Static Characteristics

Of Measurement
Systems
Static Characteristics Of Measurement
Systems

■ Instrument performance is described by means of quantitative qualities which are

referred to as characteristics.
■ Static characteristics pertain to a system where quantities to be measured are
constant or vary slowly with time.
■ In other words, these are the relationships which may occur between the output of
the instrument and the input of the instrument when the input is either at a
constant value or changing slowly.
Static Characteristics
■ Static Characteristics is a set of criteria which describes the quality of measurement
when it is subjected to static input.
■ Most of the characteristics can be obtained by a process called Static Calibration.
■ List of criteria are as follows:
– Range & Span
– Accuracy & Precision
– Sensitivity
– Linearity
– Threshold & Resolution
– Hysteresis
– Drift
– Repeatability & Reproducibility
– Loading effect
Range
■ The region between the limits within which an instrument is designed to operate for
measuring, indicating or recording a physical quantity is called the range of the
measurement.
■ The input (I) range of an element is specified by the minimum and maximum values of
I, i.e. IMIN to IMAX. The output (O) range is specified by the minimum and maximum
values of O, i.e. OMIN to OMAX.

■ Example
– Pressure transducer may have an input range of 0 to 104 Pa and an output range
of 4 to 20 mA.
– A Thermocouple may have an input range of 100 to 250 °C and an output range of
4 to 10 mV.
 Span
■ Represents the algebraic difference between the upper and lower
range values of the instrument
– Input Span: IMAX – IMIN
– Output Span: OMAX – OMIN

■ Example
– Range: -10 °C to 80 °C. Thus, IMIN =-10 °C, IMAX =80 °C Span: 90 °C
– Range: 5 kg/cm2 to 100kg/cm2. IMIN = 5 kg/cm2, IMA=100kg/cm2 Span: 95 kg/cm2
– Range: 4mA to 20mA. Thus, IMIN = 4mA, IMAX =20mA Span: 16mA
Accuracy
■ The closeness of the indicated value to the true value
■ The closeness with which the reading (output) approaches the true value
■ Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value.
Example

True Value (Standard gauge Indicated Value (Test Gauge

Reading) Reading)

20 kg/cm2 19.9 kg/cm2

20 kg/cm2 19.8 kg/cm2
20 kg/cm2 19.87 kg/cm2
Accuracy

■ Accuracy is related to absolute error, ε, which is defined as the difference between

the true value applied to measurement system and the indicated value of the
system.
– ε =Measured Value- True value
■ The relative error can be found as
– 𝐴=𝜀/𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
■ The accuracy of a system can be estimated during calibration. If we assume for the
moment the input value is known exactly that value can be called the true value.
Accuracy

■ Accuracy can be expressed in the following ways:

■ Percentage of True Value: Ratio of the error to the true value and its percentage.(Is
the best way to conceive the accuracy )
■ Percentage of Full Scale Deflection: Ratio of the error to the full scale deflection.
(When specified as percentage of full scale ,the error at low range will be high, so it
will be highly misleading)
■ Point Accuracy: Accuracy of the instrument only at one point in its scale
Precision

■ Ability of the instrument to reproduce the reading

■ The agreement of readings among themselves, if the same value of measured
variable is measured many times and all the results agree very closely then the
instrument is said to have a high degree of precision.
■ Example: 54,55,56,56,56,56,56
■ Precision can be improved only by taking more care in making the measurement.
■ It denotes the closeness with which individual measurements are distributed about
the average of number of measured value.
■ High degree of precision does not guarantee the accuracy.
Precision

■ Precision is composed of two characteristics:

– Conformity
– Number of significant Figures
■ Conformity
– Consider the resistance of true value 2385 Ω measured by an Ohm meter. The
meter consistently measuring the true value of the resistor but the observer can
read consistently a value of 2.4KΩ, due to the scale. There are no deviations from
the observed value. The error created due to this limitation of the scale reading is a
precision error.
– Conformity is necessary but not sufficient condition.
■ An accurate instrument is precise but a precise instrument may not be accurate.
Significant figures

■ In a result is simply the number of figures that are known with some
degree of reliability.
■ The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of
significant figures in which reading are expressed.
■ The significant figures confirm the actual information about the magnitude
and the measurement precision of the quantity.
■ More number of significant figures, greater the precision.
■ Example: 110 Ω resistor can be measured as- 109-111 with three
significant figures or as 110.1 Ω to 109.9 Ω with four significant figures.
Accuracy and Precision
Sensitivity
■ Sensitivity is defined as ratio of output change to input change.
■ Sensitivity is an absolute quantity, the smallest absolute amount of change that can
be detected by a measurement. It is the change ΔO in output O for unit change ΔI in
input I.
𝑑𝑂
■ Static Sensitivity =𝐾
𝑑𝐼

■ In case of a linear calibration curve, the

static sensitivity is constant.
■ If the calibration curve is non-linear, then
the static sensitivity is not constant & must
be specified in terms of input range.
 Sensitivity
Example:
Applied weight to deflect a flat spring material is 15 kg. The change in length is measured as 2 cm.
𝑑𝑂 2𝑐𝑚
Sensitivity(k) = = = 0.133𝑐𝑚/𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝐼 15𝑘𝑔

A pressure transducer has a input range of 0 to 104and an output range of 4 to 20mA.

𝑑𝑂 20−4
Sensitivity is 𝐾 = = = 1.6 ∗ 10−3 𝑚𝐴/𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝐼 104 −0

For Copper constantan TC (Type T) the first four terms in the polynomial relating e.m.f. E(T) and junction
temperature (T) are ,

𝐸 𝑇 = 38.74𝑇 + 3.319 ∗ 10−2𝑇2 + 2.071 ∗ 10−4𝑇3 − 2.195 ∗ 10−6𝑇4 + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Sensitivity is given by
𝑑𝐸
= 38.74 + 6.638 ∗ 10−2𝑇 + 6.213 ∗ 10−4𝑇2 − 8.780 ∗ 10−6𝑇3 + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑇

50𝜇𝑉
which is approximately 𝑎𝑡 200°𝐶
°𝐶
Sensitivity depends on the input range
Example LVDT
Resolution &Threshold

■ Some elements are characterized by the output increasing in a series of discrete

steps or jumps in response to a continuous increase in input.
■ Resolution is defined as the smallest measurable input change.
■ Threshold is defined as the smallest measurable input.
In this graph, resolution is defined in terms of the width ΔIR
of the widest step; resolution expressed as a percentage of
f.s.d. is thus :
Linearity and Nonlinearity

■ An element is said to be non-linear when it does not obey a straight line relationship
between its input and output. Non-linearity can be defined in terms of a function N(I
) which is the difference between actual and ideal straight-line behavior, i.e. N(I) =
O(I)-(KI-a), O(I) = KI + a + N(I)
■ Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the maximum non-linearity ; expressed
as a percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of span.
෡
𝑁
■ Max non-linearity as a percentage of f.s.d. = ∗ 100%
𝑂𝑀𝐴𝑋 −𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁
■ Example, consider a pressure sensor where the maximum difference between
actual and ideal straight-line output values is 2 mV. If the output span is 100 mV,
then the maximum percentage non-linearity is 2% of f.s.d.
Hysteresis

■ It is a phenomenon which gives different output, when loading and unloading

whether it is mechanical system or an electrical system. (Non-coincidence of
loading and unloading characteristics)
■ This effect arises due to the fact that all energy is put into the stressed part when
loading is not recoverable upon unloading.
Hysteresis
■ For a given value of input ( I), the output (O ) may be different depending on whether
I is increasing or decreasing. Hysteresis is the difference between these two values
of O i.e. Hysteresis H(I ) = O(I )I↓ − O(I )I ↑
■ Again hysteresis is usually quantified in terms of the maximum hysteresis expressed
as a percentage of f.s.d., i.e. span.
Drift
■ It is an undesired gradual departure of the instrument output over a period of
time, that is unrelated to change in input and operating conditions.
■ All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled
conditions of pressure, temperature, etc., when these conditions varies , it affect
the output of the instrument and it is called as Drift.
■ No drift means with the given input the measured values do not change with time.
■ Types of drift :
■ Zero Drift, Sensitivity Drift, Zonal Drift
■ Drift is undesirable quantity in instruments and can be caused because of electric
and magnetic fields, thermal emfs, changes in temperature, wear & tear, vibrations,
etc.
Types of Drift
■ Zero Drift
The whole calibration curve
gradually shifts due to
slippage, permanent set or
due to undue warming up
of electronic tube circuits.
This can be prevented by
the zero setting
O ( I ) = KI + a + K I I I
■ Sensitivity Drift
If there is proportional
change in the indication all
along the upward scale,
the drift is called span drift
or sensitivity drift
O( I ) = ( K + K M I M ) I + a
■ Zonal Drift
The drift occurs only over a
portion of span of an
instrument, it is called
zonal drift.
O( I ) = ( K + K M I M ) I + a + K I I I
Repeatability & Reproducibility

■ Repeatability is the degree of agreement within a group of measurement when the

measurand is measured by the same instrument, same observer under same
environmental condition over a short period of time and by arriving the input value
from the same direction.

■ Reproducibility is the degree of agreement within a group of measurement when the

measurand is measured by the different instrument, different operating condition
under different locations over a prolonged period of time and arriving the input value
from either direction.
 Loading Effect
■ The incapability of the system to faithfully measure, record or control the input signal in undistorted form is
called loading effect
■ For shunt connected instrument,

Eo = Output Voltage without load (Thevenin’s equivalent voltage)

Ro = Output resistance (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance)
If an voltmeter with impedance RL is connected, current IL flows, causes a voltage drop, IL R0
Therefore, output voltage under loaded condition, VL = Vo –ILRo = ILRL
Vo = IL(RL+Ro)
VL I L RL 1
= =
Vo I L ( RL + Ro ) R
1+ o
RL
RO VL
When RL →  , =0 therefore, =1
RL VO
Specifications of Instrument static characteristics
■ Diaphragm pressure gauge using electrical resistance strain gauges

Static Characteristics Specifications

Maximum bridge excitation 20 V dc
Recommended bridge excitation 12 V dc
Pressure range 0-200 kPa
Bridge output 0.1 mV/V/kPa
Accuracy ±0.5% of FS (Full Scale)
Repeatability ±0.2% of FS
Linearity and hysteresis ±0.4% of FS
Thermal zero shift Less than 0.02% FS/ºC
Thermal sensitivity shift Less than 0.02% /ºC
Bridge resistance 350 Ω
Minimum required impedance of output for indicating unit 2KΩ

Overload capacity 250% of FS

Loading Effect
■ The incapability of an instrument to faithfully measure, record or control the input
signal in undistorted form is called loading effect.
■ Loading refers to the phenomenon that occurs when a load circuit having low
effective impedance is connected to a supply circuit having higher output
impedance. So on connecting the load circuit effective reduces the resistance,
drawing more (load) current causing greater voltage drop in the supply circuit.
■ Loading Effect is pronounced in Electrical Measuring Instruments. A Measuring
Instrument is supposed to measure the quantity it is supposed to measure without
drawing any power from the system in which it measures.

1
Loading effect 
Sensitivity of Instrument