Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Reporting 4.0 - Business Reporting For The Age of Mass Customization
Reporting 4.0 - Business Reporting For The Age of Mass Customization
EDITORIAL
I. INTRODUCTION
T
oday’s accounting reporting model is a direct evolution of Luca Pacioli’s (1494) 15th century methodology of financial
reporting, and it is no longer appropriate for the measurement, reporting, and assurance of the modern enterprise, either
business or governmental. This paper proposes the replacement of this increasingly outmoded financial reporting
methodology with what we call a Reporting 4.0 model that is more comprehensive, timely, and predictive. Reporting 4.0 is an
app-based reporting mechanism, like those that are ubiquitous on smartphones and tablets today, which will support the myriad
objectives of modern enterprises and their diverse stakeholders with contemporary measurement methods, mode-encompassing
information, and analytics that can be retroactive, current, and forward looking. By moving from a paper-based (and its digital
analogs, PDF and XBRL) to a customizable and flexible communication system, Reporting 4.0 will shift accounting statements
from the constrained mindset of the 15th century to the broad capabilities made possible by the technologies of the 21st
century.
The edits, comments, and suggestions of Dong Gil Kim and Chanyuan Zhang are very much appreciated.
Michael G. Alles, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Rutgers Business School, Department of Accounting and Information Systems, Newark,
NJ, USA; Jun Dai, Michigan Technological University, College of Business, Department of Accounting, Houghton, MI, USA; Miklos A. Vasarhelyi,
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Rutgers Business School, Department of Accounting and Information Systems, Newark, NJ, USA.
Published Online: May 2021
1
2 Alles, Dai, and Vasarhelyi
argue that mass customization is the ultimate expression of Drucker’s (1954) dictum that ‘‘It is the customer who determines
what a business is.’’
Mass customization is essential to the business plans of many companies offering services, most particularly those in the
internet space where the promise of a personalized experience is the rationale for customer participation in the first place. Thus,
companies ranging from Facebook, Inc. in social media, Google LLC in web-based advertising, and YouTube and TikTok in
video all use algorithms to ensure that every user gets to see content that is specific to them.
The business that is far more essential than these service providers to the functioning of the economy, but that is still very
much following the concept of one size fits all, is accounting and its main output, the mandated financial statements of a
business. While the data contained in these reports, as presented in the 10-K and annual reports, are specific to a particular
business, the characteristics of those reports are not in any way customized to the needs and wants of the myriad stakeholders of
the business.
In contrast to Drucker’s (1954) dictum on the role of the customer, financial reporting standards are set from the supply
side by accounting bodies and regulators, and while they may seek feedback from stakeholders, the nature of the reports
1
See, https://www.bbc.com/news/business-41582244
2
See, also, Sangster (2018).
3
See, https://www.bbc.com/news/business-47802280. Proto-spreadsheets, however, can be found in mainframes as early as 1961 (Galassi and
Mattessich 2014).
FIGURE 1
XBRL-Based Financial Statement
TABLE 1
Reporting Paradigms
Reporting 1.0 Reporting 2.0 Reporting 3.0 Reporting 4.0
Accounting Accounting equation, debit Regulation, profession of XBRL, spreadsheets, IT More data, less aggregation
Innovations and credits, t-accounts, accounting auditing and consolidation, role for
ledgers nonfinancial information
Reporting Trial balance Audited financial statements PDF, tagged statements App with user preferences
Mechanism
Reporting Stewardship Protecting unsophisticated Facilitating information User-driven reporting, CSR
Objective investors sharing perspective
Underlying Printing, paper Newspapers, telegraph XML, internet, cloud, Industry 4.0, mass
Technologies ERP systems customization
4
See, https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/693/Statement_on_Corporate_Governance_Business-Roundtable-1997%281%29.
pdf?1566830902
5
See, https://www.businessroundtable.org/business-roundtable-redefines-the-purpose-of-a-corporation-to-promote-an-economy-that-serves-all-
americans
accounting or financial reporting even mentioned. Consequently, it is necessary to examine the axioms of a new reporting
system for addressing the needs of multiple stakeholders and not just shareholders.
6
See, https://www.sec.gov/rules/other/33-8039.htm
FIGURE 2
IFRS and Pro Forma (PF) Earnings for Solway Corporation
We show that operating earnings reported by managers and analysts are more value relevant than a measure of
operating earnings derived from firms’ financial statements, as reported by Standard and Poor’s. Our evidence is
important because it indicates that operating earnings reported by managers and analysts contain value relevant
information beyond that provided by operating earnings obtained by sophisticated users from firms’ financial
statements.
In response to these failings in the traditional financial statements, there have been numerous attempts to update accounting
standards. For example, Sunder (2016) points out that accounting regulators have tried no less than 43 times over the last half
century to develop a method to account for capital leases.
Outside of accounting, various initiatives have arisen to develop new metrics for businesses to report on specific topics
of interest to particular stakeholders, such as corporate governance, environmental impact, ethics and treatment of labor,
and so forth. The World Economic Forum (2020), in collaboration with the Big 4, consolidated many of these initiatives
into 21 ‘‘core’’ and a further 34 ‘‘expanded’’ metrics and disclosures to supplement the traditional financial statements
(Figure 3).
Many of the new disclosures are nonfinancial, such as greenhouse gas emissions and the percentage of diversity hires.
Hence, these are outside the accounting dataset, which demonstrates that a new reporting model need not be restricted to that
alone. Other variables, for example, the ratio of CEO salary to median pay or spending on CSR activities, can be obtained from
accounting records if they are not reported in such a highly disaggregated form.
Academic evidence (Amir and Lev 1996; Lev and Gu 2016) demonstrates that nonfinancial and nontraditional financial
metrics help explain stock price changes. This motivates the development of Reporting 4.0 to formally incorporate these new
metrics into corporate disclosures. Reporting 4.0 also helps address a significant problem that arises as the Friedman doctrine is
replaced with a broader set of objectives for the firm and, hence, for financial reporting, which is choosing between multiple
objectives for reporting. Sunder (2016) warns that:
‘‘better’’ in financial reporting could be defined to mean multiple things: meeting specified societal or individual goals
or possessing some general qualitative or specific statistical attributes. It is difficult, even at a conceptual level, to
obtain agreement on what kind of financial reports do or can meet the criteria within either of these interpretations.
Reporting 4.0 deals with this dilemma by adopting the mass customization assumption that the best way of dealing with
customers with different needs is to give them what they want. In other words, avoiding having to choose between different
FIGURE 3
Excerpts of Proposed Metrics from the World Economic Forum
objectives for financial reporting by instead developing an agnostic financial reporting system: one capable of being customized
to provide information on a different objective to different stakeholders.
Like a smartphone app, Reporting 4.0 will be delivered from a cloud-based platform and will enable the user to make
choices about what information about the business they see and in what format it is presented. For example, selections could
include information for traditional GAAP only or pro forma, financial and/or nonfinancial information, or information that
focuses on share price, a broader CSR perspective, or many combinations and expansions on the above, in the view of the style
sheets/apps.
Analysts often extract raw data from a 10-K and then discard the rest of the report.7 With a Reporting 4.0 app, any user
could even create and upload their model for the firm and have data directly feed into it. XBRL tagging would accurately and
efficiently obtain data, and exogenous data bridging and tagging would extend the range of data used outside the accounting
dataset alone.
There are several features that the Reporting 4.0 app must possess if it is to be feasibly adopted. First, as with any reporting
system, the aggregated and consolidated reports only work one way, meaning that they cannot be reversed to reveal the
underlying data. While we envision less aggregation and different consolidations for different audiences in the app, some
proprietary disclosure filters will remain to protect the privacy and competitive issues (the authentication and authorization
7
Cong, Du, and Vasarhelyi (2018) show that XBRL-tagged financial statements are now downloaded more often than traditional 10-Ks due to the ease
of reuse of their data content.
FIGURE 4
The Reporting 4.0 Paradigm
Interoperability
Interoperability emphasizes the connections and communications between machines as well as machines and humans. For
example, when products are shipped, the Internet of Things (IoT), an integrated range of sensors, automatically detects location
changes and reports their status (shipped) to ERP systems that record sales and reduce the inventory (Dai and Vasarhelyi 2016).
This contrasts with the accounting system that only records business transactions and, hence, excludes data on the
consequences of those transactions. For example, accounting records are only made upon the shipment and the receipt of
products, but the physical conditions during the transit period can significantly affect the value of a perishable product like food
or medicines. Interoperability facilitates real-time measurement of physical conditions, and Reporting 4.0 will incorporate those
data into the reporting process rather than exclude them.
Virtualization
Virtualization connects objects in the physical world to the cloud and integrates their locations, conditions, surrounding
environment, etc., to create a virtual copy of the physical world (Drath and Horch 2014). This produces Big Data, whose
exclusion from the reporting process becomes increasingly hard to defend as all other aspects of the business increasingly rely
on it. Information on the virtual state of the enterprise can be distributed to interested stakeholders in a much timelier fashion
than it is now, if at all. For example, customers might be interested in the farms where their chickens are raised, and regulators
could monitor greenhouse gas emissions. Sophisticated businesses today can use Industry 4.0 to monitor virtual models of their
underlying processes. Subject to the confidentiality issues discussed above, Reporting 4.0 can also give external stakeholders a
‘‘peek under the hood’’ of how the business processes operate in a way that is not possible when everything is aggregated and
measured only on financial terms.
Decentralization
Decentralization grants the decision of which components should be included in reports to each user. Since each user has
his/her special interests/needs in information and different strategies to make decisions, diversified reports could provide
tailored details targeting individuals’ interests. This is where Reporting 4.0 borrows most from the analogy to an app on a smart
device. Identifying what information should be included in a report from a very large amount of data could be challenging. To
facilitate this process, a recommender system can be developed that can suggest to users the appropriate components and
information be included in a report (Dai 2017).
Modularization
Real-Time Capability
Real-time measurement and interactive communication are the essence of Industry 4.0. Foundational Industry 4.0
technologies such as IoT enable uploading data continuously to the cloud to capture changes in processes and their analysis on
an ongoing basis, with communication by exception to interested parties. The same capabilities would extend to the Reporting
4.0 system built on top of the Industry 4.0 infrastructure, making real-time reporting a reality.
Service Orientation
Service orientation is the object of Industry 4.0 and the entire purpose of the mass-customized Reporting 4.0 system, where
it is the customer that determines what it is. It would involve a chain of service providers, such as accountants, auditors, IT
professionals, cloud providers, recommender system developers, environment experts, etc., that would collaborate to generate
dynamic, intelligent, and timely reports to meet the needs of individual stakeholders.
8
See, https://www.i-scoop.eu/industry-4-0/
Although blockchain could automate certain functions of auditing, auditors would still need to actively participate in the
paradigm to provide adequate assurance for reporting. For example, auditors could build rule-based auditing and monitoring
models (Vasarhelyi and Halper 1991) and predictive audit models (Kuenkaikaew 2013) for real-time abnormal transaction and
irregularity detection. These comprise the smart auditing and monitoring layer in Figure 4. Auditors can also play an important
role in identifying emerging risks that could result from the use of new technologies and ensuring that adequate controls are in
place.
The smart auditing and monitoring layer in Figure 4 would be integrated with the new audit paradigm proposed by Dai and
Vasarhelyi (2016); namely, Audit 4.0, which also leverages the Industry 4.0 model and technologies to enhance audit quality
and timing. The authentication and authorization layer would filter out sensitive information of corporations to protect their
confidential data, business secrets, customers’ private information, etc. It would also grant different data-viewing authorities to
individual users based on their roles and interests. For example, stakeholders would have better access to data reflecting
management effectiveness, while NGOs would be granted the view of corporations’ efforts on pollution control.
The smart reporting layer in Figure 4 is comprised of a variety of modules to analyze and report on specific aspects of the
9
See, https://www.journalofaccountancy.com/issues/2005/jun/ebrthenextstep.html
10
See, http://accounting.rutgers.edu/gdl/Galileo.html
FIGURE 5
A Mockup of the Reporting 4.0 App
FIGURE 7
Reporting 4.0 as an Enhanced Galileo Model
Continuous Data
Markets are now largely dominated by automatic trading (Pei and Vasarhelyi 2020) software and index-oriented funds that
typically look at three factors: price, volume, and peer company performance. Today, automated trading software continuously
monitors real time events, which reduces the relevance of sporadically provided Reporting 3.0 statements. Annual or quarterly
financial reports are of very limited value for automated, real-time trading. Progressively, these algorithms are looking at
exogenous variables such as tweets, Facebook utterances, discussion groups, car traffic, parking lot occupation, internet traffic,
and other variables subject to privacy and access limitations. These data, however, are only available at variable narrow
intervals, and even their frequency of appearance is a signal that gives some marginal information to users. A modern reporting
system should be detailed enough to be close to continuous and be able to respond to the oscillations of the markets and display
the rhythm of the organization’s operations.
Futurity
Prediction of results and features of the organization can benefit from advanced analytics and detailed data. Models can be
fed with detailed data without these data being publicly disclosed in case that privacy or competitive contingencies exist. Pro
forma statements can be constructed using a wide range of different analytical models (Appelbaum, Kogan, and Vasarhelyi
2017), which can also be used in predictive audits with the difference between predicted and actual serving as a proxy for risk.
They can then be used for continuous monitoring and downstream incorrect transaction prediction.
of disclosure simplification and aggregation, as the Dutch government did with standard business reporting (SBR), but that
does not resolve the issue of integration with external data sources.11 Cho et al. (2019) discuss the need for data interfacing and
integrating from different source streams. The Reporting 4.0 app would have to interface with its databases, external databases
employing parameterization and choice, and choose usage models.
X. CONCLUSION
This paper proposes the replacement of the current anachronistic financial reporting with the Reporting 4.0 paradigm,
which is built for and on Industry 4.0 and that is more comprehensive, timely, and potentially predictive, supporting modern
entities and their stakeholders with contemporary measurement methods, mode encompassing information, and analytics that
can be retroactive, current, or forward looking. Reporting 4.0 is designed from the ground up to be app-based rather than the
paper one that has characterized all previous iterations of accounting and reporting. It is supported by a relational database with
OLAP disclosure and a multiplicity of data feeds, both internal and exogenous to the business. It is a reporting system for the
age of mass customization, where different stakeholders in a business with multiple objectives can each obtain the information
—Michael G. Alles
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark
—Jun Dai
Michigan Technological University
—Miklos A. Vasarhelyi
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark
REFERENCES
Alles, M. and M. Vasarhelyi. 2008. Reengineering business reporting: Creating a test bed for technology based reporting. International
Journal of Digital Accounting Research 8 (14): 97–135.
Amir, E., and B. Lev. 1996. Value-relevance of nonfinancial information: The wireless communications industry. Journal of Accounting
and Economics 22 (1/3): 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-4101(96)00430-2
Appelbaum, D., A. Kogan, and M. A. Vasarhelyi. 2017. Big Data and analytics in the modern audit engagement: Research needs.
Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory 36 (4): 1–27. https://doi.org/10.2308/ajpt-51684
Bower, J. and L. Paine. 2017. The error at the heart of corporate leadership. Available at: https://hbr.org/2017/05/the-error-at-the-heart-
of-corporate-leadership
Brown, L., and K. Sivakumar. 2003. Comparing the value relevance of two operating income measures. Review of Accounting Studies 8:
561–572. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1027328418571
Brown-Liburd, H., and M. A. Vasarhelyi. 2015. Big Data and audit evidence. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting 12 (1): 1–
16. https://doi.org/10.2308/jeta-10468
Chicago Booth School of Business. 2020. Milton Friedman fifty years later. Available at: https://promarket.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/
11/Milton-Friedman-50-years-later-ebook.pdf
Cho, S., M. A. Vasarhelyi, and C. Zhang. 2019. The forthcoming data ecosystem for business measurement and assurance. Journal of
Emerging Technologies in Accounting 16 (2): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.2308/jeta-10699
Cong, Y., H. Du, and M. Vasarhelyi. 2018. Technological disruption in accounting and auditing. Journal of Emerging Technologies in
Accounting 15 (2): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.2308/jeta-10640
Dai, J. 2017. Three essays on audit technology: Audit 4.0, Blockchain, and Audit App. Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers, The State University
of New Jersey, Newark.
Dai, J., and M. A. Vasarhelyi. 2016. Imagineering Audit 4.0. Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting 13 (1): 1–15. https://doi.
org/10.2308/jeta-10494
Dai, J., and M. A. Vasarhelyi. 2017. Toward blockchain-based accounting and assurance. Journal of Information Systems 31 (3): 5–21.
https://doi.org/10.2308/isys-51804
Deloitte. 2020. The fourth industrial revolution. Available at: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/insights/us/articles/us32959-
industry-4-0/DIIndustry4.0.pdf
Drath, R., and A. Horch. 2014. Industrie 4.0: Hit or hype? IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 8 (2): 56–58. https://doi.org/10.1109/
MIE.2014.2312079
Drucker, P. 1954. The Practice of Management. New York, NY: Harper.
11
See, https://www.sbr-nl.nl/sbr-international.
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). 1978. Objectives of Financial Reporting by Business Enterprises. Statement of
Financial Accounting Concepts No. 1. Available at: https://www.fasb.org/jsp/FASB/Document_C/DocumentPage?cid¼
1218220132512&acceptedDisclaimer¼true
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). 2010. Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting. Concepts Statement No. 8.
Available at: https://www.fasb.org/jsp/FASB/Document_C/DocumentPage?cid¼1176157498129
Friedman, M. 1970. The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits. The New York Times Magazine (September 13).
Galassi, G., and R. V. Mattessich. 2014. Some clarification to the evolution of the electronic spreadsheet. Journal of Emerging
Technologies in Accounting 11 (1): 99–104. https://doi.org/10.2308/jeta-51114
Hermann, M., T. Pentek, and B. Otto. 2015. Design principles for Industrie 4.0 scenarios: A literature review. Available at: https://www.
researchgate.net/profile/Mario-Hermann-2/publication/307864150_Design_Principles_for_Industrie_40_Scenarios_A_Literature_
Review/links/57cfd2fb08aed6789701cbeb/Design-Principles-for-Industrie-40-Scenarios-A-Literature-Review.pdf
Kagermann, H., J. Helbig, A. Hellinger, and W. Wahlster. 2013. Recommendations for implementing the strategic initiative Industrie 4.0:
Securing the future of the German manufacturing industry. Final report of the Industrie 4.0 working group. Available at: https://en.
acatech.de/publication/recommendations-for-implementing-the-strategic-initiative-industrie-4-0-final-report-of-the-industrie-4-0-