THE HANDBOOK ON

SOLIDS CONTROL &

WASTE MANAGEMENT

4th EDITION
Published by Brandt / EPI ™
 1st Edition © 1982
2nd Edition © 1985
3rd Edition © 1995
4th Edition © 1996

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in

any form without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the U.S.A.

 PREFACE

This Handbook was written by the Technical Services staff of Brandt/EPI

to provide a basic understanding of effective mechanical removal of drilled
solids and management of drilling wastes. Based on sound theoretical con-
cepts, this Handbook is a practical working tool. It is designed for use by
anyone needing to optimize drilling efficiency: drilling engineers, supervi-
sors, tool pushers, mud engineers, derrick hands, service personnel and
others.

This 4th edition of the Handbook provides updated sections on equip-

ment and techniques, and includes new information on waste processing
systems, including downhole injection, solidification/ stabilization, water
clarification, and other site remediation techniques. We would appreciate
any suggestions for improving future editions of the Handbook. Please
address your comments to:

Brandt/EPI Technical Group

P.O. Box 2327
Conroe, TX 77305

TEL: (713) 756-4800

FAX: (713) 756-8102

Thanks,

Mike Montgomery
Manager, Technical Group
Brandt/EPI

i
ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
1.0 DRILLING MUD AND MUD SOLIDS .....................................................1.1
1.1 Functions of Drilling Mud ............................................................................1.1
1.2 The Nature of Drilled Solids ........................................................................1.2
1.3 Properties of Drilling Mud ...........................................................................1.4
1.4 Types of Drilling Muds.................................................................................1.8

2.0 BENEFITS OF SOLIDS REMOVAL BY MECHANICAL SEPARATION .....2.1

2.1 Reduced Total Solids ....................................................................................2.1
2.2 Reduced Dilution Requirements ..................................................................2.2

3.0 MECHANICAL SOLIDS CONTROL AND RELATED EQUIPMENT .........3.1

3.1 Particle Classification and Cut Point............................................................3.3
3.2 Separation by Vibratory Screening ..............................................................3.6
3.3 Shale Shakers ..............................................................................................3.14
3.4 Mud Cleaners/Conditioners........................................................................3.21
3.5 Separation by Settling and Centrifugal Force............................................3.28
3.6 Sand Trap ....................................................................................................3.29
3.7 Hydrocyclones ............................................................................................3.30
3.8 Desanders....................................................................................................3.33
3.9 Desilters.......................................................................................................3.35
3.10 Decanting Centrifuge..................................................................................3.38
3.11 Auxiliary Equipment...................................................................................3.43
3.12 Unitized Systems.........................................................................................3.48
3.13 Rig Enhanced Systems................................................................................3.49
3.14 High Efficiency Solids Removal Systems...................................................3.50
3.15 Basic Arrangement Guidelines...................................................................3.51

4.0 BRANDT/EPI™ PRODUCTS AND SERVICES ........................................4.1

Company Profile..........................................................................................................4.1
4.1 Scope of Services..........................................................................................4.1
4.2 Business Relationship...................................................................................4.1
4.3 Certification...................................................................................................4.1
4.4 Personnel Resources.....................................................................................4.2
Products and Services .................................................................................................4.2
4.5 Linear Motion Shakers..................................................................................4.3
ATL-1000 .......................................................................................................4.3
ATL-1200 .......................................................................................................4.3
LCM-2D .........................................................................................................4.4
ATL-CS...........................................................................................................4.4
LCM-2D/CM2 ................................................................................................4.5
ATL Drying Shaker........................................................................................4.5
SDW-25 Drying Shaker.................................................................................4.6
ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner...........................................................................4.6
ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner ..........................................................................4.7
LCM-2D Mud Conditioner ............................................................................4.7
4.6 Orbital Motion Screen Separators ................................................................4.7
Tandem Screen Separator ............................................................................4.7
Standard Screen Separator ...........................................................................4.8
Mud Cleaners ................................................................................................4.8

iii
 4.7 Screen Panels................................................................................................4.9
BlueHexSM 3HX Screen Panels .....................................................................4.9
Pinnacle™ Screen Panels .............................................................................4.9
PT Screen Panels ........................................................................................4.10
Hook-Strip Screen Panels...........................................................................4.10
4.8 Hydrocyclone Units ....................................................................................4.10
Desanders....................................................................................................4.10
Desilters.......................................................................................................4.11
4.9 Centrifuges ..................................................................................................4.11
SC-1 Decanting Centrifuge .........................................................................4.11
SC-4 Decanting Centrifuge .........................................................................4.12
HS 3400 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge ..............................................4.12
SC 35HS High Speed Decanting Centrifuge..............................................4.12
HS 5200 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge ..............................................4.13
Roto-Sep Perforated Rotor Centrifuge .......................................................4.13
4.10 Dewatering Units ........................................................................................4.14
4.11 Filtration Units ............................................................................................4.14
4.12 Vacuum Degassers......................................................................................4.15
4.13 Mud Agitators..............................................................................................4.15
4.14 Portable Rig Blowers ..................................................................................4.15
4.15 Integrated Systems......................................................................................4.16
Closed Loop Processing Systems ...............................................................4.16
Coiled Tubing (CT) Processing Systems....................................................4.17
Trenchless Technology Processing Systems..............................................4.17
Live Oil Systems..........................................................................................4.17
4.16 Remediation Management Services ...........................................................4.17
4.17 Technical & Engineering Services..............................................................4.18

APPENDICES
Glossary .....................................................................................................................A.2
Mud Solids Calculations
Standard Calculations..................................................................................................B.1
Field Calculations to Determine Total Solids Discharge...........................................B.4
Field Calculations to Determine High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge ..............B.5
Solids Control Performance Evaluation .....................................................................B.6
Method for Comparison of Cyclone Efficiency .......................................................B.10
Mud Engineering Data
Conversion Constants and Formulas..........................................................................C.1
Density of Common Materials ....................................................................................C.2
Hole Capacities ...........................................................................................................C.3
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Fast Rates ..........................................................C.4
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Slow Rates.........................................................C.5
Solids Content Chart ...................................................................................................C.6
Equipment Selection
Pre-well Project Checklist...........................................................................................D.1
Screen Cloth Comparisons .........................................................................................D.2
Brandt/EPI Equipment Specifications........................................................................D.3
Selecting Size and Number of Agitators ....................................................................D.7
Brandt/EPI™ Sales & Service Locations ....................................................................D.8

iv
1.0 DRILLING MUD AND MUD SOLIDS
Mud is the common name for
drilling fluid. While it is outside the
scope of this handbook to offer a
detailed discussion of drilling fluids,
a brief outline of the general char-
acteristics of drilling mud is
included to establish the basic rela-
tionships between drilling mud and
solids control.
Similarly, any discussion of solids
control would be incomplete with-
out establishing an understanding
of the nature of mud solids — their
size, shape and composition.
1.1 FUNCTIONS OF
DRILLING FLUID
The mud system in a drilling
operation performs many important
functions. Among these are:
1. Carry the drilled solids from
the bottom of the hole to the
surface.
2. Support the wall of the hole.
3. Control pressure within the for-
mation being drilled.
4. Cool the bit and lubricate the
drill string.
5. Clean beneath the bit.
6. Suspend cuttings while circula-
tion is interrupted (e.g., during
trips).
7. Secure accurate information
from the well (cuttings sam-
ples, electric logs, etc.).
8. Help support the weight of the
drill string.
9. Transmit hydraulic horse-
power to the bit.
10. Allow removal of cuttings by
the surface system.
Of the ten functions listed, the fol-
lowing are generally considered
most important:
1. Drilling mud moves the forma-
tions’ solids cut by the drill bit
from the bottom of the hole to
the surface. Removal of cut-
tings from the wellbore is
essential in order to continue
drilling.
2. Drilling mud must withstand
the pressure exerted by the
formations exposed in the
hole. The pressure exerted by
the mud against the formations
helps the driller control the
pressure created by the gas, oil
and water that are exposed
while drilling, thus reducing
the potential for costly
blowouts.
3. Drilling mud protects and sup-
ports the walls of the wellbore.
The mud has a plastering effect
on the walls of the hole and
helps prevent the walls from
caving in, causing an enlarged
hole or leading to stuck pipe.
1.1
 These problems significantly
increase drilling expense and
time.
4. Drilling mud cools the bit and
lubricates the drill string. This
function is important in drilling
because it increases the useful
life of bits and the drill string.
Drilling mud is obviously a major
factor in the success of any drilling
program, and the key to any effec-
tive mud system is good solids
control.
1.2 THE NATURE OF
DRILLED SOLIDS
Mud solids include particles that
are drilled from the formation,
material from the inside surface of
the hole and materials that are
added to control the chemical and
physical properties of the mud,
such as weight material. Drilled
solids’ particles are created by the
crushing and chipping action of
rotary drill bits. Additional solids
enter the well bore by sloughing
from the sides of the open hole.
The unit of measurement general-
ly used to describe particle size is
the micron (µ). A micron is one
thousandth (0.001) of a millimeter,
or approximately 0.00003973 of an
inch. To relate this unit of measure-
ment in more familiar terms, Figure
1-1 provides a list of common items
and their size in microns.
1.2
ITEM DIAMETER IN MICRONS
Cement Dust (Portland) 3-100 µ
Talcum Powder 5-50 µ
Red Blood Corpuscles 7.5 µ
Finger Tip Sensitivity 20 µ
Human Sight 35-40 µ
Human Hair 30-200 µ
Cigarette (diameter) 7520 µ
One inch 25,400 µ
Figure 1-1
Micron Size Range of Common Materials
Although individual mud solids
can range in size from less than
one micron to larger than a human
fist, the average particle size is less
than 35–40 microns, too small to be
seen with the human eye.
Note: The various sizes of solids
particles in a particular drilling
mud are referred to as the mud’s
cuttings, sand, silt or clay content.
This content is important to remem-
ber because solids control practices
will affect the average particle size
and the concentration of solids in
specific size ranges which may
greatly affect mud properties and
drilling operations.
Mud solids may be conveniently
grouped according to micron size
range, but unfortunately not with-
out introducing some element of
confusion. The API Committee on
Standardization of Drilling Fluid
Materials, in API Bulletin 13C pub-
lished in 1974, recommended
certain terminology for mud solids
particle size in an attempt to mini-
mize this confusion. This new
terminology has not yet, however,
gained universal acceptance.
 The more commonly used classifi- Abrasiveness of mud solids is
cations shown in Figure 1-2, determined by particle shape and
cuttings, sand, silt and clay (or col- hardness. Drilled solids come in
loidal size) will be used throughout various shapes such as round, nee-
this handbook, as they are the most dle shaped, platelets, cubic, etc. To
readily recognized in the field. be destructive, particles must be
These terms will refer to size classi- sharper and harder than the materi-
fication only, not to material al they are to abrade. Figure 1-3
composition. illustrates the degradation of drilled
CLASSIFICATION PARTICLE SIZE
solids in a mud system. The main
(Diameter in Microns) body of the particle becomes less
Cuttings Larger than 500 µ
abrasive with wear as the most
Sand 74-500 µ
Silt 2-74 µ
abrasive corners continue to
Clay Smaller than 2 µ degrade down through the silt size
Figure 1-2 to approximately 15–20 microns.
Common Field Terminology of Particle Size

Note: Drilled solids can originate

from sand, limestone, shale or other
formations, but their classification
in regard to solids control usually
depends on particle size since their
specific gravity is assumed to be
approximately 2.6.
It is important to note that com-
mercial solids (such as barite or
bentonite added for weight and vis-
Figure 1-3
cosity) are also affected by solids Mechanical Degradation of Drilled Solids
control equipment, according to
size. Most barite particles are in the Particles smaller than 15–20
same size group as silt (2–74 microns have much less abrasive
microns); bentonite particles are effect on drilling equipment. Barite
grouped with clay (smaller than 2 particles, which are not as hard as
microns). most drilled solids, are generally
From the time they enter the well less abrasive than similarly-sized
until they reach the surface, drilled drilled solids. Other weighting
solids particles are continuously materials, such as hematite, are
reduced in size by abrasion with generally harder and more abrasive
other particles and by the grinding than barite.
action of the drill pipe. Specific surface area, as it relates

1.3
to various shapes and sizes of
solids, is another important con-
cept. Specific surface area refers to
the surface area per unit of weight
or volume. Figure 1-4 lists examples
that show surface area greatly
increases per unit of mass: 1) as
particle size decreases, and 2) as
particles become less spherical in
shape.
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL
PARTICLE DIAMETER TYPE
(Microns) PARTICLES
5.0 µ Glass Spheres
5.0 µ Crushed Quartz
1.0 µ Glass Spheres
1.0 µ Crushed Quartz
0.1 µ Glass Spheres
0.1 µ Crushed Quartz
Figure 1-4
Effect of Particle Size and Shape on Surface Area
Surface area adsorbs or “ties-up”
water. The more surface area, the
more water adsorbed. As the parti-
cle size decreases toward the
colloidal size, the relative effect of
the water coating increases. The
specific surface area has a pro-
nounced effect on viscosity, as
Figure 1-5 illustrates. The higher the
relative specific surface area, the
greater is the viscosity. Formations
Figure 1-5
Effect of Specific Surface Area on Viscosity
composed of clays that easily dis-
perses into the mud produce
relatively more viscosity increase and
will have “wetter” separations in
removal by equipment than forma-
tions that produce larger sized solids.
Bentonite disperses easily into col-
loidal solids and also absorbs much
more water than most solids types.
Hence bentonite builds viscosity at
relatively low concentrations.
SQUARE FEET
PER POUND Viscosity and other mud properties
2,345
are discussed in Section 1.3 of this
3,435
11,725
Handbook.
17, 160
117,250 1.3 PROPERTIES OF
171,500
DRILLING MUD
The ability of a drilling fluid to
perform its functions depends on
various properties of the mud, most
of which are measurable and are
affected by solids control.
DENSITY (MUD WEIGHT)
Density is a measure of the weight
of the mud in a given volume, and
is frequently referred to as mud
weight. The instrument used to
measure density is the mud balance
(see Figure 1-6). The instrument
consists of a constant volume cup
with a lever arm and rider calibrat-
ed to read directly the density of
the fluid in lbs/gal (water = 8.33
lbs/gal) and pressure gradient in
psi/1000 ft (water = 433 psi/1000 ft)
or pounds per cubic foot (water =
62.4 lbs/ft).

1.4
 Figure 1-6 Mud Balance

The density of the mud is related its viscosity. Viscosity is routinely

to the specific gravity of the fluid. measured with a Marsh Funnel and
Specific gravity is the ratio of a Mud Cup at the drilling site (see
materials density to the density of Figure 1-7). The person measuring
water. Pure water has a specific the viscosity fills the funnel with a
gravity of 1.0. A material twice as sample of mud and allows it to
dense as water would have a spe-
cific gravity of 2.0. A material half
as dense as water would have a
specific gravity of 0.5. Low gravity
solids have an average specific
gravity of 2.6. The solids are 2.6
times the weight of the same vol-
ume of water.

VISCOSITY
Viscosity measures the mud’s
resistance to flow as a liquid and is
one of the key physical properties
of mud. Increasing the amount of
solids or exposed surface area in a
mud increases its resistance to flow
as a liquid and therefore increases Figure 1-7 Marsh Funnel and Cup

1.5

Figure 1-8 Rotational Viscometer (VG Meter)
flow through the tip of the funnel
container while measuring the time
in seconds that it takes to fill the
mud cup to the one quart level.
The funnel viscosity recorded is in
seconds per quart. Internationally,
funnel viscosity is recorded in sec-
onds per thousand ccs or seconds
per liter.
PLASTIC VISCOSITY
A mud’s Plastic Viscosity is the por-
tion of a mud’s flow resistance
caused by the mechanical friction
between the suspended particles
and by the viscosity of the continu-
ous liquid phase. In practical terms,
plastic viscosity depends on the
size, shape, and number of parti-
cles. For example, as the amount of
drilled solids in a mud increases,
the plastic viscosity also increases.
Plastic viscosity is measured with a
1.6
rotational viscometer (Figure 1-8)
and is expressed in centipoise
(grams per centimeter-second).
YIELD POINT
Yield point is the part of flow resis-
tance that measures the positive
and negative inter-particle, or
attractive, forces within a mud.
Yield point is measured with a
viscometer and expressed in
lbs/100 ft 2. Internationally, yield
point is sometimes measured in
dynes/cm2.
GEL STRENGTH
Gel Str ength is a function of a
mud’s inter particle forces and gives
an indication of the amount of gela-
tion that will occur after circulation
ceases and the mud remains static
for a period of time. Typically, gel
strengths are reported for initial and
10-second gel strength. A large
deviation of these two figures may
indicate progressive gels, that is,
gelation structures that gain
strength over time. Gel strength is
also measured with a viscometer
and expressed in lbs/100 ft 2 .
Internationally, gel strength is
sometimes measured in dynes/cm2.
SOLIDS CONTENT
The solids content is the volume
percentage of the total solids in the

Figure 1-9 Retort (Mud Still)
mud. To determine the solids con-
tent of a mud containing weight
material, a mud container in the
retort is filled with a measured vol-
ume of mud (see Figure 1-9). The
mud is then heated to boil off the
liquid. The percentage of the liquid
distilled off is measured in a glass
cylinder and subtracted from 100%.
The difference is the percentage of
solids by volume contained in the
drilling mud and is recorded as per-
centage solids. The total solids from
the retort and mud weight are used
to calculate the low and high gravi-
ty solids content.
If the mud does not contain oil or
weight material, such as barite or
hematite, the low gravity solids can
be determined without a retort by
weighing the mud and referring to
a solids content chart.
SAND
Sand is any particle larger than 74
microns when referring to solids
control separation. Therefore, the
sand content of a mud is simply the
amount of solids too large to pass
through a US Test Sieve 200-mesh
screen. This is determined with a
sand content set (see Figure 1-10)
by washing a mea-
sured amount of
mud through the
200-mesh screen in
the kit. The
amount of solids
that does not pass
through the screen
is measured as
percentage by vol-
ume and is
recorded as per-
Figure 1-10
cent sand. Sand Content Set
FILTRATION
Filtration and wall-cake building
are actions that the drilling mud
carries out through and on the
walls of the hole. Some formations
allow the liquid in the mud to seep
into them, leaving a layer of mud
solids on the wall of the hole. This
layer of mud solids is called filter
cake or wall-cake. The filter cake
builds up a barrier and reduces the
amount of the liquid that enters the
formation and is lost from the mud.
This process is referred to as filtra-
tion, or fluid loss. The instrument
used to measure the fluid loss due
to filtration is a filter press (see
Figure 1-11).
1.7

Figure 1-11 Filter Press
The person using the filter press
places a mud sample in the instru-
ment on top of a piece of filter
paper and brings the pressure up to
100 pounds per square inch. The
amount of fluid flowing from the
sample in 30 minutes is measured
in milliliters. The mud filtration
property is recorded in units of
cubic centimeters (ccs) or milliliters
(ml) per 30 minutes. Examination of
the filter paper will indicate how
the solids will plaster the wall of
the hole and affect fluid loss. The
cake thickness is recorded in units
of 1/32s of an inch.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical Properties is a broad
category, including measurements
of pH, alkalinity, chlorides, calcium
1.8
content, salt content, and other
properties that affect drilling mud
performance. Some of these chemi-
cal properties can be controlled
through various mud additives that
thicken, thin, precipitate, disperse,
emulsify, lubricate or otherwise
adjust the mud depending on spe-
cific drilling needs. For example,
caustic soda can be added to some
saltwater mud in order to maintain
a high pH level; it makes disper-
sants more effective and reduces
corrosion. Chemical changes such
as these are used to fine tune
drilling muds.
1.4 TYPES OF
DRILLING MUDS
Drilling fluids are generally cate-
gorized as “water-base” or “oil-
base”, and as “weighted” or
“unweighted” muds.
Water-base Muds contain water as
the liquid phase and are used to
drill most of the wells in the world
because they are relatively simple,
expense is usually reasonable, and
water is commonly available in
most places.
Oil-base Mud contains either nat-
ural oil or synthetic oil as the
continuous liquid phase and is used
for maximum hole protection. Oil-
base mud and synthetic oil mud are
usually much more expensive than
water-base mud and therefore are
only used when there is a specific
need, such as to keep the hole disposal may require sophisticated
from swelling or caving in, or to solids control techniques. System
reduce friction and prevent stuck recommendations for specific appli-
pipe in very crooked or high angle cations are covered in detail in
holes. Either water-base or oil-base Chapter 4.
mud can be used as “weighted” Here is a list of the most common
mud. mud types, followed by a brief
Weighted Mud refers to any mud description of each type:
which has barite or barite substi- I. Water-Base Mud (WBM)
tutes added to increase density. A. Spud Mud
These muds normally have a densi- B. Natural mud
ty greater than 10.0 lbs/gal. The C. Chemically-Treated Mud
solids in weighted mud consist of 1. Lightly Treated Chemical
drilled solids from the hole, plus Mud
barite, plus commercial clays added 2. Highly Treated Chemical
Mud
to control fluid loss and viscosity.
3. Low Solids Mud
Unweighted Mud refers to any 4. Polymer Mud
mud which has not had barite 5. Calcium Treated Mud
added. This mud type normally has D. Saltwater Mud
a density of less than 10.0 lbs/gal. 1. Sea Water Mud
The solids in unweighted mud con- 2. Saturated Salt Mud
sist of drilled solids from the hole, II. Oil-Base Mud (OBM)
plus commercial clays. A. “True” Oil Base
Solids control techniques will vary B. Invert Emulsion
considerably depending on the type C. Synthetic (SBM)
of mud being used. For example,
with many unweighted water-base SPUD MUD
muds, the loss of fluids along with Spud Mud is used to start the
the drilled solids may be economi- drilling of a well and continues to
cally insignificant, allowing simple be used while drilling the first few
solids control techniques. In the hundred feet of hole. Spud mud is
case of mud that contains expen- usually an unweighted water-base
sive chemical additives and/or mud, made up of water and natural
barite, especially oil-base mud, solids from the formation being
sophisticated solids control tech- drilled. It may contain some com-
niques must be utilized to minimize mercial clay, added to increase
overall costs. In addition, environ- viscosity and improve wall-cake
mental costs of haul-off and building properties.

1.9
NATURAL MUD
Natural Mud (sometimes called
“native” mud) is usually unweight-
ed water-base mud which contains
mostly drilled solids. Some ben-
tonite and small amounts of
chemicals may be used to improve
filter cake quality and help prevent
hole problems. This mud is often
the next mud type used after spud
mud. Often, natural mud is used to
drill the first few thousand feet of
hole, where only minor hole prob-
lems are expected.
CHEMICALLY TREATED MUD
Chemically Treated Mud is water-
base mud which contains chemicals
to control physical and chemical
properties. Bentonite is usually
added to help control viscosity and
fluid loss. Barite (weight material)
may be added to increase density.
This mud is used where more
severe hole problems are expected,
in order to prevent these problems.
Lightly Treated Chemical Mud is
usually unweighted water-base
mud. It is used where minor hole
problems are expected, such as
sloughing or caving of the walls of
the hole.
Highly Treated Chemical Mud is
usually weighted, water-base mud
that contains larger amounts of
chemicals, bentonite, additives, and
barite to maintain strict control of
viscosity, fluid loss, chemical prop-
1.10
erties, and density. Chemical muds
are often treated with lignosul-
fonates or lignite and are therefore
commonly called “lignosulfonate
mud” or “lignite” mud.
These muds are used where mod-
erate to severe hole problems are
expected or high down-hole pres-
sures occur. Of all the water-base
mud types, these are the most
expensive to maintain. As mud den-
sity is increased and potential hole
problems (such as stuck drill pipe)
become more of a risk, the removal
of drilled solids by mechanical
solids control equipment becomes
increasingly important.
Low Solids Muds are water-base
mud containing less than ten per-
cent (10%) drilled solids; 1–5% is a
normal range. Generally speaking,
the lower the solids content in the
mud, the faster the bit will drill.
Low solids muds are usually
expensive to maintain because the
solids, chemical, and fluid loss
properties have to be kept very
close to prescribed levels. It is
absolutely essential that all solids
removal equipment operate at max-
imum effectiveness in order to
maintain the desired low level of
solids at a reasonable cost.
Polymer Muds are special types of
low solids mud which contain syn-
thetic materials, polymers, designed
to control viscosity and fluid loss.
Polymers are very expensive and
often difficult to screen when a
high viscosity fluid is used.
Calcium Treated Muds are special
water-base muds, usually weighted,
which have lime or gypsum added.
Calcium Treated Muds are normally
used to prevent shale type forma-
tions from swelling or sloughing –
problems which could lead to stuck
pipe or a ruined hole.
SALTWATER MUD
Saltwater Muds contain a high
concentration of salt. They may be
weighted or unweighted.
Sea Water Muds contain sea water
as the continuous phase and, usual-
ly, only sea water is used for
dilution. They may be weighted or
unweighted. These muds are used
offshore and in bay areas where
fresh water is not readily available.
When sea water mud is being
used, only sea water should be
used to rinse or wash the screens in
solids control equipment.
Saturated Salt Muds (sometimes
called brine fluids) contain as much
salt as can be dissolved in the water
phase. This mud type is often used
to drill through salt formations so
the fluid will not dissolve the salt
formation. If fresh water mud is
used, greatly enlarged holes would
result, usually leading to hole trou-
ble.
It is important to be aware of the
use of salt mud because screen
blinding can occur when salt dries
and cakes on the solids control
equipment. Fresh water may be
used to clean the screens, but it
must be used very carefully
because too much fresh water can
upset the chemical balance of this
mud.
“TRUE” OIL-BASE MUD
“True” Oil-base Mud contains a
liquid phase with ninety to ninety-
five percent (90–95%) diesel oil and
five to ten percent (5–10%) water
emulsified within the oil. These
muds often use asphaltic type mate-
rials suspended in the liquid for
controlling viscosity and fluid loss.
“True” oil-base muds provide good
hole protection, especially in shale
type formations, and also increase
drill string lubrication.
INVERT EMULSION MUD
Invert Emulsion Mud is oil-base
mud in which the liquid phase is
sixty to ninety percent (60–90%)
diesel oil with ten to forty percent
(10–40%) water emulsified within
the oil. An invert mud can be for-
mulated with mineral oil or other
low environmental risk oil substi-
tutes when needed. In this mud,
water and chemicals are used to-
gether to control viscosity and fluid
loss. Invert emulsion muds provide
good hole protection and are the
most commonly used oil mud.
1.11
SYNTHETIC OIL MUDS
The term “Synthetic-Based Mud”,
or SBM, describes any oil-base mud
that has a synthesized liquid base.
Some common synthetic base fluids
include linear alphaolefins (LAO),
straight internal olefins (IO), polyal-
phaolefins (PAO), vegetable oils,
esters, and ethers. This base fluid is
then combined with viscosifiers,
weighting material, and other addi-
tives to produce a stable, useful
drilling fluid.
SBMs share several advantages
with traditional oil-base muds,
including excellent wellbore stabili-
ty, improved drilling rates, good
hole cleaning, excellent cuttings
integrity, and reduced torque.
SBMs also provide additional health
and safety benefits — higher flash
points, lower vapor production, and
1.12
reduced eye and respiratory irrita-
tion. The major benefit of SBMs
over traditional OBMs is the
reduced environmental impact of
cuttings and liquid mud. Currently,
SBMs and cuttings meet U.S. off-
shore environmental requirements
and may be discharged under
WBM protocols.
SBMs are expensive, $200–400
/bbl., depending on the oil/water
ratio. Proper solids removal and liq-
uid recovery techniques must be
used to maintain desired fluid prop-
erties and drilling rate, and to
control mud maintenance costs.
The alternatives to mechanical
solids control — dilution and whole
SBM additions — are prohibitively
expensive when compared to the
cost of proper solids control equip-
ment.
2.0 BENEFITS OF SOLIDS REMOVAL BY
MECHANICAL SEPARATION
INTRODUCTION
Of all the problems that could
conceivably occur during the
drilling of a well, mud contamina-
tion from drilled solids is a
certainty. The volume and type of
solids present in drilling mud exert
a considerable influence over mud
treating costs, drilling rates,
hydraulics, and the possibility of
differential sticking, kicks, and lost
returns. Solids control is one of the
most important phases of mud con-
trol — it is a constant issue, every
day, on every well. If drilled solids
can be removed mechanically, it is
almost always less expensive than
trying to combat them with chemi-
cals and dilution.
The primary reason for using
mechanical solids control equip-
ment is to remove unwanted drilled
solids particles from the mud in
order to prevent drilling problems
and reduce mud and waste costs,
thereby reducing overall drilling
costs. The benefits of solids
removal by mechanical separation
can best be seen in terms of two
outcomes: 1) reduced total mud
solids and 2) reduced dilution
requirements.
2.1 REDUCED TOTAL
SOLIDS
The presence of large amounts of
drilled solids in a drilling mud usu-
ally spells trouble for the drilling
operation. These solids adversely
affect the performance characteris-
tics of the mud and can lead to a
multitude of costly hole problems.
Drilled solids decrease the life of
a mud pump’s parts and thus, can
decrease drilling efficiency due to
lost time for pump repairs.
Continued recirculation of drilled
solids produces serious mud prob-
lems because recirculated solids
will gradually be reduced in size.
The smaller the solids become, the
more they negatively influence mud
properties and hydraulic perfor-
mance. The greatest impact of the
solids is seen in reduced ROP. The
higher the drilled solids content,
the lower the penetration rate.
If mud solids are not properly
controlled, the mud’s density can
increase above its desired weight
and the mud can get so thick that it
becomes extremely difficult or even
impossible to pump.
Since the earliest days of the oil-
field, drillers have been trying to
combat high solids content through
the use of settling pits. However,
2.1
some drilled solids are so finely
ground that they tend to remain in
suspension. This results in
increased mud viscosity and gel
strength which, in turn results in
larger particles also remaining in
suspension. Thus, the approach of
removing cuttings through settling
alone is of limited practical value.
Solids control equipment was
developed in order to more effec-
tively remove unwanted solids from
drilling mud. A variety of devices
(which will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 3 of this handbook) are
available which mechanically sepa-
rate the solids particles from the
liquid phase of the mud. Thus the
driller, depending on the particular
situation and equipment used, can
regulate to a fine degree the
amount and size of solids particles
that are removed or maintained in
any given drilling mud.
Such control of mud solids through
mechanical separation allows the
mud to perform its drilling-related
functions and avoids the downhole
problems caused by excessive solids
contamination. Effective solids con-
trol permits viscosity and density to be
kept within desired levels, dramati-
cally increases the life of pump parts
and drill bits, and promotes faster
penetration — all of which decrease
the time and expense of drilling.
2.2
2.2 REDUCED DILUTION
REQUIREMENTS
A common method of trying to
offset the build-up of drilled solids
is the addition of more liquid. This
is known as dilution and does not
remove cuttings but reduces (or
dilutes) their concentration in a
drilling mud, thereby reducing the
percent of total solids in the mud.
However, it is important to note
that dilution is expensive. Every
barrel of dilution water (or oil)
added requires an additional
amount of chemicals, barite or
other materials in order to maintain
desired mud properties. The lower
the drilled solids content to be
maintained, the greater the dilution
required. In the case of an oil-base
mud, oil must be used for dilution
— which can become extremely
expensive.
It should be noted that chemical
treatment alone will ultimately
result in high solids content and
uncontrollable mud properties. The
most effective approach is to use
mechanical solids control equip-
ment to remove as much of the
drilled solids as possible before
they are incorporated into the mud
system and then treat what is left
with appropriate amounts of chemi-
cals and dilution.
Effective solids removal by
mechanical separation can maintain
a minimum solids level in drilling
mud and greatly reduce the need
for dilution. Reducing the need to
dilute the mud can drastically
decrease the cost of having to pur-
chase mud products such as weight
material (barite) and chemicals.
These materials are expensive —
mud costs can be 10% of the total
cost of drilling a well.
The Dilution Ratio Chart (Figure
2-1) can be used indirectly to
approximate the amount of dilution
that can be eliminated by use of
solids removal equipment. For
example, suppose a drilling engi-
neer required that no more than 5%
solids were to be maintained in an
unweighted mud. The chart shows
that at 5%, each barrel of mud
would contain about 45 pounds of
drilled solids. If solids control
equipment were removing 1 ton
(2000 lbs) of solids per hour, then
the equipment would save 2000 ÷
MUD WEIGHT DRILLED
(LBS/GAL) SOLIDS
TO BE PERCENT BY
MAINTAINED VOLUME
45 = 44 barrels of dilution per hour.
If the chemicals and additives were
worth only $10 per barrel, the mud
treating costs would be reduced by
approximately $440 per hour! Over
the life of a drilling operation, $440
per hour adds up to a very signifi-
cant cost savings.
The same procedure can be used
to show reduced dilution require-
ment in weighted mud. When
heavily — weighted muds (16–18
lbs/gal) are being used, drilling
usually proceeds more slowly and
less drilled solids are removed per
hour. However, if approximately 5%
drilled solids are allowed in the
mud, then each barrel of mud still
contains roughly 44 pounds of
drilled solids.
Therefore, if the solids control
equipment were removing even a
pencil-sized stream of solids which
would amount to 44 pounds per
POUNDS OF BBLS OF WATER
2.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY REQUIRED TO DILUTE
SOLIDS PER 1 TON SOLIDS AND
BARREL OF MUD MAINTAIN MUD WEIGHT

8.5 1.2 11 182

8.6 2.0 18 111
8.7 2.7 25 80
8.8 3.5 32 63
8.9 4.2 38 53
9.0 5.0 45 44
9.1 5.7 52 38
9.2 6.4 59 34
9.3 7.2 66 30
9.4 8.0 73 27
9.5 8.7 79 25
9.6 9.4 86 23
9.7 10.2 93 22
9.8 11.0 100 20
9.9 11.7 107 19
10.0 12.4 114 18

Figure 2-1 Dilution Ratio Chart

2.3
hour, then 44 ÷ 44 = 1 barrel of
dilution saved per hour. With the
high cost weighted mud (usually a
minimum of $30 per barrel), the
solids removal equipment would be
saving at least $30 per hour. Over
an average operation of 20 hours
per day, this represents a savings of
approximately $600 per day. If the
maximum amount of drilled solids
were reduced to 3%, the cost savings
would double to approximately
$1200 per day.
The expense of the dilution liquid
is a major factor in considering the
advantages of reduced dilution
requirements. Oil is obviously
much more costly than water, but
water also can be expensive if it
has to be trucked into a remote
drilling location.
The disposal of “waste” mud can
also be a significant factor in overall
dilution costs. Heavy reliance on
dilution to control solids content
can result in the addition of so
much extra liquid that the volume
of mud exceeds the capaci-
ty of the active mud pits.
When this happens, whole
mud (including all of the
expensive additives) must
be discarded into waste or
reserve pits.
Appropriate use of solids
control equipment in place
of dilution lessens the vol-
ume of the mud system and
can usually eliminate the
2.4
discarding of excess mud. The size
of the active and waste pits them-
selves can be reduced due to
smaller capacity requirements.
Instead of throwing away valuable
mud additives, these can be sal-
vaged and returned to the active
mud system.
If properly used, solids control
equipment can virtually eliminate
waste liquid mud through a “closed
mud system”. In such a system the
liquid phase can be recycled —
which can be critical in special
applications such as when using
oil-base or polymer muds, especial-
ly offshore, or where environmental
concerns prohibit disposal of liquid
waste materials. In these cases the
cost of hauling the liquid waste
away for disposal is also avoided.
Solids removal by mechanical sep-
aration can achieve the benefits of
low solids content and at the same
time significantly reduce the many
costs associated with dilution.
DRILLED SOLIDS