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HANDOUT
IN
PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION 203 (20189)
Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
Compilations of reports.

From;

Lesson 1 to 6
LESSON 1: PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Pavlovian Conditioning

In the parlance of psychology, behaviorism is concerned with the behavioral changes and the role of the
environment in these changes. Behaviorists claim that nurture is crucial in the process of acquiring
knowledge (Dastpak et al., 2017). One known behaviorist is John B. Watson (1982), who writes that the
ultimate goal of behaviorism is to derive laws to explain the relationships existing among antecedent
conditions (stimuli), behavior (responses), and following conditions (rewards, punishments, or neutral
effects). The theory of behaviorism may be dichotomized into associationism and reinforcement.

The name Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) rings a bell within the context of the association theory in
behaviorism. Pavlov was a physiologist, who, out of serendipity, discovered classical conditioning. In
1904, he won the Nobel Prize for his outstanding studies on the physiology of digestion. He spent the rest
of his life studying reflexes of dogs, which led him to the discovery of classical conditioning, also known
as the association theory.

Still recognized as an essential parcel of contemporary psychological knowledge and classical

conditioning has become the basis for many early learning theories. In his discovery, Pavlov found out
that the sight of food does not only trigger the salivation of the dog, but any other stimulus may result to
such effect if paired with the food (Le Francois, 2000). In another version, the salivation of the dog is
influenced by associating the steps of the attendant with the food (Schunk, 2012).

Pavlovian Conditioning in a Nutshell

The theory of Pavlovian conditioning involves a set of multilayered procedures. Initially, the food is
called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In psychology, any environmental event that affects the
organism is called stimulus. The food is an unconditioned stimulus because it leads to an unconditioned
response (UCR) without any learning taking place. The immediate salivation of the dog is referred to as
the UCR. The UCS and UCR are considered unlearned stimulus-response units termed as reflexes.

Conditioning the dog requires recurrent presentation of a neutral stimulus paired with the UCS. For
instance, the buzzer was sounded repeatedly but caused no dog's salivation at all. However, when the
buzzer came with the food, the dog salivated. Later, by just hearing the buzzer, the dog salivated (see
Figure 14). The buzzer is now called a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited the salivation of the dog.
now termed as a conditioned response (CR).
When applied in the classroom, the use of the pointer or stick to whip unruly learners in class may affect
other pupils. They may associate the stick with whipping, thus triggering fear. Later, merely hearing or
seeing a stick in class may elicit fear among them. This is why expert educators in the country suggest
that classroom teachers should avoid using the stick as pointers. Instead, they are advised to use their
open palm to pointing words on the chalkboard.

Other Phenomena in Classical Conditioning

According to Buoton and Moody (2004), when the CS is repeatedly unreinforced, that is, without the
UCS, the CR will eventually diminish in intensity and effect. This phenomenon is called extinction.
When the extinction of learning passes through time, the CR may still be restored (Robins, 1990). This
recovery-after-extinction phenomenon is termed as spontaneous recovery. This means that extinction
does not completely involve unlearning of the pairings (Redish et al., 2018).

Generalization is another phenomenon in Pavlovian's classical conditioning (Figure 15). When the dog
salivates by just merely hearing the buzzer, it is likely to elicit similar CS when it hears a faster or a
slower beat of the buzzer or any device with quite a similar sound. Harris (2006), however, pointed out
that the more different the new stimulus to the CS, the lesser generalization surfaces.

Watsonian Conditioning

During the dawn of the 20th century, a psychologist, greatly influenced by Pavlov, rose and aimed to
revolutionize the status of American psychology. He was John Broadus Watson (1878-1958). According
to Watson, if Pavlov is successful in proving associationism between stimulus and response, people can
also have such ability to associating certain feelings, behaviors, instances, and even symbols. He
theorized that unlearning and relearning can occur. He also posited that humans are born with emotional
responses such as love, fear, and hate.

Perhaps the most popular conditioning experiment he did was "Little Albert." Here, Watson tried to prove
that emotions can be learned. Initially, Albert played with the white rat, thus not eliciting any fear upon
seeing the rat. After some time, Watson and his partner, Rosalie Rayner, accompanied the appearance of
the white rat with a banging sound, so Albert was conditioned to fear the rat. Later, Watson and Rayner
accompanied the presentation of the rat with other objects. They found out that Albert also feared the
occurrence of the objects even without the rat's presence. This experiment became the anchor of Watson's
belief that learning happens by association (Figure 16).

ASSOCIATION

Behavioristic
STIMULUS RESPONSE REPETITION Learning
Separation anxiety among kindergarten and early elementary pupils continue to persist (Hudson er al.,
2011). In using the theories of Pavlov and Watson, teachers can diminish the recurrence of fear and
anxiety by association. For instance, before the opening of classes, teachers might want to encourage
parents with prospective kindergarten pupils to go and visit their classrooms with seats that have their
names on them. Fun and calm activities must be given in the first few weeks to condition the children that
learning in school is fun, thus diminishing anxiety.

The application of classical conditioning has a wide ambit in education, including classroom management
(Macías, 2018). For example, a teacher wants to condition his or her class to pass their tea papers quietly
and systematically. Before the conditioning stage, the teacher will instruct the students to move their test
papers forward. The unconditioned response will, of course, be the passing of the papers Later, the
teacher will clap 10 times. Initially, the students will not pass their papers, as instructions to pass their
papers have not been disclosed. The teacher will try to accompany the instructions of passing the papers
with clapping 10 times. During the post-conditioning stage, when the teacher claps 10 times the students
will be conditioned to pass their test papers without verbally repeating the instructions.

Even in tertiary education or adult learning, conditioning may be applied. For instance, in a drama class,
many students, as neophyte actors, may experience jittery feelings and stage fright. Drama teachers may
help to diminish the anxiety by conditioning the students to perform in an actual stage and later opening
the rehearsals to a few audiences. Exposing the students in this type of repetition may condition them to
act with ease even with the presence of other people.

REPORTERS: REYMART O. IGDALINO

KYLA D. ABARRATIGUE

DULF LUARENCE ABAIGAR

Lesson 2: Thorndike's Connectionism
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to

: identify the primary laws of learning postulated by Edward Thorndike

; describe how behaviors are learned according to Thorndike's laws of learning,

provide teaching implications of Thomdike's laws of leaming

THINK

Within the first half of the 21st Century in the United States, Edward L. Thomdike (1874-1949) was
prominent because of his laws of learning, primarily under the umbrella of associationsm or
connectionism (Mayer, 2003). It is mainly concerned with the connection between the stimulus and
response (S-R) According to Karadut (2012), Thorndike is one of the few psychologists who focused on
education. In proving his findings. Thorndike used an experimental approach in measuring a student's
academic achievement. Thomdike believed that forming associations or connections between sensory
experiences and neural impulses results in the prime type of learning. The neural impulses, called
responses, are behaviorally manifested. He believed that learning often occurs by trial and error (selecting
and connecting)

Laws of Learning

Thorndike's basic ideas rest in the laws of exercise and effect. Firstly, the Law of Exercise is divided into
two parts: the low of use and the law of disuse. The law of use means that the frequent recurring of the
response to a stimulus strengthens their connection Meanwhile, the law of disuse means that when a
response is not made to a stimulus, the connection's strength is weakened or even forgotten.

Drills are vital to acquire and sustain learning. In the very words of Thorndike (1913), bonds between
stimuli and responses are strengthened through being exercised frequently, recently, and "vigorously."
Learners usually learn faster when they often apply a certain skill (eg, spelling new terms) and tend to
forget when such a response does not recur over some time (Karadut, 2012). This explains why pianists,
for example, repeatedly practice their pieces before their performances. By practicing (law of use), they
ensure that they will play correctly. If they do not exercise playing their pieces (law of disuse), they may
encounter difficulty in smoothly accomplishing their performances.

Thorndike later revised the Law of Exercise. He confessed that by merely practicing, one does not bring
improvement in learning. Practicing, according to Thorndike, is not sufficient. Hence, the constant
practice must be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner. In short, the pupil must be
motivated to learn.

The Law of Effect, meanwhile, emphasizes that if a response is followed by a "satisfying" state of affairs,
the S-R connection is strengthened, if a response is followed by an "annoying" state of affairs, the S-R
connection is weakened. Thus, Thorndike posited that satisfiers and annoyers are critical to learning. This
explains why teachers give favorable comments to students who show pleasant behavior in class; when
such ego-boosting comments satisfy the learners, the higher the chance that they will repeat such
behavior,

The third law of learning also has something to do with boosting human motivation. The law of readiness
states that if one is prepared to act, to do so is rewarding, and not to do so is punishing In short, before
learning commences, one must be physically, emotionally, mentally, and psychologically prepared. This
law is illustrated when a leamer knows the answer to a particular question, thus raising his or her hand.
Calling him or her to recite is rewarding. However, when the teacher calls on a student who does not
know the answer may be annoying on his or her part, thus weakening the bond of stimulus and response.
The law of readiness is also used in sequencing topics. When students are ready to learn a particular
action (in terms of developmental level or prior skill acquisition), then behaviors that foster this learning
will be rewarding. Meanwhile, when students are not ready to leam or do not possess prerequisite skills,
then attempting to learn is punishing and even becomes a waste of time.

Other Laws of Learning

Thorndike also observed that the first thing learned has the strongest S-R bond and is almost inerasable
He calls this as the Law of Primacy. It implies that learning a concept or skill again is more difficult than
the first time one has learned it. This explains why teachers correct students who have misconceptions in
a new lesson. The application part in a lesson plan or daily lesson log is strategically situated before
generalizing a concept so that teachers can detect the misunderstandings of the students in a certain
lesson. When the misconception is not corrected for the first time, that may lead to habit formation. In
English Language Teaching, a recurring mistake among learners is called fossilization (Demirezen &
Topal, 2015). Relearning the correct concept later will be confusing to the students or even time-
consuming. Hence, the first (prime) learning experience should be as functional, as precise, and as
positive as possible so that it paves the way to the more comfortable learning experiences to follow.

As much as possible, teachers provide activities that come with extreme relevance to the learners. This
teaching principle is primarily rooted in Thorndike's Law of Intensity. Thorndike believed that exciting,
immediate, or even dramatic learning within the real context of the students would tremendously facilitate
learning. Hence, the Law of Intensity implies that exposing the students in real- world applications of the
skills and concepts makes them most likely to remember the experience. The current K to 12 curriculum
of the country immerses senior high school students to a short-time real- world application called "on-the-
job training" or OJT They receive a foretaste of how the skills and concepts they learn in class are applied
in the real workplace. In that sense, the learning experience becomes more intense and will most likely be
remembered.

The concepts or skills most recently leamed are least forgotten. This is the gist of the Law of Recency,
Thus, when learners are isolated in time from learning a new concept, the more difficult it is for them to
remember. For instance, in a foreign language class (e.g. French), it is easier to recall and recite those
which are learned minutes ago than those which were taught the other month. This implies that teachers
should facilitate learning by providing the learners with a clear connection between the previous and the
current learning experience. Letting the students mention or apply the formerly learned skill or concept in
the new learning experience may refresh their memory, thus the higher the probability of forgetting.
 Thorndike also mentioned that humans tend to show an almost similar response to an entirely different
stimulus if, on recurring instances, that stimulus has slight changes compared to the previously known
one. Thorndike coins this as the Principle of Associative Shifting. For example, to teach pupils to add a
three-digit number, teachers let them master the adding of a one-digit number first. As they solve
increasing numbers, pupils will tend to associate the response to the previously paired S-R.

The transfer occurs when the contexts of learning have identical elements and call for similar responses.
Thorndike called it as generalization (Thorndike, 1913). This implies that not only sills should be taught
in one isolated topic, but also that other related subjects or topics should provide opportunities for the
students to apply them. In a Social Studies class, it is not enough to teach the students to read maps, but it
is better if they are also taught to calculate miles from inches Later, that skill is reinforced when they will
create their maps and map problems to solve.

EXPERIENCE

Journaling has been a perennial writing enhancement strategy. Hight (2013) found out that students who
are engaged continuously in journaling have improved writing skills In Hight's study, he used the Laws of
Exercise and Effect as theoretical bases. He proved that corect, constant practice coupled with "satisfiers"
such as appreciative praises and good grades could improve learning. Meanwhile, motivating the students
before the formal introduction of the lesson is vital in directing the students to learn. The Law of
Readiness is highly noticeable in this amaation. If the students are well prepared to learn new concepts,
learning becomes easter In conducting classes, teachers are advised to use activities that are within the
mental and contextual frames of the students. By exposing them into real-world activities like simulations
and immersions, the more they will consider the learning experience as an "intense one; hence, the easier
they create a strong connection between the stimulus and the response, the least they forget the skill or
concept learned. This is one application of the Law of Intensity.

REPORTERS:

Jorgena P. Cedron

Bernadeth Auxtero

Joan Bruza

Lesson 3: Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 describe reinforcement and punishment in the context of operant conditioning.

 differentiate the characteristics of the theories of classical and operant conditioning:

  analyze a research article about operant conditioning: and

 devise a teaching strategy bank of classroom applications of operant conditioning.

THINK

One of the most popular behavioral theorists of all time is B.F. (Burrhus Frederic)
Skinner (1904-1990). He postulated the operant conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to the
association of stimuli whereas operant conditioning actively involves the subject’s participation.
The subject in operant conditioning has a choice to respond. In other word, operant conditioning
is the type of learning whereby learning occurs as a consequence of the learner's behavior.

B.F. Skinner made this conclusion after experimenting on animals through his Skimmer's box, a
device that modified the animal's behavior. In his experiment, he put a rat in a box with a lever, a
bowl. and a closed chamber. If the lever was pushed. the chamber opened and dispensed food.
Unconscious about this mechanism, the rat accidentally pushed the lever, and the food was
dispensed. The rat learned that continuously pushing the lever could open the food dispenser to
the bowl. Skinner termed the food in such an experiment as the reward.

Reinforcement

Skinner's operant condition is dichotomized into reinforcement and punishment. Each

category is also divided into positive or negative. Reinforcement is defined as something that
strengthens the behavior or is sometimes called as the response strengthener (Schultz, 2006).
Positive reinforcement is defined as the addition of a pleasant stimulus. This is exactly what is
illustrated in the Skinner's box. The dispensed food became a positive reinforcement that caused
the rat to continually push the lever (behavior).

Positive reinforcement has many classroom applications. Preschool teachers stamp three
big stars on the hands of their pupils who may have behaved throughout the class, achieved the
highest score, or become friendly within the academic time. To maximize the use of the positive
reinforcement, however, teachers should make it clear to their students why they are stamping
them three stars and what the three big stars mean. In that way, the pupils will be motivated to
repeat their pleasant behavior and can eventually gain the reward-the stamp.

By building operant conditioning techniques into lesson plans. it is easily possible to

teach children useful skills as well as good behaviors. By using symbols like smiley faces,
“Good Work" stamps, stickers, and even simple ticks when a child does something correctly, you
are encouraging them to repeat such satisfying work further down the line.

Meanwhile, negative reinforcement is taking something away from a situation that

subsequently increases the occurrence of the response. In other words. it is taking away an
unpleasant consequence to cause the behavior to happen again. Some stimuli that often function
as negative reinforcers are loud noises, criticisms, annoying people, and low grades, because
actions that remove them tend to be reinforcing. For instance, Teacher X wants her Grade 3 class
to master the multiplication table. so, she gives the pupils a problem set on multiplication. After
set is solved, they would recite the multiplication table from multiples of 5 to 10. If they master
the multiplication table, the problem set is withdrawn. Thus, strengthening the behavior-perfectly
reciting the multiplication table.

Schedule of reinforcements

According to Skinner (1938), as mentioned by Zeiler (1977), schedules refer to when

reinforcement is applied (Skinner,1938; Zeiler,1977). Table I summarizes the reinforcement
schedules according to Skinner.

Table 1. Reinforcement schedules according to Skinner

Reinforcement Schedule Description Classroom Application

Continuous Schedule Reinforcement is given every Students receive feedback

time the animal gives the after each response
desired response. concerning the accuracy of
their work.

Intermittent Schedule Reinforcement is given Students are not called on

irregularly as the animal
gives the desired response.
every time they raise their
hands, not praised after
working each problem. and
not always told they are
behaving appropriately.

Fixed interval The time interval is constant Appreciating a student's

from one reinforcement to the answer is done for the first
next. response made after 5
minutes.

Variable interval
The time interval varies from
occasion to occasion around
some average value.
The first correct response
after 5 minutes is reinforced,
but the time interval varies
some average value.
(e.g.,2,3,7, or 8 minutes).

Ratio Schedule Reinforcement is given Teacher gives praises to a

 depending on the number of' student after reciting the fifth
correct responses or the rate correct answer.
of responding.

Fixed ratio Every nth correct response is Every 10th correct response
reinforced, where n is receives reinforcement.
constant.

Variable ratio Every nth correct response is A teacher may give free time
reinforced, but the value periodically around an
varies around an average average of five completed
number of n. assignments.

Punishment

Operant conditioning also includes punishment, whose main aim is to weaken the
response. However, punishment does not necessarily eliminate the behavior; when the threat of
punishment is removed, the punished response may recur (Merrett & Wheldall, 1984). Skinner
believed that positive punishment is an addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the
behavior. For instance, Max, a grade 6 pupil, had been neglecting his Math assignments. He
completely hated washing the dishes. To decrease such behavior of neglecting his assignments.
her parents assigned him to wash the dishes after dinner. After some time. Max eventually
became more diligent to complete his assignments in Math. The addition (positive) of the work
Max hates (punishment) decreases the likelihood for the behavior (neglect of doing the
assignments) to occur.

Negative punishment, meanwhile, is the removal of rewarding stimulus to decrease the

behavior. For example. Jennie, a grade 3 pupil, is always noisy in a group activity. Her teacher
calls her attention and warns her that she could not participate in the subsequent fun activity if
she continues to behave noisily. Joining in a fun activity is a pleasant stimulus. Withdrawing it
(negative) is believed to reduce noisy behavior (punishment).

Table 2. Relationship of reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement (increasing the Punishment (decreasing the

behavior) behavior)

Positive (adding) Adding something to increase Adding something to

the behavior decrease the behavior
 Negative (subtracting) Subtracting something to Subtracting something to
increase the behavior decrease the behavior

Alternatives to Punishment

Punishment is often applied in schools to address disruptions. Maag (2001) enumerated

some common punishments like loss of privileges, removals from the classroom in and out-of-
school suspensions, and expulsions. Nonetheless, there are several alternatives to punishment
(see Figure 18). The primary advantage of this alternative over punishment is that it shows the
student how to behave adaptively.

Change the Allow the unwanted Extinguish the Condition an

discriminative stimuli behavior to continue unwanted behavior incompatible
behavior

Move misbehaving Have student who Ignore minor Reinforce learning

student away from stands when he or she misbehavior so that it progress, which
other misbehaving should be sitting is not reinforced by occurs only when a
students. continue to stand. teacher attention. student is not
misbehaving.

Figure 18. Alternatives to punishment.

EXPERIENCE

The use of rewards and punishments in a classroom setting is very noticeable in an

everyday situation. For instance, the teacher may use prizes or rewards in exciting collaborative
games to increase student participation. Notably, the K to 12 curriculum promotes higher student
participation and collaboration. Knowing the appropriate use of rewards and punishments in
teaching may address this pedagogical requirement.

Showing simple ways to reinforce students may somehow build an image of a supportive
teacher. For instance, the teacher positively reinforcing a pleasant behavior who often smiles,
praises, and shows affectionate patting on the back is considered a kind and caring teacher.

Moreover, classroom management is one of the key areas of concern in teaching. Operant
conditioning can also be applied to ensure a well-organized climate in class. For example, a
teacher may ignore students who shout out correct answers but may give them the opportunity to
recite when they raise their hands. Moreover, using operant conditioning, the teacher may give
immediate feedback toward pleasant or unpleasant behavior. Giving feedback is vital in
diminishing undesirable student behavior.

Reinforcement in teaching has different effects on different learners; therefore, the use of
varied ways for different types of learners should be observed. Moreover, it is worth extending
continuous reinforcement to enable the learners to acquire new behavior.

Presenters:

Dasig, Christine Joy O.

Cerino, Zyra E.

Compa, Ronalyn

Lesson 4: Neo-Behaviorism
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Distinguish behaviorism by pavlove, watson, Thorndike, and skinner to Neo-Behaviorism

by tolman and Bandura;
 Relate the salient features of Tolman's purposive behaviorism and Bandura's Social-
cognitive theory ti actual teaching; and
 Analyze detailed lesson plans using the principles of Tolman's purposive behaviorism
and Bandura's Social-cognitive theory.
THINK
As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill in the gap between
behaviorism and cognitive learning beliefs. It is called Neo-Behaviorism included Edward
Tolman and Albert Bandura. The Neo-Behaviorists were more self-consciously trying to
formalize the laws of behavior. They believed that some mediating variables into the established
stimulus-response theory contribute much to learning.
Tolman's purposive behaviorism
Purposive learning encapsulates Edward Tolman's theory. He insisted that all behavior is
directed because of a purpose. Hence, all behaviors are focused on achieving some Goals by
cognition -an intervening variable. For Tolman, a behavior is never merely the result of mindless
S-R connections. He further believed that "mental processes are to identified in terms of the
behaviors to which they lead." In other words, his intervening variables are tied to observable
behaviors.
In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes for 17 days. The first group of rat was
fed(rewarded) every time they found their way out. The second group of rats was non-reinforced.
The rats did not receive any foods from days 1 to 10 even if they have seen the end point. Later,
it was observed that in the first 10 days, the rats developed a cognitive map. Hence, from day 11
onward, they were motivated to perform and look for the end point faster from the first group to
find food because they were hungry.
From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a behavior Because it has a
purpose or a goal. It has also led to the birth of Latent Learnig -a form of learning that occurs
without any visible reinforcement of the behavior or the associations that are learned. In addition
latent learning occurs every time an organism sees a reason to perform or show it. For instance, a
4 year-old boy observed his father in using the TV remote control, he could easily demonstrate
the learning.
Another distinctive feature of the purposive behaviorism in the coining of the term "cognitive
map" According to Tolman, it is a mental illustrationof the layout of an environment. It is
believed that everything in our cognitive map influence the interaction with the environment.
Hence, making our cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning.
Tolman's other Salient principles
1. Behavior is always purposive.
By this, he meant that all behavior ignited to accomplish a specific goal. In it's purist Sense, a
demonstration of learning is the outcome of possessing a purpose to show it.
2. Behavior is cognitive
The expectations that underlie and guide behavior are cognitions. This means that an organism is
mindful of the connections between specific actions and certain outcomes(cognitive map). Such
mental map is developed by expanding the experiences. Coupled with the stimuli and rewards.
Notably, Tolman considered a cognition as an abstraction or a theoretical invention. He believed
that cognition should only be inferred from behavior, not through introspection.
3. Reinforcement establishes and confirm expectancies
Tolman also underscored the role of reinforcement in learning. As previously stated, Learning,
according to Tolman, deals with connections between stimuli and expectancies or perceptions,
representations, needs, and other intervening variables. Expectancies develop in situations in
which reinforcement is possible, the role of reinforcement is primarily one of confirming
expectancies. The more often the expectancy is established, the more likely it is that the stimuli
(signs) associated with it will become linked with the relevant significance (expectancy).
Bandura's Social Theory
Under the social learning theory, learning occurs within the social context and by observing and
copying others behavior or imitation (Akers and Jensen, 2006.) Albert Bandurabis the proponent
of this theory, where modeling is a crucial component. Modeling refers to a change in one's
behavior by observing models (Rosenthal and Bandura, 1978). Historically, modeling was
equated with imitation, but modeling is more inclusive concept (mussen, 1983).
Bandura's theory us also called the social-cognitive theory because of influence of cognition in
his theory. He is one among few behaviorists who believed that humans process information
through cognition. The term self-efficacy has brudged social learning theory and cognitive
psychology. Self-efficacy is defined as one's evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish or
perform an action in a particular context. Those with high self- efficacy see themselves as
capable, or useful, in dealing with the world and with other people.
The following are the Fundamental principles of social learning theory:
1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior.
This is in contrast to what other behaviorists discussed earlier; For them, a change in behavior is
always indication of learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model.
That model possesses characteristics (i. e... Intelligence, physical aura, popularity, or talent) that
a learner finds attractive and desirable. Admiration plays an essential role in imitating a
particular behavior of the model. This explains why speech reachers recite a crucial sound first,
then guide the learners until they can recite the sound correctly by themselves.
3. An observing person will always react to the one being imitated depending on wether the
model is rewarded or punished.
If the model receives rewards, the imitator copies the behavior, and if the former is punished, the
latter will most likely avoid copying the behavior.
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different.
Bandura made a demarcation line between performing and acquiring a behavior. One can acquire
the behavior by observing someone but may opt not to perform it until the context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning.
Social learning may occur successfully when learners interact with their co-learners and models
(Mourlam, 2013) learning in isolation may dampen self efficacy . This mean that copying
behavior involves the quiding of one person's behavior by another person, such as when art
instructor gives guidance and corrective feedback to an art student who is attempting to draw a
picture. With copying behavior, the final "copied response is reinforced and thereby
strengthened.
6. Learning is self-regulated.
Bandura noted that self-regulation accurs when individuals observe, assess, and judge their
behavior against their standards, and subsequently reward and punish them.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously.
Vicarious learning is acquired from observing the consequences of others behavior. For instance,
when a model is given praises and rewards, the observer may likely repeat the copied behavior
because he or she feels the same satisfaction, too.
8. Learning may reinforced by the model or by others.
Compliments coming from the model may strengthen the occurrence of the behavior. Similarly,
when a person is praised by his or her peers because of a change in behavior, he or she may show
an increase in that behavior.
Components of successful
1. Attention.
To meaningfuly perceive relevant behavior, one should pay attention. At any given moment, one
can attend to many activities. The characteristics of the model and the observer influence one's
attention to models. This explains why teachers make use of bright colors or large fonts in their
instructional aids for modeling to snatch the attention of the learners.
2. Retention.
Paying attention to something should result in retention that requires cognitively organizing,
rehearsing, coding, and transforming modeled information for storage in memory. Rehearsal
also serves a vital role in the retention of knowledge. This is a mental review of information.
Sometimes, the observer retains the information through association and cognitive pattern. In a
dance class, for instance, qn observer counts 1-2-3-4 and 5 with corresponding steps to store the
dance steps in his or her memory. Rehearsal without coding and coding without rehearsal are less
effective.
3. Production.
To strengthen learning through observation, one needs to translate the visual and symbolic
conceptions into observable behavior. Subsequent production of thus behavior indicates in
increase in learning. Bandura noted that observers refine their skills with practice, corrective
feedback, and reteaching. Sometimes, problems in producing modeled behaviors arise not only
because information is inadequately coded but also because learners experience difficulty
translating coded information un memory into over action. For example, a child may have a
basic understanding of how to tie shoelaces but not be able to translate that knowledge into
behavior. Teachers who suspect that students are having trouble demonstrating what they have
learned may need to test students in different ways.
4. Motivation.
Influencing observational learning is motivation. Individuals perform actions they believe will
result in rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be responded to negatively
(schunk, 1987). Persons also act based on their values, performing activities they value and
avoiding those they find unsatisfying, regardless of the consequences to themselves or others.
Motivation is a critical process of observational learning that teachers promote in various ways,
including making learning intereting, relating material to student interests, having students set
goals and monitor goal progress, providing feedback indicating increasing competence, and
stressing the value of learning.
EXPERIENCE
Tolman advanced that learning is goal directed. This goal is specific, but for some children, it is
distant and might be viewed as too complicated. To ensure that all students achieve the overall
goal, as a teacher later, you may sey short-term goals day by saying, "today we are going to work
on these five words. By the end of class time, i know that you will be able to spell these five
words." Children should view their daily hoals as easier to attain than the weekly goal. To further
ensure goal attainment, you will make sure that the 15 words selected for mastery by Friday
challenge the students but are not overly burdensome.
Self efficacy and learning through observation are from Bandura's Social-cognitive theory. We
can merge these principles and apply them to teaching. For instance, you may select certain
students to solve a board mathematical problem. When they are successful, the peer models help
elevate observers' self-efficacy for performing well. Students in the class are more likely to
perceive themselves as similar in terms of competence to at least one of the models.
Using demonstration models or demo teaching is an effective way to facilitate student-centered
learning. For instance, if you were a TLE teacher, you could teach you students how to insert a
sleeve into a garment through modeled demonstrations. You might begin by describing the
process and then use visual aids to portay the procedure. You could conclude the presentation by
demonstrating the process at a sewing machine.
Compliments in the form of feedback can increase self-efficacy while learning through
modeling. If you were a drama teacher, for instance, you could model various performance skills
while working with students as they practice a play. You might demonstrate desired voice
inflections, mood, volume, and body movements for each character in the play. As the students
perform their parts. You may highlight their strengths or hive them a pat on their shoulders or
thumbs-up sign before telling them their points for improvement.

Reporters

Edisa Estremos

Evelyn Elejedo

Erika Gabin
Lesson 6: Cooperative and Experiential Learning
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Discuss the importance of cooperative and experiential learning in K-12 classroom;

 Relate the features of collaborative and experiential learning to constructivism;

 Create a teaching strategy bank anchored on collaborative and experiential learning.

THINK

Cooperative learning

This type of learning develop the learner’s interpersonal skills for it will give them the
chance to interact with others and at the same time listen to their group mates.

This is also a type of constructivist teaching because it allows the creation and innovation
of knowledge through group interaction and participation of each member.

Cooperative learning has the following features:

 Students are actively engaged, thus, developing in each member a cooperative

spirit.

 Each member is challenged to give his/her best because it can create a healthy and
competitive spirit.

 It allows a learner’s creativity and innovation because they interact with people
their age, peers and classmates.

 It develops positivity like open-mindedness, humility and give-and-take attitude

as well as listening skills.

 It reduce pressure from work and creates a positive classroom atmosphere.

When teachers use cooperative learning as an instructional strategy, proper guidance should be
established. Cooperative learning usually follows three stages:

1. Teachers assign learners to group. Sometimes, learners can also be given the chance to
choose their group mates depending on the nature of the task given. Teachers should be
 creative; groupings should also be varied now and then so that the learners will get to
experience working with others.

2. Tasking is a vital component in cooperative learning. Everybody should clearly

understand what is expected from them and what kind of output are they supposed to
accomplish. Clear and concrete instructions should be given by the teacher like the time
element, materials to be use and the like.

3. The working time and task collaboration should be an active process. Teachers need to
actively how tasks are done. Each members must perform their roles and they are must
free to interact and give comments on each other’s work.

Experiential learning

Actual hands-on activities are still the most effective means of learning. Experiences that
are direct and purposeful are still the learner’s best opportunity to master a concept or a skill.

Direct experiences- are rich experiences that the senses bring , from which ideas,
concepts generalizations are constructed (Dale, 1969)

In planning the delivery of the lesson, the way experiences are processed and used in the
classroom make it easier for the learner to internalize what has been taught. Experiences through
the planned activities of the teacher is a way of achieving a goal in learning.

Contrived experiences are substitute for real things, objects or situations. Examples of
these are models, mock-ups, specimens, simulation and even games.

These are brought or performed in the classroom because not all real things can be
brought to the classroom. Substitutes such as these can also bring near-to-real experiences to the
learners. In addition, experiential earning can also take the form of dramatized experiences like
plays, pageants, tableau, pantomime, puppets and role playing.

Constructivism Theory

 A theory which states that learners construct knowledge rather than just passively take in
information.

Learners are not empty-handed when they go to school. They have a lot of skills and even
knowledge that are products of both their experiences and exposure to their immediate
environment .When all of these are obtained, new concepts and learnings provided in school, a
new knowledge also results from them.
 When lessons are properly planned along the spectrum of constructivism, the following are
obtained.

 Learners do not fear where there is problem involved. They get engaged through
cooperative learning techniques consider different perspective as a team.

 Learners also develop flexibility in thinking. They do trial-and-error techniques.

Discovery and experimentation also come as a part of exploring possibilities.

 All previously learned knowledge is important because they connect and associate them
to their current or recent life experience. They are able to synthesize, analyze and
evaluate varied elements or factors that contributes to the solution of a problem.

 One of the most significant contribution of this theory is that, it develops interpersonal
skills of the learners through the varied activities and techniques that are cooperative in
nature.

Presenters:
Jabinal, Paula Marie
Labalan, Charwena Q.
Llanos, Joyce Mae