Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 32, No. 3. pp. 273-276, 1966. 0022-3999/88 $3.00 + .

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CHANGES IN PERSONALITY ASSOCIATED WITH

CHANGES IN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC FITNESS
IN WOMEN AND MEN

MARY L. JASNOSKI, DAVID S. HOLMES and DAVID L. BANKS

(Received 8 July 1987; accepted in revised form 21 January 1988)

Abstract-Thirty-nine females and 63 males participated in a IO-week physical conditioning class involv-
ing aerobic (running) and anaerobic (weight training) exercise. Aerobic fitness, anaerobic fitness, and
personality were measured before and after the IO-week training period. Multiple regression analyses
revealed that changes in personality were generally associated with changes in aerobic rather than
anaerobic fitness, and that the relationships were most likely to be found with women. Possible expla-
nations were offered.

INTRODUCTION

IN THE past few years there has been a high level of interest in the relationship
between physical fitness and personality. Initially, investigators simply examined
correlations between levels of physical fitness and personality. Relationships be
tween fitness and personality were found, but because of the correlational nature
of the data it was not possible to determine whether fitness influenced personality
or vice versa. More recently, investigators have attempted to establish a causal
relationship between fitness and personality by manipulating subjects’ levels of
fitness and then examining subsequent changes in personality [l-4]. Most of this
research has been focused on the influence of aerobic as opposed to anaerobic
fitness. (Aerobic fitness is associated with improved oxygen processing and results
from exercises such as running, swimming and bicycling, whereas anaerobic fitness
is not associated with oxygen processing and results form exercises such as weight-
lifting and isometrics.) The results of these experiments have consistently revealed
that improvements in aerobic fitness led to positive changes in personality. Thus
far, however, investigators have not compared the effects of changes in aerobic vs
anaerobic fitness on changes in personality. The question of whether personality.
is influenced by aerobic fitness, anaerobic fitness or both has implications for
designing treatment programs (e.g. exercise programs for depression) and for un-
derstanding the process that links fitness to personality.
The present investigation was conducted to determine whether changes in aerobic
and anaerobic fitness had comparable or different effects on personality. The effects
of exercise on personality were assessed separately for women and men. That was
done because the results of previous investigations indicated that exercise had
different effects on women and men [5-S].
In this investigation, women and men participated in an exercise training program
that involved both aerobic and anaerobic exercises. Pre- and post-training assess-
ments made it possible to determine changes in aerobic fitness, changes in anaerobic
fitness, and changes in personality. Because all subjects participated in the same

Correspondence should be sent to David S. Holmes, Psychology Department, University of Kansas,

Lawrence, KS 6604552160, U.S.A.

273
274 MARY L. JASNOSKI et al.

aerobic/anaerobic training program, changes in personality that were found to be

associated with one type of fitness could be attributed to the fitness variable rather
than to other variables such as selection, expectations, type of instruction and group
interaction that might differ across training program focused on aerobic vs anaerobic
fitness.

METHOD

The subjects were 39 female and 63 male undergraduate students who were enrolled in a physical
conditioning class at the University of Kansas. All of the subjects volunteered for the study and signed
informed consent statements before participating.
The lo-week physical conditioning class consisted of running and weight training twice weekly for
50-min per session. All subjects ran (or walked, if necessary) the same distance each session. Weight
schedules were individually designed.
Measurements of aerobic performance, anaerobic performance and personality were obtained im-
mediately before and after the lo-week training period. Aerobic fitness was determined with the 12-min
run/walk test [9] in which the measure of fitness was the distance subjects ran (or walked if it became
necessary) in 12 min. Anaerobic fitness was assessed in terms of both abdominal strength (as measured
by the number of sit-ups performed in one minute [lo]) and upper body strength (as measured by the
number of push-ups performed in 1 min [ll]; women did knees-bent push-ups). Personality was assessed
with the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire [ 121, and the Se[fRating Depression Scale [13].

RESULTS

To determine whether changes in exercise performance were related to changes

in personality, a series of all-with-all multiple regression analyses were conducted
[ 14].* In those analyses, scores reflecting changes in personality were regressed on
scores reflecting changes in one of the measures of fitness.7 The results of those
analyses are presented in Table I. Given the exploratory nature of this investigation,
trends in the data (p < 0.10) are reported in addition to reliable effects (p < 0.05).
The results in Table I indicate first that improvements in fitness were consistently
associated with more positive personality changes (e.g. greater feelings of happiness,
security, joining, control and less depression among women). Second, the results
in Table I indicate that changes in aerobic fitness were more likely to be associated
with changes in personality than were changes in anaerobic fitness. There were
five reliable associations with aerobic fitness and only two with anaerobic fitness.
Finally, the results in Table I indicate that changes in fitness were more likely to
be associated with changes in personality among women than men. Five reliable
changes were observed among the women and only two among the men.

DISCUSSION

The positive changes in personality that were associated with improvements in

fitness, especially aerobic fitness, can be attributed to either or both of two factors.

*To establish an appropriate ratio of cases-to-independent-variables, a setwise regression strategy

called the ‘minimum subsets’ was utilized [IS]. For exploratory research, the setwise strategy IS preferable
to stepwise regression because the setwise method identifies the group of variables that absorbs the
greatest amount of combined variance. With this strategy the fewest number of independent variables
in the best subset of all possible sets is identified to maximize the case-to-independent-variables ratio.
tTo eliminate the potential influence of the law of initial values on the post-training scores [ 161, the
post-training scores were adjusted for pre-training levels with a covariance technique (vis., residualization
[171).
 Changes in personality 275

TABLEI.-RELATIONSBETWEENCHANGESINTYPESOFFITNESSAND
CHANGESINPERSONALITYINWOMENANDMEN

Aerobic fitness

Women: R = 0.62 Men: R = 0.39

F(4,34) = 5.26,~ = 0.002 F(3,59) = 3.49,p = 0.021

Happiness 2.:2 o&2 Stability 2.:1 o&9

Securitv 3.33 0.003 Intraversion 1.69 0.097
Joining’ 2.36 0.024
Control 2.58 0.014

Abdominal strength

Women: R = 0.49 Men: R = 0.22

F&37) = 11.36,~ = 0.002 F(1,61) = 3.18,~ = 0.080

Joining 3.‘37 o&2 Intraversion l.:S 0.:80

Upper body strength

Women: R = 0.43 Men: R = 0.25
F(2,36) = 3.96,~ = 0.028 F(1.61) = 4.0,~ = 0.050

Depression 1.:2 0.;94 Intraversion 2&l o&o

(a) All personality scales were from the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire 1121 except the
depression scale that came from the self-rating depression scale [13].
(b) Women’s t test values, df = 37 for each variable. Men’s t test values, df = 61 for each variable.
Differences in F test dfs and numbers of variables listed for women and men are due to omitting
variables for which t test p’s were < 0.15.

First, it is possible that improved aerobic fitness enabled subjects to cope more
effectively with stress, and the improved coping led to more positive personality
characteristics. This possibility gains support from a wide variety of investigations
in which it was found that higher levels of aerobic fitness were associated with
lower levels of physiological and psychological responses to stress [W-24]. There
is no evidence that anaerobic fitness has such effects. Furthermore, recent experi-
ments in this laboratory indicate that acute bouts of aerobic exercise (i.e. the
individual workouts that lead to better aerobic fitness) result in temporary improve-
ments in mood and outlook and may reduce responsiveness to subsequent stress
[25-261. In other words, the improvements in coping and mood that occur with
aerobic fitness and aerobic fitness training may contribute to more pervasive positive
changes in personality.
Second, the changes in personality that are associated with improvements in
aerobic fitness may be due to the fact that aerobic exercise influences the production
of the brain catecholamines (particularly norepinephrine) that play a role in deter-
mining mood (especially depression) and personality functioning. These effects
could be independent of or in addition to the improved coping with stress (e.g.
lower cardiovascular response) associated with aerobic fitness.
Overall, the results of the present investigation (a) confirm previous conclusions
concerning the positive effects of aerobic fitness on personality, (b) suggest that
aerobic fitness has a stronger effect on personality than anaerobic fitness, and (c)
276 MARY L. JASNOSKI et al.

suggest that the effect of fitness on personality is stronger among women than men.
The effects of aerobic fitness on personality may be mediated by improved coping
with stress and/or temporary improvements in mood changes in brain chemistry,
but the exact process has not yet been documented.

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