may decrease as more
people walk/cycle to work and schools are closed.
 
Explain why poor people may pay more for their water than rich people
 
Poor people are less likely to be connected to a water pipe and so may not be able to access piped
water. (In some cases, there may be a shared water pipe in a street.) Therefore, they must buy it
from vendors (sellers) and must buy in bottles, which adds to the cost. In contrast, wealthier people
are connected to the network of piped water and so have easier access and cheaper water – even if
they are metered.
 
Cities face a range of social and environmental challenges resulting from rapid growth and
resource demands
 
Urban land use patterns
 
Urban land use :
 
 Refers to activities such as :
- Industry
- Housing
- Commerce
 Which may be found in towns and cities
 
Land values :
 
 Land values decrease with distance from the city centre
 Land values increase with accessibility to good transport routes
 
Land use :
 
 The main function for which an area is used e.g.
- Residential
- Industrial
- Commercial
 
Accessibility :
 
 How easy it is to get to a place
 
Bid rent theory
 
Concentric zone model

 
 A model based on Chicago in the 1920s
 The city is growing spatially due to immigration and natural increase
 The area around the CBD has the lowest status and highest density housing
 Residents move outwards with increasing social class and their homes are taken by new
migrants
 
The Central Business District (CBD) :
 
 Most of the commercial activity is found
 Most central area
 It is the most accessible (to public transport)
 Has the highest land value
 Teds to have high rise buildings
- Owing to the strong demand for land
- With a shortage of space
 
Core and frame characteristics of the BCD

Most residential areas are found in the suburbs :

 
 The suburbs refer to the outer part of an urban area
 Suburbs consist of residential housing and shops of a low order (newsagents, small
supermarkets)
 
The rural-urban fringe :
 
 Boundary of a town or city
 Between urban and rural functions
 Where new buildings are changing land use from rural to urban
 
Industrial areas occur in several locations, such as :
 
 Inner city (the area surrounding the CBD)
 Major transport routes
 In edge-of-town locations
 
In many cities, the inner city is :
 
 The older industrial area of the city
 It may suffer from decay and neglect
 This leads to social problems
 
Inner cities are characterised by :
 
 Poor quality terraced housing
 With old manufacturing industry nearby
 
Define the term accessibility
 
Accessibility refers to how easy it is to reach a place.
 
Suggest contrasting reasons for the location of industrial areas in cities
 
Industry in a city tends to be located in the inner city, along major transport routes, in edge-of-town
locations and by deep-water ports.
 
Explain how and why land values vary in a city
 
The value of land varies in urban areas. Central areas are the most valuable. They used to be the
most accessible parts of a city (to public transport) and had a higher concentration of shops and
offices. Land values are also high along major routeways and by intersections – these areas are
accessible for workers, consumers, deliveries etc. Out-of-town locations have become more valuable
as new ring-roads (orbital routes) make them more accessible, and therefore attractive to
prospective users.
 
Urban challenges : developed countries
 
All urban areas may face challenges, even prominent cities, such as London, UK :
 
1. One of these is to provide food for their residents
- There are complex supply chains, which can be badly disrupted, for example :
- London's food sector accounts for £20 billion and about 10% of jobs in the city.
- There are many food banks in London. These :
- Help to feed 1.5 million people who go hungry
 
Food bank :
 
 A charity providing food for those who cannot afford to buy sufficient food to meet their
needs
 
2. Most of London's energy comes from gas
 Although there is a plan to produce 15% of London's energy from renewable resources by
2030 :
- At present, less than 1% comes from renewables
 
3. Transport faces issues regarding congestion and sustainability
  Central London has :
- A 20 mph speed limit
- It also has a congestion charge to limit the number of car trips made.
 However the number of car journeys is increasing, this :
- Reduces the reliability of bus journeys due to increased congestion
 London has a well-developed underground network, however :
- Some parts of it have very poor air quality
 
4. London produces a huge amount of waste :
 Some of this is disposed in landfill sites
 Some is burnt to generate electricity
 Some is recycled
 On average :
- Most households produce around 1000 kg of waste yearly
 
Landfill :
 
 Dumping of waste materials in the ground
 
5. London has a concerntrated resource consumption due to its size and wealth
 Its ecological footprint is 6.6 global hectares (gha) per person
 Compared with world average of 2.8 gha
 The UK's overall figure is 6.3 gha
 
Ecological footprint :
 
 A measurement of the amount of land
 Needed to provide a population with the resources it consumes such as :
- Water
- Food
- Energy
 It is measured in global hectares (gha)
 
London is a multi-cultural city, however :
 
 Based on 2011 census data
 Segregation is evident
 There is a higher concerntration of white British towards the edge of the city
 In contrast, some minority ethnic groups are concerntrated nearer the centre, this involves :
- Bangladeshis (in the east end)
 Indians and Pakistanis are more likely to be located in the :
- West
- East
- Some parts of south London
 
Multi-cultural :
 
 An area with :
- Many different races
- Socio-economic groups
 
Segregation :
 
 Keeping apart people of different backgrounds
 
Suggest why air quality in London varies spatially and temporally
 
Air quality is likely to vary spatially (by area) and temporally (over time). For example, there are likely
to be more vehicles in central areas leading to more emissions. There will also be higher
concentrations near shopping centres, schools, industrial estates etc. There is also likely to be poorer
air quality in the underground tube network, especially in the older deeper stations and lines. Air
quality is likely to be lower during rush hour, and on weekdays rather than at the weekend.
 
Define the term 'ecological footprint'
 
An ecological footprint measures the amount of land needed to provide a population with the
resources it consumes and to absorb its waste.
 
Suggest why London has a high ecological footprint
 
London has a high ecological footprint per person because it has a wealthy population and so their
consumption of energy, water, transport, material and food is likely to be much higher than that of
people who are less well off.
 
The total number of slum dwellers in the world stood at :
 
 980 million in people in 2015
 This represents about 32% of the world's urban population
 78.2% of the urban population is in LICs
 
Inequality, poverty and slum formation

 
Mumbai experiences many of the problems resulting from :
 
 Rapid city growth
 Poverty
 Unemployment
 Underemployment
 Limited access to health care
 Limited access to education
 Poor sanitation
  Poor access to electricity
 
This hence results in :
 
1. Most of the residents living in slums / Squatter settlements
 These have limited security of tenure
 
2. Dharavi, the main slum in South Mumbai consists of :
 An area of 2km^2
 Home for up to 1 million people
 
3. Due to its close proximity to Mumbai's financial and commercial district :
 There is a greater pressure to clear parts of Dharavi :
- This is to allow for modern developments
 
Squatter settlements :
 
 An illegal settlement
 Where homes have been built by the residents
 
Positive and negative aspects of living in a slum
Positive aspects Negative aspects

1. They are points of assimilation 1. Security of tenure is often

for immigrants. lacking
   
1. Informal entrepreneurs can 1. Basic services are absent,
work here and have especially water and
clients extending to the rest of sanitisation
the city.  
  1. Overcrowding is common
1. Informal employment, based  
at home, avoids commuting. 1. Sites are often hazardous
   
1. There is a strong sense of 1. Levels of hygiene and sanitation
kinship and family support. are poor
  - So disease is common
1. Crime rates are relatively low.  
 
There are 4 aspects to take into account for Dharavi, this is :
 
1. Informal economy
2. Water and sanitisation
3. Air Quality
4. Quality of life
 
Informal economy (Dharavi)
 
This refers to :
 
 The unregulated and untaxed economy
  Sometimes called the black market
 
1. The formal economy refers to the regulated economy, for example :
 Offices
 Factories
 Shops
 Services such as :
- Health care
- Education
- Government
 
2. Much of the formal economy produces :
 Goods and services for wealthy people
 
3. By contrast, the informal economy is :
 Small scale
 Locally owned
 Labour intensive
 
4. Dharavi has many informal activities that :
 Provide a livelihood for many of its residents
 
5. Up to 85% of Dharavi adults work locally :
 There are major recycling industries
 As well as pottery industries
 
6. Working conditions for recycling industry has drawbacks :
 It can be very dangerous
 
Water and sanitisation (Dharavi)
 
1. The Dharavi slum has a :
 Poor sewage system
 Poor drainage system
 
2. The area is subject to floods :
 Usually in the wet season
 
3. There are up to 4000 cases per day of diphtheria and typhoid
 Partly the result of a lack of a proper sewage system
 
4. Water access is from standpipes
 Access to water is limited
 Many pumps are only available for two hours per day
 
5. Many people used the Mahim creek for washing, however :
 It is also used for urination
 As well as defecation (egesting faeces)
 
6. Open sewers drain into the creek, this :
 Brings a range of pollutants
  Dharavi has a very limited number of toilets
- With about one for every 500 people
 
Air quality (Dharavi)
 
1. Air quality in Dharavi (Mumbai in general) is poor, this is due to :
 Industrial emissions
 Vehicle emissions
 
2. Air quality in general is worse in winter (November to February), this is due to :
 Less rainfall to clear the air
 
Quality of life (Dharavi)
 
1. Many aspects of Dharavi lead to a low quality of life, this includes :
 Lack of security of housing (Up to 90% may be illegal)
 Low life expectancy (about 50 years)
 
2. There are many jobs available :
 Dharavi's informal economy is worth between US $500 million and $1 billion a year (£250
million - £500 million)
 
Outline one advantage and disadvantage of Dharavi's location
 
One advantage of Dharavi’s location is that it is close to the financial and commercial core of
Mumbai.
One disadvantage of its location is that it is prone to summer flooding.
 
Define the term 'informal economy'
 
The informal economy is the unregulated, untaxed economy – it is sometimes called the ‘black
market’.
 
Explain why the water pollution is a problem in Dharavi
 
Water pollution is a problem in Dharavi because there is limited access to piped water and so some
people collect water from the Mahim Creek. However, this creek is also used as a toilet by many
people and used to dispose of other waste materials including chemicals and industrial products. It
also receives water from open sewers. Hence the water sources are heavily polluted.

 
Different strategies can be used to manage social, economic and environmental challenges in a
sustainable manner
 
Development of the rural-urban fringe
 
The rural urban fringe is :
 
 The edge of a city
 Where it meets the countryside
 
There are many pressures on the rural-urban fringe, these include :
 
1. More housing
 e.g. Blackbird Leys, Oxford
 
2. Industrial growth
 e.g. Oxford Science Park
 
3. Transport Infrastructure
 e.g. M25, London
 
4. Recreational pressures for golf courses and sports stadia
 e.g. Kassam Stadium, Oxford
 
The advantages and disadvantages of out-of-town (rural-urban fringe) shopping centre
Advantages Disadvantages

- Plenty of free parking - They destroy large amounts of undeveloped,

  valuable habitats
 

- Lots of space so shops are not cramped  They lead to pollution and
environmental problems at the
edge of town
 

- Easily accessible by car - They only help those with cars

 
 

- Developments on the edge of town reduce - Successful out-of-town developments may take
the trade away from city centres and lead to a decline
environmental pressures and problems in in
the sales in the CBD
city centres
 
Greenfield and brownfield sites
 
A greenfield site :
 
 A site that has not been previously developed on
 Most greenfield sites are on the edge of town, not necessarily so.
 
A brownfield site :
 
 A site that was once developed, but is now derelict / abandoned
 
The advantages and disadvantages of greenfield and brownfield sites
 
Greenfield sites Greenfield sites

Advantages Disadvantages
 - Land may be accessible - Habitat destruction
 

- Cheaper land - Reduction in biodiversity

 

- People prefer more space and pleasant - Increased impermeability leads to flooding
environments
 
Brownfield sites Brownfield sites

Advantages Disadvantages

- Redevelopment of disused land - Land may be contaminated

 

- Does not harm the environment - Widespread air and water pollution
 

- Creates jobs locally - Congestion

 
 
Identify the part of a city most likely to have a greenfield site
 
Greenfield sites are likely to be on the edge of town.
 
State the advantages of developing brownfield sites
 
Redeveloping brownfield sites may make good use of disused land, it does not harm the
environment and it may create jobs locally.
 
Describe the disadvantages of developing greenfield sites
 
The disadvantages of developing greenfield sites include the destruction of habitats to make way for
new developments. This reduces biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. It replaces
permeable surfaces with impermeable surfaces – this may increase the risk of flooding and lead to a
deterioration of water quality.
 
Sustainable urban systems
 
Large cities are often considered unsustainable because :
 
 They consume huge amounts of resources
 They produce vast amounts of waste
 
Sustainable urban development :
 
 Meets the needs of the present generation
 Without compromising the needs of future generations
 
The Rogers' model (cities for a small planet) :
 
  Compares a sustainable city with that of an unsustainable one
 
In the sustainable city :
 
 Inputs are smaller
 There is more recycling
 
Linear (non-suitable) and circular (sustainable) cities

 
Linear city :
 
A city with :
 
 Large inputs of resources
 Large amounts of waste
 
Circular city :
 
A city with :
 
 A high proportion of renewable resources
 A high proportion of recycling
 
To achieve sustainability, a number of options are available :
 
 Reduce the use of fossil fuel
- This can be done by promoting public transport
 
 Keep waste production to within levels that can be treated locally
 
 Provide sufficient green spaces
 
 Re-use and reclaim land, e.g. brownfield sites
 
 Encourage active involvement of the local community
 
  Conserve non-renewable resources
 
 Use renewable resources
 
Compact cities :
 
 Minimise the amount of distance travelled
 Use less space
 Require less infrastructure (pipes, cables, roads etc)
 
Are easier to provide a public transport network for, and reduce urban sprawl
 
If a compact city covers too large an area, it becomes :
 
 Congested
 Overcrowded
 Over-priced
 Polluted
 This therefore makes it unsustainable
 
Developing sustainable urban areas

 
A sustainable future requires :
 
 Use of appropiate :
- Technology
- Materials
- Design
 
 Acceptable minimum standards of living
 
  Social acceptance of projects
 
 Widespread public participation
 
The main dimensions of sustainable development are :
 
 Provision of adequate shelter for all
 
 Improvement of human settlement and management
 
 Sustainable land use planning and management
 
 Integrated provision of environmental structure :
- Water
- Sanitisation
- Drainage
- Solid waste management
 
 Sustainable energy and transport systems
 
 Settlement planning in disaster-prone areas
 
 Sustainable construction industry activities
 
 Meet the urban health challenge
 
Describe the main characteristics of a linear city
 
The linear city has a large volume of inputs (e.g. food, energy and goods) and a large volume of
outputs leading to many organic and inorganic waste materials leading to emissions of CO2, SO2 and
NO2.
 
Outline how the circular city is sustainable
 
The circular city is more sustainable because there are fewer inputs of energy, food and goods; there
is more recycling of materials, and there is less pollution and waste produced.
 
Outline two social demands in the sustainable city
 
Two social needs in the sustainable city are access to education, so that everyone can achieve their
potential, and providing affordable medical provision for everyone.
 
Stakeholders in managing urban areas
 
A stakeholder refers to :
 
 Any group or individual who :
- Is affected
- Can affect
- Has an interest in development, e.g.
- New housing or a new out-of-town development
  
Some stakeholders may be supportive of the development
Some stakeholders may be against it
Other stakeholders may see both advantages and disadvantages of the development
 
Stakeholders include individuals involved in :
 
 A scheme
 National and local governments
 Charities
 Local churches
 Local planners
 Building companies
 Property owners
 Retailers
 Developers
 Estate agents
 
For example, the Houldsworth Village Partnership in Manchester involves :
 
 At least 60 different stakeholder groups, this includes :
- Stockport Metropolitan Council
- The Guinness Northern Counties Housing Trust
- The University of Manchester
- St Elisabeth's School
- Existing residents and traders
- Stockport Sports trust
- Reddish Crime Panel
 
Some stakeholders may have conflicting interests, for example :
 
 Established residents in areas desiring no new developments
 Compared with younger people desiring new, affordable housing developments
 Corporate objectives may differ from individual ones
 
The impact of a new development may have negative impacts on others, for example :
 
 An out-of-town development may create jobs locally
 However, this also leads to :
- Increase in congestion
- Increase in air pollution
- Decline in habitat
 
Stakeholders may have to :
 
 Compromise their individual beliefs and values for the greater good
 
However, it is possible for :
 
 Stakeholders with an interest in the success of a partnership/development
 To attempt to minimise the impact on stakeholders with negative views, for example :
 - A new housing development retaining open space and vegetation
- Rather than having high density housing only
 
Explain the likely view of two contrasting stakeholders (e.g. existing residents and first-time buyers)
about a new local housing development
 
Existing residents may prefer that no further development occurs as it will lead to pollution,
congestion, noise etc. However, first-time buyers may view it as an opportunity to buy a house (own
a property) and to have somewhere to live and not to be paying rent to a landlord.
 
Identify one private and one public stakeholder in the Houldsworth Village Partnership
 
An example of a private stakeholder is the residents whereas a public stakeholder could be the
Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council.
 
State one reason why it may be difficult to reach agreement on how best to develop urban areas
sustainably
 
It has proved difficult to reach agreement on how to develop urban areas sustainably as different
users have different perspectives/aims.
 
Exam style questions
 
Urbanisation is defined as : (1 mark)
 

 
A greenfield site is : (1 mark)
 

 
The proportion of people who live in slums around the world is approximately : (1 mark)
 
 
Compare push and pull factors in relation to urbanisation (2 marks)
 
Pull factors (in relation to urbanisation) are the positive aspects of urban living that attract migrants.
Push factors are the negative aspects of rural living that make a person want to leave.
 
Outline the advantages of compact cities (3 marks)
 
Compact cities minimise the amount of distance travelled, use less space, require less infrastructure,
are easier to provide a public transport network for, and reduce urban sprawl.
 
Describe the main locations in which industry is located in an urban area (4 marks)
 
Industry is located in different zones in cities for different reasons. Early industrial areas were in the
inner city to be close to transport routes (e.g. railways and canals), the market (city centres) and the
workforce. Some industries require specific locations e.g. close to a river for water e.g. large steel
works, or along transport routes (as the workforce became more mobile and goods were
transported by lorries). More recently, industrial areas have developed on the edge of town where
there is more land available and it is cheaper than more central areas.
 
Define the term 'Squatter settlement' (1 mark)
 
A ‘squatter settlement’ is a settlement which has no formal government recognition i.e. it is an illegal
settlement and can be demolished without warning.
 
Suggest reasons for the growth of counter-urbanisation in developed countries (4 marks)
 
Counter-urbanisation may occur in many MEDCs because large cities are seen as being too
expensive, unhealthy, with a poor environment and high crime rates. In contrast, smaller
settlements are considered to be healthy, safer, have a sense of community and house prices there
are cheaper.
 
Analyse how urban areas may be made more sustainable (8 marks)
 
Urban areas may be made more sustainable by using resources in a sustainable way; conserving
non-renewable resources; minimising waste – cutting use of non-renewable resources; providing
affordable housing and medical provision; making cities more compact; providing access to
education for all; creation of a healthy environment free from pollution; providing a range of jobs for
people, and making it possible for them to get to work; ensuring that housing and employment are
close together; empowering people and allowing them to make decisions in local politics.