Course: Educational Statistics (8614)

Semester: Spring, 2022

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Describe 'levels of measurement' by giving real life examples.
The four measurement levels, in order, from the lowest level of information to the highest level of information
are as follows:
1. Nominal scales
Nominal scales contain the least amount of information. In nominal scales, the numbers assigned to each
variable or observation are only used to classify the variable or observation. For example, a fund manager may
choose to assign the number 1 to small-cap stocks, the number 2 to corporate bonds, the number 3
to derivatives, and so on.
2. Ordinal scales
Ordinal scales present more information than nominal scales and are, therefore, a higher level of measurement.
In ordinal scales, there is an ordered relationship between the variable’s observations. For example, a list of 500
managers of mutual funds may be ranked by assigning the number 1 to the best-performing manager, the
number 2 to the second best-performing manager, and so on.
With this type of measurement, one can conclude that the number 1-ranked mutual fund manager performed
better than the number 2-ranked mutual fund manager.
3. Interval scales
Interval scales present more information than ordinal scales in that they provide assurance that the differences
between values are equal. In other words, interval scales are ordinal scales but with equivalent scale values from
low to high intervals.
For example, temperature measurement is an example of an interval scale: 60°C is colder than 65°C, and the
temperature difference is the same as the difference between 50°C and 55°C. In other words, the difference of
5°C in both intervals shares the same interpretation and meaning.
Consider why the ordinal scale example is not an interval scale: A fund manager ranked 1 probably did not
outperform the fund manager ranked 2 by the exact same amount that a fund manager ranked 6 outperformed a
fund manager ranked 7. Ordinal scales provide a relative ranking, but there is no assurance that the differences
between the scale values are the same.
A drawback in interval scales is that they do not have a true zero point. Zero does not represent an absence of
something in an interval scale. Consider that the temperature -0°C does not represent the absence of
temperature. For this reason, interval-scale-based ratios fail to provide some insights – for example, 50°C is not
twice as hot as 25°C.
4. Ratio scales
Ratio scales are the most informative scales. Ratio scales provide rankings, assure equal differences between
scale values, and have a true zero point. In essence, a ratio scale can be thought of as nominal, ordinal, and
interval scales combined as one.

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
Semester: Spring, 2022
For example, the measurement of money is an example of a ratio scale. An individual with $0 has an absence of
money. With a true zero point, it would be correct to say that someone with $100 has twice as much money as
someone with $50.
Q.2 Explain commonly used variables in educational research. Support your answer by giving examples.
The central purpose of research is to solve problems and improve the welfare of the society. To research is to
search or investigate exhaustively. It is a careful or diligent search, studious inquiry or examination especially
investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories
or laws in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws, it can also be
the collection of information about a particular subject, Webster (1985). Research cannot be possible without
taking into consideration measurable factors that are subject to change due to circumstances. Anything that can
vary in research due to circumstances is called a variable. However, based on what has been learnt in the current
research course, the principle aim of this paper is to explain in parts, how the types of variables, the relationship
between dependent and independent variables and their importance can be used in research.
A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of category you are trying to measure.
There are two major types of variables-independent and dependent and these will be explained more later. A
variable is something that can change, such as gender, which can be either male or female, age which can be 15
years old, 16 years old, 20, 38 or 30 years old and variables are typically the focus of a study. Associated to
variables are attributes which are sub-values of a variable, such as ‘male’ and ‘female’ in the example variable
given above. In other ways, under the variable gender, male and female are the attributes of that variable. It is
important to note that variables may have the following characteristics: firstly, they have a period when they
starts and stops. Secondly, they may have a pattern such as daily, weekly, ad-hoc and monthly. Thirdly, they are
quiet detailed with an overview of in depth. They may be latency which is the time between measuring
dependent and independent variable because some things take time to take effect.
Variables are those simplified portions of the complex phenomena that you intend to study. The word variable
is derived from the root word “vary,” meaning, changing in amount, volume, number, form, nature, or type.
These variables should be measurable, i.e., they can be counted or subjected to a scale.
The next section provides examples of variables related to climate change, academic performance, crime, fish
kill, crop growth, and how content goes viral. Note that the variables in these phenomena can be measured,
except the last one, where a bit more work is required.
EXAMPLES OF VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
The following are examples of phenomena from a global to a local perspective. The corresponding list of
variables is given to illustrate how complex phenomena can be broken down into manageable pieces for better
understanding and to subject the phenomena to research.

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
Semester: Spring, 2022
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
The independent variables are those variables that may influence or affect the other variable, i.e., the dependent
variable.
For example, in the second phenomenon, i.e., crime and violence in the streets, the independent variables are
the number of law enforcers. If there are more law enforcers, it is expected that it will reduce the following:
1. number of robberies,
2. number of attempted murders,
3. number of prisoners, 
4. number of crime victims, and
5. the number of carnapping incidents.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable, as previously mentioned, is the variable affected or influenced by the independent
variable.
For example, in the first phenomenon on climate change, temperature as the independent variable influences sea
level rise, the dependent variable. Increased temperature will cause the expansion of water in the sea. Thus, sea-
level rise on a global scale will occur.
I will leave the classification of the other variables to you. Find out whether those are independent or dependent
variables. Note, however, that some variables can be both independent or dependent variables, as the context of
the study dictates.
Q.3 Discuss non-probability sampling techniques with special emphasis on educational research.
Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on
the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection. It is a less stringent method. This
sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers. It is carried out by observation, and
researchers use it widely for qualitative research.
Non-probability sampling is a sampling method in which not all members of the population have an equal
chance of participating in the study, unlike probability sampling. Each member of the population has a known
chance of being selected. Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like a pilot
survey (deploying a survey to a smaller sample compared to pre-determined sample size). Researchers use this
method in studies where it is impossible to draw random probability sampling due to time or cost
considerations.
 Convenience sampling:
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are selected from the population
only because they are conveniently available to the researcher. Researchers choose these samples just because
they are easy to recruit, and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that represents the entire
population.

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
Semester: Spring, 2022
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the population. But, in some research, the
population is too large to examine and consider the entire population. It is one of the reasons why researchers
rely on convenience sampling, which is the most common non-probability sampling method, because of its
speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.
 Consecutive sampling:
This non-probability sampling method is very similar to convenience sampling, with a slight variation. Here, the
researcher picks a single person or a group of a sample, conducts research over a period, analyzes the results,
and then moves on to another subject or group if needed. Consecutive sampling technique gives the researcher a
chance to work with many topics and fine-tune his/her research by collecting results that have vital insights.
 Quota sampling:
Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and female employees in an
organization. There are 500 employees in the organization, also known as the population. To understand better
about a population, the researcher will need only a sample, not the entire population. Further, the researcher is
interested in particular strata within the population. Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the
population into strata or groups.
 Judgmental or Purposive sampling:
In the judgmental sampling method, researchers select the samples based purely on the researcher’s knowledge
and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those people who they deem fit to participate in the
research study. Judgmental or purposive sampling is not a scientific method of sampling, and the downside to
this sampling technique is that the preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results. Thus, this
research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.
 Snowball sampling:
Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult to locate. Researchers use this
technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This sampling system works like the referral
program. Once the researchers find suitable subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to
form a considerably good size sample.
Non-probability sampling examples
Here are three simple examples of non-probability sampling to understand the subject better.
1. An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known to the researcher.
Researchers can send the survey to students belonging to a particular school, college, or university, and act as
a sample.
2. In an organization, for studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically, the sample selected
should have proportionate numbers of males and females. Which means there should be 250 males and 250
females. Since this is unlikely, the researcher selects the groups or strata using quota sampling.

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
Semester: Spring, 2022
3. Researchers also use this type of sampling to conduct research involving a particular illness in patients
or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from subjects to refer to other subjects suffering from the same
ailment to form a subjective sample to carry out the study.
When to use non-probability sampling?
 Use this type of sampling to indicate if a particular trait or characteristic exists in a population.
 Researchers widely use the non-probability sampling method when they aim at conducting qualitative
research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
 Researchers use it when they have limited time to conduct research or have budget constraints.
 When the researcher needs to observe whether a particular issue needs in-depth analysis, he applies this
method.
 Use it when you do not intend to generate results that will generalize the entire population.
Advantages of non-probability sampling
Here are the advantages of using the non-probability technique
 Non-probability sampling techniques are a more conducive and practical method for researchers
deploying surveys in the real world. Although statisticians prefer probability sampling because it yields data
in the form of numbers, however, if done correctly, it can produce similar if not the same quality of results.
 Getting responses using non-probability sampling is faster and more cost-effective than probability
sampling because the sample is known to the researcher. The respondents respond quickly as compared to
people randomly selected as they have a high motivation level to participate.
Q.4 Draw a bar chart and explain it how it works for interpreting data in educational research?
Bar graphs are the pictorial representation of data (generally grouped), in the form of vertical or horizontal
rectangular bars, where the length of bars are proportional to the measure of data. They are also known as bar
charts. Bar graphs are one of the means of data handling in statistics.
The collection, presentation, analysis, organization, and interpretation of observations of data are known as
statistics. The statistical data can be represented by various methods such as tables, bar graphs, pie charts,
histograms, frequency polygons, etc. In this article, let us discuss what is a bar chart, different types of bar
graphs, uses, and solved examples.
The pictorial representation of grouped data, in the form of vertical or horizontal rectangular bars, where the
lengths of the bars are equivalent to the measure of data, are known as bar graphs or bar charts.
The bars drawn are of uniform width, and the variable quantity is represented on one of the axes. Also, the
measure of the variable is depicted on the other axes. The heights or the lengths of the bars denote the value of
the variable, and these graphs are also used to compare certain quantities. The frequency distribution tables can
be easily represented using bar charts which simplify the calculations and understanding of data.
The three major attributes of bar graphs are:
 The bar graph helps to compare the different sets of data among different groups easily.

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
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 It shows the relationship using two axes, in which the categories on one axis and the discrete values on
the other axis.
 The graph shows the major changes in data over time.
Types of Bar Graphs
The bar graphs can be vertical or horizontal. The primary feature of any bar graph is its length or height. If the
length of the bar graph is more, then the values are greater than any given data.
Bar graphs normally show categorical and numeric variables arranged in class intervals. They consist of an axis
and a series of labelled horizontal or vertical bars. The bars represent frequencies of distinctive values of a
variable or commonly the distinct values themselves. The number of values on the x-axis of a bar graph or the
y-axis of a column graph is called the scale.
The types of bar charts are as follows:
1. Vertical bar chart
2. Horizontal bar chart
Even though the graph can be plotted using horizontally or vertically, the most usual type of bar graph used is
the vertical bar graph. The orientation of the x-axis and y-axis are changed depending on the type of vertical and
horizontal bar chart. Apart from the vertical and horizontal bar graph, the two different types of bar charts are:
 Grouped Bar Graph
 Stacked Bar Graph
Now, let us discuss the four different types of bar graphs.

Vertical Bar Graphs

When the grouped data are represented vertically in a graph or chart with the help of bars, where the bars denote
the measure of data, such graphs are called vertical bar graphs. The data is represented along the y-axis of the
graph, and the height of the bars shows the values.

Horizontal Bar Graphs

When the grouped data are represented horizontally in a chart with the help of bars, then such graphs are called
horizontal bar graphs, where the bars show the measure of data. The data is depicted here along the x-axis of the
graph, and the length of the bars denote the values.

Grouped Bar Graph

The grouped bar graph is also called the clustered bar graph, which is used to represent the discrete value for
more than one object that shares the same category. In this type of bar chart, the total number of instances are
combined into a single bar. In other words, a grouped bar graph is a type of bar graph in which different sets of
data items are compared. Here, a single colour is used to represent the specific series across the set. The

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
Semester: Spring, 2022
grouped bar graph can be represented using both vertical and horizontal bar charts.

Stacked Bar Graph

The stacked bar graph is also called the composite bar chart, which divides the aggregate into different parts. In
this type of bar graph, each part can be represented using different colours, which helps to easily identify the
different categories. The stacked bar chart requires specific labelling to show the different parts of the bar. In a
stacked bar graph, each bar represents the whole and each segment represents the different parts of the whole.

Properties of Bar Graph

Some of the important properties of a bar graph are as follows:
 All the bars should have a common base.
 Each column in the bar graph should have equal width.
 The height of the bar should correspond to the data value.
 The distance between each bar should be the same.
Applications of Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are used to match things between different groups or to trace changes over time. Yet, when trying to
estimate change over time, bar graphs are most suitable when the changes are bigger.
Bar charts possess a discrete domain of divisions and are normally scaled so that all the data can fit on the
graph. When there is no regular order of the divisions being matched, bars on the chart may be organized in any
order. Bar charts organized from the highest to the lowest number are called Pareto charts.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Bar Chart

Advantages:
 Bar graph summarises the large set of data in simple visual form.
 It displays each category of data in the frequency distribution.
 It clarifies the trend of data better than the table.
 It helps in estimating the key values at a glance.
Disadvantages:
 Sometimes, the bar graph fails to reveal the patterns, cause, effects, etc.
 It can be easily manipulated to yield fake information.
Difference Between Bar Graph and Histogram
The bar graph and the histogram look similar. But it has an important difference. The major difference between
them is that they plot different types of data. In the bar chart, discrete data is plotted, whereas, in the histogram,
it plots the continuous data. For instance, if we have different categories of data like types of dog breeds, types
of TV programs, the bar chart is best as it compares the things among different groups. For example, if we have

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
Semester: Spring, 2022
continuous data like the weight of the people, the best choice is the histogram.

Difference Between Bar Graph and Pie Chart

A pie chart is one of the types of graphical representation. The pie chart is a circular chart and is divided into
parts. Each part represents the fraction of a whole. Whereas, bar graph represents the discrete data and compares
one data with the other data.

Difference Between Bar Graph and Line Graph

The major difference between bar graph and line graph are as follows:
 The bar graph represents the data using the rectangular bars and the height of the bar represents the
value shown in the data. Whereas a line graph helps to show the information when the series of data are
connected using a line.
 Understanding the line graph is a little bit confusing as the line graph plots too many lines over the
graph. Whereas bar graph helps to show the relationship between the data quickly.
Let us consider an example, we have four different types of pets, such as cat, dog, rabbit, and hamster and the
corresponding numbers are 22, 39, 5 and 9 respectively.
In order to visually represent the data using the bar graph, we need to follow the steps given below.
 Step 1: First, decide the title of the bar graph.
 Step 2: Draw the horizontal axis and vertical axis. (For example, Types of Pets)
 Step 3: Now, label the horizontal axis.
 Step 4: Write the names on the horizontal axis, such as Cat, Dog, Rabbit, Hamster.
 Step 5: Now, label the vertical axis. (For example, Number of Pets)
 Step 6: Finalise the scale range for the given data.
 Step 7: Finally, draw the bar graph that should represent each category of the pet with their respective
numbers.
Q.5 What do you understand by 'Normal Curve'? Explain its measures by giving an example.
Known characteristics of the normal curve make it possible to estimate the probability of occurrence of any
value of a normally distributed variable. Suppose that the total area under the curve is defined to be 1. You can
multiply that number by 100 and say there is a 100 percent chance that any value you can name will be
somewhere in the distribution. The distribution extends to infinity in both directions.) Similarly, because half
the area of the curve is below the mean and half is above it, you can say that there is a 50 percent chance that a
randomly chosen value will be above the mean and the same chance that it will be below it.
It makes sense that the area under the normal curve is equivalent to the probability of randomly drawing a value
in that range. The area is greatest in the middle, where the “hump” is, and thins out toward the tails. That is
consistent with the fact that there are more values close to the mean in a normal distribution than far from it.

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
Semester: Spring, 2022
When the area of the standard normal curve is divided into sections by standard deviations above and below the
mean, the area in each section is a known quantity (see Figure 1). As explained earlier, the area in each section
is the same as the probability of randomly drawing a value in that range.
Figure 1.The normal curve and the area under the curve between σ units.

For example, 0.3413 of the curve falls between the mean and one standard deviation above the mean, which
means that about 34 percent of all the values of a normally distributed variable are between the mean and one
standard deviation above it. It also means that there is a 0.3413 chance that a value drawn at random from the
distribution will lie between these two points.
Sections of the curve above and below the mean may be added together to find the probability of obtaining a
value within (plus or minus) a given number of standard deviations of the mean (see Figure 2). For example, the
amount of curve area between one standard deviation above the mean and one standard deviation below is
0.3413 + 0.3413 = 0.6826, which means that approximately 68.26 percent of the values lie in that range.
Similarly, about 95 percent of the values lie within two standard deviations of the mean, and 99.7 percent of the
values lie within three standard deviations.
Figure 2.The normal curve and the area under the curve between σ units.

In order to use the area of the normal curve to determine the probability of occurrence of a given value, the
value must first be standardized, or converted to a z‐score . To convert a value to a z‐score is to express it in
terms of how many standard deviations it is above or below the mean. After the z‐score is obtained, you can
look up its corresponding probability in a table. The formula to compute a z‐score is  

where x is the value to be converted, μ is the population mean, and σ is the population standard deviation.

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 Course: Educational Statistics (8614)
Semester: Spring, 2022
Example 1

A normal distribution of retail‐store purchases has a mean of $14.31 and a standard deviation of 6.40. What
percentage of purchases were under $10? First, compute the z‐score:

  
The next step is to look up the z‐score in the table of standard normal probabilities (see Table 2 in "Statistics
Tables"). The standard normal table lists the probabilities (curve areas) associated with given z‐scores.
Table 2 in "Statistics Tables" gives the area of the curve below z—in other words, the probability of obtaining a
value of z or lower. Not all standard normal tables use the same format, however. Some list only positive z‐
scores and give the area of the curve between the mean and z. Such a table is slightly more difficult to use, but
the fact that the normal curve is symmetric makes it possible to use it to determine the probability associated
with any z‐score, and vice versa.
To use Table 2 (the table of standard normal probabilities) in "Statistics Tables," first look up the z‐score in the
left column, which lists z to the first decimal place. Then look along the top row for the second decimal place.
The intersection of the row and column is the probability. In the example, you first find –0.6 in the left column
and then 0.07 in the top row. Their intersection is 0.2514. The answer, then, is that about 25 percent of the
purchases were under $10 (see Figure 3).
What if you had wanted to know the percentage of purchases above a certain amount? Because Table
gives the area of the curve below a given z, to obtain the area of the curve above z, simply subtract the tabled
probability from 1. The area of the curve above a z of –0.67 is 1 – 0.2514 = 0.7486. Approximately 75 percent
of the purchases were above $10.
Just as Table
can be used to obtain probabilities from z‐scores, it can be used to do the reverse.

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