GOVERNMENT ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE NAGERCOIL — 629 004 [ Affiliated to Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli — 12 ] DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NAME OF THE SUBJECT : PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND MECHANICS SUBJECT CODE : AMPHI1 YEAR : B.Sc. PHYSICS SEMESTER Et STAFF IN-CHARGE : Dr. G.M.CARMEL VIGILA BAI Head, Department of Physics Government Arts and Science College NAGERCOIL. Email : gmcarmelgasc@ gmail.com Mobile No.: 9487819696 PAPER HANDLEDBY __: Dr. G.M.CARMEL VIGILABAI Dr. S.VINU BOOK FOR REFERENCE : Properties of Matter and Mechanics— A.Ubald Raj, and G.Jose Robin, Indira Publication, Marthandam.ACKNOWLEGEMENT I express my thanks to the staff members, students and my family members who helped me in some way to make this course material. Also, I express my sincere thanks to the authors of various books, specially to Prof. G. Jose Robin, and Prof. A. Ubald Raj, the Authors of Properties of Matter and Mechanics, Indira Publication, Marthandam. (Dr. G.M.CARMEL VIGILA BAI)CONTENTS S.No. Topic Page No. 1 | M.S.University Syllabus i 2 | UNITI 1 3 | UNITE 50 4 | UNITIN 8 5 | UNITIV 132 6 |UNITV 192 7 | Unit Test, Internal Test, Model Exam Question Papers | 226 8 | M.S. University previous year Question Papers 131MSU/ 2020 -21/ UG-Colleges / Part-III (B.Se. Physies) / Semester — I Core - 1 PROPERTIES OF MATTER & MECHANICS UNIT-I: ELASTICITY Hooke’s law ~ Stress-strain diagram - Elastic moduli-Relation between elastic constants Poisson’s Ratio-Expression for Poisson’s ratio in terms of elastic constants - experimental determination of poisson’s ratio of rubber - Twisting couple on a cylinder -Work done in twisting a wire - Torsional pendulum- Determination of Rigidity modulus and moment of inertia - q, n and by Searles method -I - section griders UNIT-II: BENDING OF BEAMS Bending of beams - Expression for bending moment - Cantilever - Expression for cantilever depression and oscillations - theory and experiments. Uniform bending and Non-uniform bending - theory and experiments. UNIT-II: FLUIDS: Surface Tension - Synclastic and anticlastic surfaces - Excess of pressure - application to spherical and cylindrical drops and bubbles - variation of surface tension with temperature - Jaegar’s method. Capillary rise - Experimental determination of surface tension by capillary rise - angle of contact of mercury-Quincke’s method. Viscosity - Rate flow of liquid in a capillary tube - Poiseuille’s formula - Determination of coefficient of viscosity by capillary flow - Variations of viscosity of a liquid with temperature- lubricants, UNIT-IV: DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES Translational and rotational motion - Angular momentum and angular impulse - moment of inertia and radius of gyration - - Compound pendulum - theory - equivalent simple pendulum - reversibility of centres of oscillation and suspension - determination of g and k -Newton’s second law for rotation — torque, work, rotational kinetic energy and expression for power during rotation - Kinetic energy of rolling - Acceleration of a uniform body, rolling down an inclined plane. Precessional motion - UNIT-V: HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRODYNAMICS, Pressure and thrust - Thrust on a plane surface immersed in a liquid - centre of pressure ~ centre of pressure on a rectangular lamina, a triangular lamina. Laws of floation - determination of meta centric height of a ship - steady and streamline flow - equation of continuity - energy of a fluid - Bernoulli's theorem — proof - pitot’s tube and venturimeter Books for study 1. Properties of matter - Murugeshan R, S Chand & Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi 2. Mechanics - D.S. Mathur - S Chand & Co 3. Mechanics and mathematical physics - R.Murugeshan -S Chand & Co. Pvt. Lid., New Delhi. Books for Reference 1, Elements of Properties of Matter - Mathur D S, Shyamlal Charitable Trust, New Delhi, 2 Panes of General Properties of Matter - Gulati HR, R Chand & Co, New Delhi, 3 Fundanenta of Physics, - D Halliday, R Resnick and J Walker, Wiley NY 2001. 6th 1 Mechanis —Berkely Physics course: Charles Kittel-Tata Me Graw Hill Publication1. Elasticity A rigid body is one in which the distance between any two points remains unchanged, when external forces are applied to it. But actually, no body is perfectly rigid. When a body is subjected to external forces, there is change of length, shape or volume of the body i.e; the body gets deformed. If the deforming forces are removed, the body may regain its original condition. This is due to a property of the substance, known as elasticity. Thus the property of the body by virtue of which it regains its original shape or size, when the deforming forces are removed, is called elasticity. If the body regains its original size or shape completely when the deforming forces are removed, it is said to be perfectly elastic. On the other hand, if the body retains completely its altered state, it is calleda perfectly plastic body. There are no perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic bodies. Actual bodies lie between the two extremes. Stress When an elastic body is deformed by external forces, ithasa tendency to come back to its original size or shape. This is due to the molecular force within the body that is caused by stretching of interatomic bonds that hold atoms together. (During stretching the atoms are pulled apart very slightly, each being displaced a tiny distance from its equilibrium position). This internal force tends to restore the body to its original condition. The restoring force is equal and opposite to the external force applied to produce deformation. The deforming force (and hence the restoring force) is proportional to the area over which it acts. The restoring force, per unit area, set up within the body is called stress. The stress may be tangential or normal. If Fbe the force acting over a sectional area A of a body, then stress = f.iy Itis expressed in pascal (Pa) or newton per pet A = ee Stress experiences a change of dimension of the body. WI a a ts cformed, there is change of dimension (length, volume or shape). The change of dimension is proportional to the initial dimension. Strain A The change of dimension per unit dimension of the body is called strain. When there is change of length, the strain produced is known as linear strain or tensile strain, change of length original length B i.e: linear strain = If / be the change of length of a metal wire of | length L. then. Fig.1 linear strain = o When there is change of volume, the strain is known as bulk strain or volume strain, aF Fig2 i.e; bulk strain = Change of volume original volume Ifv be the change of volume cor i lati ee (compression or dilation) of a body ofbulk strain When there is change of shape, there is angular deformation and the strain is called shearing strain. Suppose that we have a cube whose lower face is fixed. A tangential force Fis applied along its upper face of area A such that a line initially perpendicular to the lower face becomes inclined to it at an angle , then, this angle is called the shearing strain or the shear. When a wire is twisted, small square on the surface becomes a rhombus and is an example of a shear strain. The mechanical properties of a material are connected with its behaviour under the action of external forces. The behaviour of a metal wire, under gradually increasing load can be understood from its stress - strain diagram. Stress - strain diagram Consider a metallic wire, subjected to linear stain. The stress - strain graph for the stretching of the wire is shown in the figure. It has a general form as shown by OEPAD in the graph. There are two main parts: (i) elastics deformation and (ii) plastic deformation The first part of the graph from O to E isa straight line through the origin. This shows that stain is directly proportional to stress, The material suffers elastic deformation in this region. i.e. it returns to its original length when the stress is removed. The point E or the corresponding stress is knwon as the elastic limit. The maximum stress which an elastic body will recover its original size or shape after the removel of the deforming force is called elastic limit. Fig.3range aa failure rrrnt (breaking Stress = z 3 5 point) Fig. 4 ‘As the stress is increased beyond E, the graph becomes non- linear, but the deformation remains to be elastic until a certain stress corresponding to the point P reached. The point P is called the yield point. Thereafter, plastic deformation starts and the material retains some of its extension if the stress is removed. At any point A beyond P, the recovery is not complete. The material recovers along AO’, which is almost parallel to OE. The quantity OO’ is the permanent plastic extension produced in the wire. If the stress is applied again, the curve O' AD is followed. The stress at D causes fractures to occur in the specimen. The Stress at D is the greatest stress that the material can whithstand and just beyond D, the wire breaks, The stree at D is called the breaking stress (or ultimate tensile strength). The breaking stress i aa . s is useful atin; the strength of a material. 8 useful in estimating The specimen appears to ‘give’ ic regi _ The give’ at P. In the plastic region beyond P,a given increase of stress produces a greater increase of stain than broie Even inthis Tegion, the material opposes the deformation, Beyond » the material is said to be in “strain-harden” condition,5 The breaking stress for steel may take place at a stress which is half great as that of the yield point. Materials used in engineering structutres should carry loads that only deform them elastically. On the other hand where metals are to be fabricated in various shapes, they should withstand considerable plastic deformation before fracture i.e; the metals should be ductile. Thus strength and ductility of metals make them highly useful in modem technology, A brittle substance like glass has a stress - strain graph like OB. It fractures immediately after the elastic stage. Since little or no plastic deformation takes place with glass, we say that glass is non-ductile. The slope of the staight line part (OE) of the stress - strain graph gives an elastic property of the wire namely, Young modulus and it depends on the nature of the material and not on the dimensions of the sample. 2, = Linear stress Young’s modulus (£) = inca aan Ifa material has large value of E, it will resist elastic deformation strognly. A larger stress would be required to produce even a small strain. Thus the Young’s modulus value is a measure of the opposition ofa material to the change of linear strain i.e; E is a measure of elastic stiffness of materials. Steel has greater value of Young’s modulus and it is more elastic than rubber. Glasses are stiff ( and strong) but not ductile or tough. When a beam bends under the action ofa stress, one surface is compressed and the other surface is elongated. Since the strain undergone by the beam is linear strain, the elastic behavior of the beam is determined by the Young’s modulus of the material of the beam, though there is change of shape of the beam. Elastic After — effect With in the elastic limit, certain material bodies such as phospher -bronze, quartz, silver etc. recover their original state almost immediately after the deforming force is removed. However, most of the material bodies, in general, take appreciably long time to recover their original7 6 state, This delay in the recovery of the original state ie body after the deforming force ceases to action on the body is an - ic after effect. For example a glass fibre will take hours tore rel original state when the torsiontwist ceases to act on it. Ont e otl ner hand a quartz or phospher bronze fibre will immed! ately regain its original State under similar oanditions. For this reason suspension fiber in a moving coi galvanometer is made of quartz or phosphor - bronze. Elastic Fatigue: oparty i Itis defined as the bres due to which an elastic body becomes less elastic under the action of repeated alternating deforming force. This is the reason why bridges are declared unsafe after long use. Hooke 's Law Accordiing to Hooke’s law, within the limit of elasticity, the stress is proportional to the strain produced in the sample. i.e; stress cc strain stress = E x strain we(1) where E is the proportionality constant and it is called the modulus of elasticity. ‘The value of E depends on the nature of the material and it is independent of the magnitude of the stress or strain. It is expressed in pascal (Pa). There are three types of strains such as linear strain, bulk strain and shearing strain. Correspondingly, there are three kinds of modulus of elasticity such as Young’s modulus (E), bulk modulus (K) and rigidity modulus (n). The three modulus of elasticity are defined as follows: Modulus of elasticity 1. Young’s modulus (E) Itis the ratio of the normal a body, within the elastic limit. Leta metal wire of ler a ceiling. Let it be given a no1 Stress to the linear strain produced in ngth L be suspended with one end fixed on rmal stress, by hanging a mass Mat its free7 end, The wire experiences a change of length, /. If + be the mean radius of the section of the wire, (its area of cross- section being A= nr?) the stress = = Mg A mr The linear strain. = L = Young's mod: _ __Stress _ Mgl ig’smodulus E Tinearstrain = rt pascal. : The value of Young’s modulus depends on the nature of the material, Ifthe material has large value of Young’s modulus, it resists elastic deformation strongly. A large stress is required to produce even a small strain. Thus Young’s modulys measures elastic stiffness. The Young’s modulus of steel is larger than that of rubber. Hence steel is stiffer than mubber. 2. Bulk modulus (K) Itis the ratio of the normal stress (pressure on the surface of the body) to the bulk strain produced in the body, within the elastic limit. Leta metal cube of volume V be subjected to pressure P (inward onall faces) The cube experiences a change of volume and let the change of volume be v stress = 7 = P (P for pressure) 7 v bulk strain. =— ulk straii V -, Bulk modulus K -_ ee a dd pascal. bulk strain v The value of bulk modulus depends on the nature of the material. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is known as the compressibility (4) of the substance. Compressibility (K) = +8 3. Rigidity modulus (n) It is the ratio of the tangential stress to the shearing strain produced in a body, within the clastic limit, Leta tangential force KF act ona cube of end face of area A and produce a shearing strain. Then stress shearing strain = @ Rigidity modulus n= tr pascal The value of rigidity modulus depends on the nature Of the material. Ifa flat spiral is stretched, the wire itself, is not extended but twisted, ie., sheared. The extension of the spring depends upon the Tigidity modulus of the material as well as on the dimensions of spring, Work done per unit volume in deforming a body Inorder to bring about a change of length or volume or the shape ofthe body, work has tobe done. 7 The work done in deforming a body is stored up in the body as strain energy or elastic potential energy, (i) Work done in linear strain When a wire of | length L and area of ‘cross- Section A is stretched by applying a force F acting ml along its length, the wire is under linear strain. tr Linear stress = 4 Linear strain = + where / is the extension produced, Then, Young’s modulus of the material of the wire is given byhe ( ‘ is the restoring force within the wire. L For producing an infinitesimal increase of length d/ against the restoring force, the work to be done is dW =F.dl = Fadl since F and dlare in the same direction aw ==£Al dl L Hence, the toal work done in producing an increase of length / inthe wire is W = Jaw I EA =f“ 1a fi 1 FA = Jia | A 2 W -# 1 oD The volume of the wire = AL “work done per unit volume is w=F4,P TAL = 2 i rr 2 . 1 . Le; Ww =o Stress x strain“At Lt FAL) Also, from equation (1), W=—7~ “a5 We i x stretchin, (ii) Work done per unit volume in shearing strain Let ABCD be one face of a cube of side L. Applying a tangential’ force F on the upper face and keeping the lower edge of the cube fixed, the cube is given a shearing strain. The applied force FisactingalongABand = le the reaction force Fis acting along CD. The upper plane of the cube is displaced through AA’ AA’ = BB’ =/ For an infinitesimal displacement dl of the upper plane, the amount of work done is g force x extension produced dw = F dl The total amount of work done for producing displacement / is W=Sdw t i “ra vow) To express F in terms of rigidity modulus n: The tangential stress Snes a =F area” Exh 7 shearing strain = @ = + since L =]. By definition, the rigidity modulus n = tangential stress sheraring strain0 nat Ll Fe=nll The volume of the cube = L* «. work done per unit volume in producing shearing strain is _W ee = LP _ nt Page 27 = tat Here 7) = stress, 7 =6@ =shearing strain Ww =x stress x shearing strain Poisson’s Ratio When an elastic material such as a metal wire of length L is subjected to a tension along the length, there is an increase in its length. ’ This results in longitudinal strain. Also there is a simultaneous decrease in diameter of the wire, producing lateral strain.12 The ratio of change of length to the initial length is tio of the change called the longitudinal strain o. The rat : of lateral dimension to the initial dimension of the wire is called the lateral strain B. Within the limit of elasticity, the ratio of lateral strain (B) to the longitudinal strain (0) isa constant for I the material of the body. This constant is called - Poisson’s ratio (o) of the material. Poisson’s ratio = 6 = > T Relation between the elastic constants Young’s taps modulus, rigidity modulus, bulk modulus and [ Poisson’s ratio of a material (Relation connection E,n,K and co) Tespective faces, Each one of th and contractions alone ah Produces ' along the «4 s elongation in i oe The other two Perpendicular directions oe the extensioy Nsion per unit ley ath Contractio it lenge et unit stre: n per unit lenght pervanit ae i Ss of the material and f theWhen all the three stresses act simultaneously on the cube, elongation along the direction of P willbe = oP Contraction along direction of P due to the other two stresses = B 0+ BR The net elongation along the direction of P will be e,= aP-BQ-BR Similarly, the net elongation along the direction of Qand R will be = aQ-BR-BP and e,=aR-BP-BO We can express the elastic constants : Young’s modules £, rigidity modulus nand the bulk modulus K interms of a and B Case (i) Let the body be subjected to the stress P alone ie; Q=0 and R=0 This is the case of a simple longitudinal strain. .. The linear strain e,.= oP -. The Young’s modulus E = a linear strain aad aP po a case (ii) “a = + aa (1) Let the stress R = 0 and Q= —P (There is compression along the Q direction). The stresses P and Q cause shearing strain on the body. The elongation along the direction of P is e,= aP-B(-P) since Q= —P =aP+BP = (a+B)P The shearing (angle or) strain = 2, (This can be proved separately) -. Shearing strain =2 (a+) P14 ___e the rigidity modulus n = Shearing strain oe "= Z(a4p)P alle " = a) at Fy -Q) Case (iii) Let P= Q=R ‘The body is subjected to uniform stress inall directions, thus producin, increase of volume. 2 Inthis case, e, = &P- 2BP Volume strain = 3¢, (basic relation) = 3(aP-2BP) = 3P(a-2B) Bulk modulus K = = lume strain ~. 3P (a— 2B) K 1 3 (0-28) (a-28) = + 3K _G) 1. fo obtain the rela tic ic use equations (2) ma meat the elastic modii E,n and K. We a+B = t 2a+ 2B = + From (3), a — 26 = % °Adding equations (4) and (5), oa le 3a So ap Se, 6) oo | ank ( But, from equation (1), a = E 3. 13 ob = \K+n e 3nK _ nk seve os 3K+n - The above equation also can be expressed as 2 _ 3Ktn E nK 924 1 BE utK This gives the relation connecting elastic constants. 2. To obtain the expression for Poisson’s ratio in terms of elastic constants We start with the definitionofo, o = 7 From equation (2), +B= x From equation (3), 2p = +16 have (2), We ting 3) from subtract! 1d 3B = 2n 3K 3K-2" 3B = 6nKk 3K-20 B= gnK 3Ktn From equation (6) "on K Hence. Poisson’s ratio 5 = “q GK- 2n) x on K o= “18nK 3K+n oe OK=2 6K+2n 3. To obtain the relation between Young's modulus (E ), the rigidity modulus (n) and the Poisson's ratio(o) From equation (1), =_ quation (1), @ = From equation (2), a+B = at 2n Dividing (2) by (1), 28 _ 2 a 2n wh LE a 2n 5 -£ = 7-1 a 2n7 By definition Bog (the Poisson’s ratio) oo oe On 4, Limiting values of Poisson's ratio, The relation connecting Poisson’s ratio, rigidity modulus and bulk modulus is . te 6 (6K + 2n) = 3K-2n 60K+20n = 3K-2n 60K-3K =-26n-2n Changing sign throughout, 3K- 60K = 20n+2n 3K (1-26) = 2n(o+1) The quantitics K and n are always positive. (i) Let 6 be positive. Then RHS is positive. -. Inthe left hand side (1-2c)=+ve 206<1 o < 0.5 Thus, 0.5 is the highest positive value of o (ii) Let © be negative. ThenLHS is positive. “. On the RHS, (6 +1) =+ ve oO >-1 Thus, (-1) is the lowest value of : Thus, the theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio oO lies between -1 and 0.5 ie; 0.5 >6>-] Inactual practice o isa positive quantity and it lies between 0 and 0.5 for most of the materials. o is not negative since it would mean that the body expands laterally on being stretched. No substance behaves in this way. ‘18 Determination of Poission’s ratio of rubber The apparatus consists of a piece of thin-walled rubber tube AB about one meter in length and 2.cm in diameter. The ends A and B are tightly closed. The lower end B is plugged tightly with a piece of solid brass. The brass plug has two grooves round its curved surface. When itis slipped into the lower ‘end ofthe rubber tubing, itis secured with an iron wire. The brass Piece carries ahook from which various loads can be suspended. The upper end A of the tubing is closed by a strong rubber cork. A clean and graduated glass capillary rube C (about 50 cm in length) and Open at both ends is inserted inside the tubber tube through, the upper end A So that a Considerable part of it is Projecting Outside the rubber tube, The rubber tube and a part of the glass tube are filled with air-free Water and the U ‘apparatus is suy ted vertical i feet, ‘, 2 on an Fig. 9(@) Poission’s ratio for rubber to the lower end B of the rubber tube so that j scale S attached vertically to the rigid su vate ee i le apparatus, PPort, Which supports the whol Procedure To start with, the Position of the po; : inter P d the Teading of the water level in the glass tui Canenpcthe scale an19 the length as well as the internal volume of the tube. The meniscus in C js observed to fall and from this fall the change in the internal volume is calculated. The increase in the length of the rubber tubing is measured from the position of the pointer P on the scale S. These changes in the position of the menscus in C and the position of the pointer P are measured with the help ofa travelling microscope. From these observations the value of Poisson’s ratio for rubber may be calculated. Calculation Let L, D, A, and V be the respective initial values of length, diameter, area of the cross - section and internal volume of the rubber tube. Then V= Ax L On application of the load, the length L and so volume V increase, while there is a corresponding decrease in diameter D and area of cross section A. Differentiating V and A with respect to L, we have Eo ae (1) here negative sign with dA /dL indicates that A decreases as L increases, dV = AdL-LdA This gives the observed decrease in the volume of water in the glass tube. Also we know that _ 1D -_D : Ce (2 Differentiating, we get a 2m. 25 (102) aD daa“ d= 2(%)x =74 aD cane (2) Substituting this value of dd in (1) above, we have av = Aa -1 24 apdD | Via fe Ou x oD dL D dDID_ A-2A GEIL Dividing by 4. we have w pp fae dee dv Borde aay But dD/D = lateral strain (B )and dZ / L = longitudinal strain (o: ); so that PD. = & =, the Poission’s ratio. 1 dav . o= %[1-+ | a (6) Thus knowing the area of cross-section A of the tube, the change in volume dV and the change in length dL, the value of the Poisson’s ratio of rubber is calculated. Further if a be the area of cross - section of the capillary galss tube and d the fall in the level of the meniscus in it, the change in volume Vis fiven by W=ad Substituting this value of dV in (3) above, we get 1 o=> [1 a & 7 | AL =-+ [im «& pea al 2 => irr & 7 | Ra oo)21 where ris the radius of the capillary tube and R that of the rubber tube, r being measured with the help of a vernier microscope and R by a vervier calipers. Now a series of different ¥ loads are used and the corrspondingh values of dx and dL are. plotted along Y and X ases 4x respectively, The slope of this straight line graph gives the values of dx / dL, This knowing the values of R and substituting the value of dx/ dL we can find the value of o, the Poisson’s ratio for rubber. ae Fig. 9 (b) 1. The Young’s modulus of steel is 19 x 10'° N/m? and its rigidity modulus is 9.3 x 10'° N/m’, calculate its Poisson’s ratio. 2. The modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio of the material of a wire are 2.87x 10'°N/m? and 0.379 respectively. Find the value of Young’s modulus of the material of the wire: 3. Aweight of 10 kg is attached to one end ofa copper wire 3.cm long and 0.1 cm in diameter. Find the extension produced if Youngs modulus of wire is 12.5 x 10'°Nm_~. Calculate the lateral compression produced if poissons ratio is 0.25. (Ans. 2.498 x 10m.) Twisting couple on a cylindrical wire (Torsion) Consider a cylindrical rod whose one end is rigidly clamped and the other is twisted, by means of couple at right angles to the axis of the cylinder. Now the rod is said to be under torsion. A rod under torsion develops an internal elastic opposing couple, which is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the external applied couple. This elastic couple is known as torsional couple. When the rod is twisted, it experiences a shearing strain. The modulus of elasticity involved is rigidity modulus. In the figure showing co- axial cylindrcal layer, AB is turned to AB’ under the action of the twisting couple. The angle = BAB is the shearing strain. The angle 6 = BOB is known as the angle of twist. We shall now calculate the couple necessary to produce unit twist in the cylinder. a x» Expression for couple per unit twist idx a Consider a cylindrical wire of length Land raius a, rigidly clamped at the upper end and twisted at the lower end by means ofan external couple of moment C. Let the couple be applied at the lowerend, ina plane perpendicular to its length such that it is twisted through an angle 0 radian, Let us imagine that the cylinder is made up ofa large number of hollow co-axial cylinders, one inside the other. We shall consider one such cylinder of radius x and thickness dt. The length of the longitudinal line AB on the cylinder is Z. After twisting, the line AB takes up the position AB’ and the angle of shear = BAB’ = 4 From geometry of the figure, BB’= x0 Also BBY = Lo Lo= x0 gaa k 0) By definition rigidity modulus 7 of the material of the wire = Seat aa . — ~ Stress necessary to produce the strain dis=nostress = 7 3 8 using equation (1) for > The force that produces this stress = Stress x area on which the force acts. The area of cross section of co-axial cylinder of radius x and thickness dv is = 2 x dx : .. The force = nse -2n x dx Moment of the force about the axis = ann 8 Pdexx = ae xO de The moment of the forces acting on the entire cylinder of radius a is ff anno a4 Pd 2n nO. #7 4 lo L _ and 4 Fig. 12 ie This gives the moment of the elastic couple brought into play within the cylinder. which, under equilibrium, must be equal and opposite to the external twisting couple. Unit twist corresponds to, @ = | radian 2 4 aa . . ™mna -. The twisting couple per unit twist C = This is expressed in units of newton- metre (N-m ). Fora rod of given length and radius, this couple or torque is constant. Special case If the cylinder be hollow with inner radius a, and outer radius a,24 a, the twisting couple on the cylinderis = f 2 de _ 2 nn by? af L 4k, _ 27a0 _ = 2m? aa] P -. The couple per unit twist is = ee [a',- a] 8=1 radian Work done in twisting Let a wire of material of rigidity modulus 7 be twisted through an angle 0. Let C be the couple per unit twist. Then the couple to produce twist 9 is C9. Let it be further twisted through and infinitesimal angular displacement d@ radian. The workdone in twisting through 0 is = moment of couple x infinitesimal angular displacement =C6d0 -. The total work done in producing twist through an angle @ is W = {coe 62 : cfoao~cl-$] w=+ce@ 2 This amount of work done is stored as potential energy in the twisted wire.25 Torsion pendulum A torsion pendulum consists of @ circular (or rectangular) disc suspended at its centre of gravity by means of uniform wire from a rigid support. The wire can be twisted by turning the disc through a small angle in the horizontal plane. When the disc is released, it makes the wire untwist. When the disc retums to the equilibrium position, there would be no torsion in the wire, but the disc would have got an angular velocity because of the release of potential energy in the wire. The disc further rotates in the opposite direction, gaining, angular acceleration. The wire is now twisted again in the opposite direction and so it ‘gains potential energy. Thus, whenever the wire twists, it acquires potential energy and in the untwisted condition, the potential energy is released to make the disc rotate in the opposite direction. Thus the pendulum makes torsional oscillations. Let C be the couple per unit twist of the wire. Let J be the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of suspension. If @ be the twist (angular / displacement) of the wire at any instant and if A be the angular acceleration of the disc at that instant, then twisting couple = C@ restoring couple (torque) = 1A Atany instant, the above two are equal and opposite. Fig.13 ere . ice., the angular acceleration oc angular displacement. The above equation is similar to the equation for ‘simple harmonic motion. 4=-0°0 where w= <: is simple harmonic, wi +. The oscillations of the torsional pendulum is simp! With Cc (angular velocity? = i C ie., @ = T So = VGA Since the motion of the pendulum is periodic, the period of the torsion pendulum is T= 2%, wTs mE Experiment to determine rigidity modulus of a wire using torsion pendulum (dynamic method) : Without mass A torsion pendulum consists ofa circular (or rectangular) disc, suspended at its centre of gravity by means of a uniform metal wire from arigid support. The wire is attached to the disc by means of a firm chuck and the other end of the wire passes through another chuck fixed toa clamp. This is to prevent the possibility of slipping of the disc from the wire. The wire is made free from kinks. The lengbhof the torsion pendulum wire between the two chucks is measured as 1. The disc is brought to rest and it is rotated through a I small angle about the axis of suspension and is left free. The disc makes torsional oscillation in the horizontal plane. Using a reference pointer anda stop clock, the time taken for 10oscillations is noted, From this, the time taken for: ‘one oscillation: (period) is found outas 7. The value of // 7? iscalculated, Fig. 14 The experiment is, Tepeated for different lengths of _ the pendulum wire. In each ase, the period is found and1/T? is calculated, The readings are tabulated,27 The mean value of (// 7?) is found out. The mean diameter and hence the radius of the wire is measured using screw gauge as a. The mass of the disc is found as M and its radius as R. The moment of inertia of the oscillating disc about the axis of ‘suspension is ]=MR°/2. Knowing these values, the rigidity modulus n of the material of the wire can be calculted as follows: Calculation: The period of oscillation T = 2n VE 2 Squaring, ze An. 2 ac = at The couple per unit twist C is givenby C = ta tna Any 21 ?? n= 8M _ 8x1 (1) na'T? at \T? . L Substituting the mean value of th| , the value of n is calculated. This gives the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire. Ifthe disc is rectangular in shape., mome! an = nt of inertia in the above formula is 7 r= M(L*+ B) 12 where Lis the length and Bis the breadth of the disc, Fig. 15YW 28 : odulus of the material of a Wire ri determine rigidity m: o awi aad croment of ROG a disc using torsional pendulum : wi¢y a symmetric masses ‘The rigidity modulus ofa wire can be ees re torsional pendulum, by placing two equal masses on either ‘ieco F ie foe ‘the disc. In this method the mass of the disc is eliminated in the final calcul ‘ation, Principle The period of torsion pendulum is reo VE (i) with disc alone oscillating. period is T, — 42 = “oy wher J, is moment of inertia of the disc alone. C is the couple per unit twist of the wire 4 —_Tind’ 21 Here n> ri igidity modules of the wire @ — mean radius of the wire ! + length of the suspension wire (ii) With two equal masses ke, pt at equal distance centre of the disc, period is d, on either side of the T, sec. Now, r= 4 (1+ 20+ 2md2) where J is the moment of mesti axis. (iii) Similarly, when the te is T, sec. seeeee (2) of each mass about its own vertical wsses are kept at distances d,, the period29 2 Ty ee pt 2b 23) crete . 3) Equation (3) — (2) gives n-7 = bu [2m (a = ad?) @) 4n?.2m x 21 (dd) [ mnat (12-12) = 161m (d? - d?) nad n= l6ntm (d}-d}) pascal we(5) a This gives rigidity modulus of the material of the wire. Equation (1) / (4) gives : cS 1, A -F) Im@-a) op = 2m 2 -d?) (8-7) This gives moment of inertia of the disc. Procedure kg m? The mean radius of the wire is The length of the torsion pendulum is the length of the wire between two chuck grips. It is kept to be /= 40.0 cm. A vertical pointer is arranged side by the disc. A mark is made on the lateral side of the disc measured using screw gauge. ee £0 Two idential equal masses m and m (say 200.gm weights ina30 A . . weight box) are symmetrically placed on the dise on other side Of the suspension wire, each ata distance d, (= 3.0 cm) from the centre Of the disc. As before, the period 7 found out. : Now. the masses are displaced along the same line Apart so th, the distance of each mass is d, (5-0 cm). The period r, is found ou, Knowing the values 7, and 7,,, rigidity modulus of the wire is calculateg using equation (5). Knowing the values of 7, , 7, and T, the Moment of inertia of the disc of torision pendulum about the axis of suspension j, calculated using equation (6). The experiment can be repeated for different / values. The readings are tabulated. Comparision of torsional rigidity of hollow and solid shaft rods The torsional rigidity of a rod is the couple per unit twist (0 = | radian) 1. Fora solid rod of radius r the torsional rigidity is given by = ae see (D where 7 is the rigidity modulus of the material and / is the length of the rod. I Fig.17 2. Fora thick hollow cylinder (pipe) of inner radius 5 and outer radius a, the torsional rigidity is given by en (a'— b') a t r31 Let the two cylinders be of the same material and of thé same mass. mass = volume x density n@-B)lp= nlp where p is the density of the material of the cylinder. @-Pyar Q) Rewriting equation (1) . _@+ Lage By) _ +r using equation (2) 1 rf iE % 2 (@+R)P seus (3) 1 r Now, from equation (2) P-P=P, P= PHP PtP ats =P + 2b Putting this value in equation (3),32 This shows that greater couple per unit twist is necessary fora hollow cylinder than that for a solid cylinder of the same material, magg ang length. This means the hollow shaft is very much stronger than the Soliq shaft of the same material, mass and length. This explains why the drivin shatt ofan automobile is in the form of a tube rather than asolid rod, The shaft rod connects motor and wheel axle to transmit power. Determination of elastic constants E, n and o by Searle’s Methog The Searle’s apparatus consists of two moment of inertia bars, AB and CD, suspended by two equal parallel torsionless Cotton strings, from two rigid supports, The centres (E and F) of the bars are joined by Means of the thin wire and screwed on rigidly to the bars. The plane of the bars and short wire are adjusted to be horizontal, Procedure (i) To find E, the Young's modulus of the short wire X CLEA The ends A and C of the barsaretied A B together by means ofa string and the system IE brought to rest. The string is now burnt off, so that the two bars vibrate due to the bending and unbending of the wire. When the system ie has settled down to steady oscillations, the time for 10 oscillations is found for any one bar and IF S hence the period (' T, ) calculated, a P (ii) To find n, the rigidity modulus: Fig. 20 One of the bars is clamped horizontally and the other is suspended from it by the short wire. The free bar is that the system makes torsional oscillations about the wire. The time for 10 oscillations and hence the Period (7;) are found,33 The wire is screwed out and its length (/) and radius (7) are and their mean values calculated. Calculaltion Mass of firt bar = Mass ofsecond bar = Men = __ Length of | bar = Lengthofllbar = = MeanL = Breadthoflbar = = Breadth of II bar = MeanB = Hence, ie * Moment of inertia ofeach bar J= M (ASF) Time for 10 oscillations under bending couple } = " Hence, period (7,) Time for 10 oscillations under torsional couple | Hence period (7,) = Length of wire (/) Mean radius of wire (7) * If the bar were circular, of length Land radius R. moment of inertia. [= M te +B) knowing the moemnt of inertia and the periods, one can calculate E,n ando using the formula:34 : __8nl_ (newton / m ) The Young’s modulus E= T? Y ie (newton /m*) Therigidity modulus" ~ 7 e and Poisson's ratio o= 77 T, 2 o= 2 of? Derivation of formula E,n and & The ends A and C of the two bars respectively are pulled symmetrically inwards through small equal distances so that the wire gets bent into a circular arc of radius R, as shown in Fig.22 and then released. xX X EZZZAEZZAZZZZZAPZZZZAY35 Due to the torque exerted by the wire, the two bars are thus set into oscillation in a horizontal plane about their respective suspension threads, with the wire forming an arc first facing one side and then the other, the mid - points of the bars remaining practically at rest. The bending moment atall transverse sections of the wire is constant. If L be the length of the wire and 0, the angle through which each bar has been pulled in from its initial position , clearly, angle subtended by the circular arc at its centre @= 20 , and we have L = R.20 R=L/20 E(AK),_“ te Now, bending moment of the wire = on E where (AK?) is the geometrical moment of IL ineria of the cross- section 4 of the wire, equal toy” (r being the iF radius of the wire ). G p Substituting the values of 4#’ and R., we have Fig23 ; -_Enr‘. 20 Bending moment = = This is equal to the restoring couple acting on each bar. The restoring - couple=JA, where A = dw /dt is the angular acceleration produced in each bar and I, its moment of inertia about the axis through its mid - point and perpendicular to its length , i.e., about its supension thread. [ where E ar*/2L= o°] Angular acceleration « angular displacement.7) Each bar thus executes a simple harmonic motion ofa time - Petiod given by . a T= a where @ {Eaae! 2L 36 = —2E_ = on VBL Sul] eer, T? The suspended bar is then and released. It executes time - period given by T, =2nVI/C where C is the torsional couple per unit twist of the Wire, 1 ., tured a little in its own (ie., horizontal ) plane torsional oscillations about the wire » With its Ito mrt qual to or 7 mrt r= 42.2 2 mnr4 n =S@4L T24 We known that Poisson's ratio OS (¥/2n) 1, Subsituting for Yandn, we have 2 co are ~!rd RIVES IC TAUO OF UNE TOMS Hee ese Girders In all the cases of bending of beams the depression of the beam is proportional to 5 am since for a beam of rectangular Cros, ( section, 4A?= ba®/12 we have thus for a given load (Mg), the deprese, on it (s) is directly proportiona to ( length)’ and inversely proportiona, to breadth. (depth) and the value of b Young's modulus (£) for its material. For the depression (s) to be small fora given load (#7), the length or span ve of the girder should be small and its LLY breadth and depth large, as also the | Young’s modulus for its material, E. — We> GY NS Since in a supported or fixed beam, the middle portion gets depressed, its upper and lower halves, (above and T- Section girder below the neutral surface) get Fig. 37 compressed and_ extended respectively. These compresions and extencions, and hence the corresponding stresses, are the maximum! the upper and the lower surface and progressively decrease to zero as _we approach the neutral surface from either face. Obviously, the upper and the lower surfaces of the beam must be stronger than the intervening part. That is why the two surface portions of a girder or iron rails ( for railway tracks etc.) are made much broader than the rest of it, thus giving its cross- section the shape of the letter I. The horizontal elements of the ‘I’ are known as flanges, while the vertical element is termed as ‘ web’. I - beams are usually made of structural steel and are used in construction and civil engineering. The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment experieneed by the beam. This naturally gives a good deal of saving in the material of the girder, without appreciably impairing its strength.37 Example 1. A metal disc 0.1 metre radius and mass 1 kg is suspended in a horizontal plane by a vertical wire attached to its centre. If the diameter of the wire is 1x 10° metre, its length 1 metre and it takes 40 seconds for 10 oscillations, find the rigidity modulus of the wire. mass M = lkg period T at =4 sec. radius R= 0.1m radius of wire a=0.5 x 10° m Moment of inertia of the disc J= MR2/2 Length of wire /= 1m nls 1s 00% 0.1 = 0.005 kg-m? Rigidity modulus n = Beli __8x3.14x 0.005x1_ aE ~ 05x05x05x05x 16X02) 12.56 x 10!° pascal 2. A metallic wire of length 1 metre and diameter 0.001 metre is twisted through 0.4 radian by applying a torque 0.004 newton metre. Calculate the corresponding modulus of elasticity of the material of wire. )= tna’ Couple per unit twist ( 2 Olec= 0.0004 N-n, 38 2x ex 2 0.004 x 2x1 _— ; Te 7 _ = 0.4 x 3.14 x (0.0005) 0 = 0.4 radian na ae 2 n= 10x10" pascal a= 0.0005 m he wire. l=Im mgives the rigidity modulus of tl ie rt 3. Calculate the twisting couple on a solid shaft Joe a the i" We n and diameter 120mm, when it is twisted through an angi 1.6. ani Rigidity modulus = 9.3 x 10!° N/m? : ee nna Twisting torque (couple) per unit twist = aL m : . TN ~. Twisting couple for 6 radian twist, ¢ = I 120 _ 60 mm = 60x 107. Here, 0=0.6° =0.6 x= radians; a = 180 2 8 = 1.5m. 3.14 x 9.3 x 10!°x (0.06)* . 0.6 x 3.14 2x15 18O ¢ =1,32x 10'N-m 4. os im work done in twisting a steel wire of radius x10" m and length 0.25 m through an ° Gi rigidity modulus n=8 x 10! N/m? : a = ae 6= 45 x 130 = 0.7854 radian c. ana! = X8x10"x(1x107)4 Oe 2x REO ae 0.5027 N-m Work done w= =T 2 CP => x 0.5027 x (0.7854) W= 0.1974 joule, W=0-1960739 5. A uniform circular disc is suspended by a steel wire and the pendulum is allowed to make torsional oscillations. The period is 4 sec (a) find the period if the length of the wire is reduced to half the previous value. (b) if two identical masses, each of mass equal to one - fourth the mass of the disc are placed on diameterially opposite points on the edge of the disc, find the new period. ora 2 (a) Period T= 2m VE Ts ae! 4 But C= Sma Ts set “Tol rT? I 1 ee eee ee ;h= rE i 2 1 + 2 2 T?= TH, = =f 23 220 2 . T,= V8 =2.83 sec. (b) The moment of inertia is changed due to the two masses placed on the disc. The new Ml.=P = ot +(M) w(M R ie; [= mae (144 3 yr? = MR Let the new period = i, =n VE Rear Also, T? «I T? 1 3/2) MR? _ 3 TT? I MR -(3)ne(n rie(3}s # since T, is given as 4 sec -. T, = 4.9 second is the new period. Hea 6. Tivo cylinders A and B of radii r and 2r respectively are Soldereg co-axially. The free end of A is now clamped and the Sree end of, 8 iy twisted through an angle. Calculate the twist at the junction, taking the materials of the two cylinders to be same and the lengths to be equal. Let 0” be the twist at the junction, on applying torsional couple c at the free end of the rod B. For the rod A, the twist is @° aes The torsional couple ¢ = oT 0 =) For the rod B, the twist is (@ — 9) The same torsional couple C= mn2r)'. @-0') (2) 2 ee Comparing equations (1)and (2) 47.0 = (2r)*, (8-6) = 16r*.@-6) -.6' = 16r4.@~9') 4 —— = 16 6-169! F 170 = 160 1600: H = “T7 isthe twist at the junction a Fig.2441 7. A gold wire 0.32 mm in diameter ¢, stretched by a force of 0.33 kgf and it twists through one radian, when a torsional couple of 145x {0-7 N-m is applied at ity ends. Find the Poisson's ratio of gold (g =9.8 m/s?) Elongation: 27 = 0,32 mm - longates by Imm, when r= 0.16mm =0.16 x 103m T=Imm =1x 103; Mg =0.33x 98N Twisting: = C =145x 197 N-m; 8=1 radian E= Mgl . Cu zn : 2LC mr? 21 “aA .E _ MgL nr? E On et “AEE o= Gy)! = Mar? _ 0.33x9.8 x (0.16 x10 =1427 41C 4x 1x 105x145 x 107 ~. Poisson’s ratio @ = LE) -1 =1.427-1 2n ie; = 0.427 8. A metal cube of side 0.1m is subjected to a shearing stress of 1x10° kgf, Calculate the rigidity modulus of the cube, if the top face is displaced 2x10 m with respect to the bottom. Tangential force F = 1 x 10° kgf = 1x10°x9.8N Surface area A=0.1 x 0.1 = 0.01m2 : ‘ = _ 98x 10° _ 8 2 “. Shearing stress = A= ao 9.8 x 10° N/m displacement / = 2x 10 heightofcube L=0.1m42 Fig25 3 : since 6 =t <. shearing strain @ = ae =2x10- oo — Shearing stress ©. Rigidity modulus n = heating ttaks 9.8 x 108 n= 2x10? n= 49x 10!N/m? 9. An iron wire of length 1 m and radius 0.5mm (i) elongate by 0.3 mm when stretched by a force of Skgf and (ii) twists through 0.4 radian when a torque of 3x 10-3 N-m is applied at its Sree end. Calculate the elastic constants for iron, Elongation ; Young’s modulus E =Mgl mr] 5x98 x1 5 : 5 mx (0.5 x 103) x03x103 > 19.53 x N/mRigidity modulus n: ¢ = CO mnt 2Le c= 6 n= : L rhe n= 2x1x3x 109 = Sse TX (0.5x 10)* x 0.4 ie., Rigiditymodulusn = 7.64 x 10!°N/m? 9.3) Now, Eat x el on ae er En peg = _19.53 x10"°x 7.64 x 1010 + 9n-3E (9x7.64 x10") —(3x19.53x10) *. Bulkmodulus K = 14.59 x10! N/m? = —s Finally, o = a 1 = {19.53 x10” |- 2x 7.64 x19) | = 0-277 10. A wire of 2 x 10°m diameter and length 2m is twisted through 900. Calculate the angle of she. ar (i) at the surface (ii) at the axis of the wire and (iii) at a point mid way between the axis and the surface. If the rigiditey modules is 5x10" P, what is the torisonal couple? Angle os shear @ = 28 (i) Atthe surface, x= radius = 1x10-m 3 0 9 = LAO x 90 as 192 (ii) Atthe axis. x=0 “ 8 =044 is and the surface (iii) At the point mid way between the axis x=00.5 x Ix10%m 9 = 5x 110?x 90 _ 99.5 x 10° ie 0 Torsional couple twisting through 90' ie; 0 = 90°= 2. ratio 344 radian Torsional couple = C@ smth 0 21 = 3.14x 5x 10 x(1 x 10°)4x 3.14 2x2 2 646 5X WO Nem > 6-16 A10 Alen Questions 1. Define stress, strain and explain Hooke’s law. 2. Define Young’s modulus, rigidity modulus and bulk modulus ofan elastic material. 3. The Young’s modulus of steel is greater than that of brass. Which would stretch more easily? Which is stiffer? 4. When a flat spiral Spring is Stretched, what is the type of strain undergone by the wire? Explain, 5. Derive an expression for wor strain and in linear strain, 6. Explain torsional couple. rk done per unit volume in shearing of a solid cylinder and hollow cylinder, 8. Explain why the twi ing couple per unit twist is Sreater for a hollow cylinder having the same mass and length.45 9. Derive an expression for the period of torsion pendulum. 10. Explain how you would determine the rigidity modulus of a wire and moment of inertia of a disc using torsional pendulum. Derive the formula used. 11, Obtain the relation connecting elastic moduli E, n and Kofa material. 12. Define Poisson’s ratio. Derive the relation connecting Poisson’s ratio and elastic moduli. 13. Describe experimental determination of Poisson’s ratio of rubber. 14. Obtain the theoretical limiting values of Poisson’s ratio. 15. Caluculate the work done in twisting a solid rod through 6 radian. 16. Describe, with theory, Searle’s method of. finding E,n and o ofa wire. Problems 1. Asteel wire 4m long and of diameter Smm is stretched bya load of 5kg. Find the elongation of the wire, if "Young’s modulus is E=2.4x 10"! pascal. (Ans : 4.16x 10m) 2. Calculate the Young’s modulus ofa wire, Im, long and 3mm. thick which increases by Imm, when pulled with a force 6.41 kgf. (Ans: 0.8 x 10'° pascal) 3. The diameter of a brass rod is 6mm. What force would stretch it through 0.2% of its original length? (E=9 x 10'° pascal) (Ans : 5.09 x 103 N) 4. If lkg. wt, stretches a wire of lmm diameter through 0.5mm., how far a wire of the same length and material but of twice the diameter be stretched by 8kg weight? (Ans :1mm) 5. The volume of oil contained in a certain hydraulic press is 1m? Find the decrease in volume of oil when subjected to a pressure of 3x10 Pascal. The compressibility of the oil is 0.5 x 10-°°N-!m? (Ans : 1.5x 10-5 m?)46 6. wire is] mm. Two equal masses, each of 100 gm, are symmetrical A solid ball 3x 10°? m in diameter is submerged in alake at such depth that the pressure exerted by water is 1 «404 kg—wt/m?, fing the change in the volume of the ball, if its bulk modulus is | x 10 (Ans: 1.386 x 10m’) pascal. Calculate the value of Poisson’s ratio of a material, whose Young’, modulus is double the value of its rigidity modulus. (Ans. g = 0) A solid cylinder of diameter 0.04 m, weighing 0.2kg is rigidly connected with its axis vertical to the lower end ofa fine wire whose upper end is clamped . The period of oscillation of the cylinder under the influence of torsion of the wire is 2 sec. Calculate the torsional couple necessary to twist is through 4 complete tums. (Hint : angle ist= ian: To M(22 =) of twist = 4 x 27 radian: rem{§ + (Ans : 9.904 x 10N-m) The modulus of rigidity and poisson’s ratio of the material of a wire are 3.2 x 10!°N/m?and 0.33 respectively, Find the value of young’s modulus of the material of the wire. Calculate the work done in twisting a steel wire of length 0.25 m and of radius 10~? m through an angle of 45°. Rigidity modulus of the steel is 8 x10!° N/m? A wire of length 3m and cross section 10% m?is fixed at one end and a weight of Ikg is attached at the other end. If Young’s modulus E = 12.5 x 10'°N/m? and poisson’s ratio o = 0.25 what lateral compression is produced ? The length of a Torsional pendulum is 1m and the diameter ei ly placed on the disc on either side of the wire at distance 3cm. from the centre. The period of oscillation is 3 sec. When the distance iS od of oscillation is found to be 3.5 5° changed to 6 cm the peri jodulus of the material of the wire. Calculate the rigidity m (Ans: 0.66 x10" pa)47 Objective type questions Elasticity 1. The dimensions of ‘stress’ on a body are (a) ML" T? (b) MLT? (c)M?* LT? = (d) ML? T? 2. The dimensions of modulus of elasticity are (a) ML! TT? (b) MELT? (@) MT?) ML? 3. A flat spiral spring is stretched along the length of the spiral. The type of strain undergone by it is (a)tensile strain (b) shearing strain (c) bulk strain (d) lateral contraction 4. The period of oscillation ofa torsion pendulum is directly propor- tional to (a) the square of its length (b) the fourth power of radius of suspension wire (c) square root of moment of inertia (d) acceleration due to gravity at the place 5. Hollow rods are used in constructing cycle frames because (a) heat conduction is more with them (b) air flow is necessary to reduce friction (c) solid rods are most costly (d) cost efficiency is more with them than solid rods The limits of Poisson’s ratio of a material are (a) 0.5 and -1 (b)-0.5and1 (c) 1.5 and 0.5 (d)-1.5 and 0 In twisting a wire, the work done to twist (1/2) C6. The work done is equal to (a) the kinetic energy of the twisted wire through 6 radian is48 (b) the potential energy of the twisted wire (c) heat produced in the wire (d) the product of force and distance 8. Considering depression (s) at the loaded end of a Cantilever, the depression at half the length of the same cantilever is (a)2s (b)s/2 (o)s/4 (d)s/8 9. Asteal wire of Young's modulus £ and radius rris bent to form, circle of radius R. The maximum stress on the wire will be (a) Ez r?/R — (b)Er/R ()E.2ar/R (d)2Er/p 10. Sensitive mirror galvanometers make use of quartz as Suspension wire because (a) its couple per unit twist is large (b) its couple per unit twist is small (c) itis not affected by external fields (d) its Young’s modulus is of small value 11. The period of oscillation of a torsion pendulum is independent of (a) its mass (b) rigidity modulus of the wire (c) acceleration due to gravity at the place (d) the dimensions of the oscillating body 12. The depression at the centreofa given beam supported on two knife edges and loaded in the middle (a) varies directly as squareoft he distance between the two knife edges (b) varies directly as cube of the distance between the two knife edges (c) varies inversely as square of the distance between the two knife edges. (d) varies inversely as cube of the distance between the two knifé edges when the other variables remain same,49 13. The unit of Young’s modulus in MKS system is (a) newton - metre (b) newton / metre (c) newton - metre” (c) newton / metre? 14. Young's modulus ( E’), modulus of rigidity (n) and Poisson’s ratio (6) are related as 2i 2E @ E= 7 ) 6 =; (d) 2E = n(i +o) 15. Ifthe length of a cantilver is doubled, the depression at the loaded end is (a) doubled (c) eight times increased © # =20+6) (b) quadrupled (d) sixteen times increased. 16. The ratio of lateral stress to logitudinal strain ofa material is known as (a) Youngs modulus (b) rigidity modulus (c) bulk modulus (d) Poission’s ratio Answer 1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. @) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8 @ 9. (b) 10. (by ll. () 12. () 13. (d) 14. @) 15. (c) 16. (d)2. Bending of Beams fi - section whose circular cross- SCC” j frectangular or cir radius, is called i a ‘ - compared to its ened fa large number of lng Bier mnay be considered to be ie a ia ae ry i ich are thin plane layers of the material whi dand if itis loaded, Wienabeam aca Le i . of the oter side at the other end, it undergoes bending. The lay : ‘ layers of the inner (convexside) are lengthened and are in TT rae there ig side (concave side) are shortened and compre: hortended Such a a layer of surface which is neither elongated nor sho! iat surface is called neutral surface. The line of intersection o} fo ane of bending with the neutral surface (both are perpendicular to each other) is called the neutral axis. A beam is bent by fixing one end and loading the free end. The applied force at the free end and the reaction force at the fixed end are equal and opposite. So,they form a couple and it is known as bending couple. Due to the elastic nature of the material, the tension in the upper layers and compression in the lower layers of the neutral surface produce a couple about the axis of bending. This couple is known as the restoring couple. In equilibrium position of the bar, the bending couple and the restoring couple are equal and Opposite. The moment of the restoring Couple about the axis of | bending is called the bending moment. Expression for bending moment Let us consider a small section ABCD of the bent beam in the plane of bending. Let O be the centre of curvature and R be the radius of curvature of the neutral axis. Let 0 be the angle subtended51 by the ends of the section at O, All layers above the neutral axis EF are elongated and all layers below it are shortened. Consider a layer GH at a distance Z form EF as in the figure. Now. EF = RO and GH=(R+z)0 ©. The change in the length of the layer = GH-EF = (R+z2)0 -RO=z0 the strain produced = change in length _ initial length iD z | ~ 8 ie; strain = 2 Let KLMN represent the cross- section, perpendicular to the length of the rod. PQlies on the neutral surface and it is perpendicular to the plan of bending. Let the breadth of the section be PQ = b and its depth is LM =d. The forces producing elongation and contraction in layers act perpendicular to the upper half (KLQP) and lower half (PQMN). Their directions are opposite to each other. dA is a small area of the section at a distance z from PQ. From eqn (1) the strain produced in a filament passing through this area = 7 Fig.27 Asthe strain is linear, the corresponding modulus of elasticity is the F we — Stress Young’s modulus, £. By definition, E = Tinear strain “, stress= E x linear strain£z [ ie; stress= "R _ Ez ~. Force acting on unit area 7 1A = "R* Force on the area 4 : cc Eza4 er ce about the line PQ is R z The moment of the force Zz FF a4 R : : th If portion also. The sum of the Similar moments act on the oe Be on moments in the section KLMNis = R =fy 2a4 -4 where J= 2 z?.d4 The quantity J is called the second moment of inertia or geometric moment of inertia of the sectional area about PQ. J= YA) 2 canbe expressed as J = AK? where A is the area of the section and K is the radius of gyration about the axis of bending PQ. The quantity #) gives the bending moment of the beam. Tk: bending moment is defined as the sum of the moments of all the restoringforces acting on various layers of the bent beam about a line. passing through the neutral surface and Perpendicular to the plane af bending. Thus, the bending moment = (AK?) Flexural rigidity If th i ie beam is of rectangular “rOSs-section area A = bd: K? gill » area A = bd: K?=53 Hence AK ? = bd */12, where b denotes the breadth and d the depth (thickness) of the beam. Ifthe beam is of circular cross section of radius r,A= ar; K?=r/4 and hence AK 2= nr4/4. If the beam is a hollow cylinder of inner radius 7, and outer radius r, the value of AK? is given by AK?=(r4,- 4/2 The qunantity E(AK?) is known as the flexural rigidity of the beam. It is defined as the external bending moment required to bend the beam into an arc of unit radius of curvature. Uniform bending A bar which is clamped horizontally at one end and bend under the action ofa load applied at the other end is known as a cantilever. The radius of curvature of bending of the cantilever is not the same at all points along the length of the bar. It is proportional to the distance of the point from the loaded end. Hence the bending of the cantilever is said to the non- uniform. A bar placed symmetrically over to knife edges and loaded at the middle shows depression at the middle. In this case also, the bending of ‘the bar is non-uniform. A pitching ship, supported by two wave crests of sea water and acted upon by its own weight at the middle, is an example of abody subjected to non- uniform bending. On the other hand, consideer a bar symmetrically placed over two knife edges separated by a distance. Let it be loaded symmetrically with equal weights beyond the knife edges. The radius of curvature of the bent bar is the same at all points along the length of the bar. Such a bending is known as uniform bending. By finding the elevation at the middle of the uniformly bent bar, it is possible to determine the Young’s modulus of the material of the bar.54 the materi; young’s modulus of t ial of, Experiment to determine sing microscope bar by uniform bending method Fig. 28 The arrangement of apparatus is as shwon in the diagram. AB ig a rectangular bar placed symmetrically over two knife edges P and Qit is loaded symmetrically with equal weights (Mg) and (Mg) beyond the knife edges at D and E respectively. A pin is fixed at the middle of the bar, C.A microscope is arranged horizontally to get a clear image of the tip of the pin. Keeping dead-load on both the Weight han; i i. , igers, the microscope is adjusted to get the image of the tip of the pin i 3 the at . The reading is taken, Similar i! ee ‘cally; , teadings are taken by loading the bat htioraed in steps of 0.2 kg. Similar reading are taken wil ing gradually in ste microscope readings is ley PSOf0.2 kg, For each load the meanof Fr . : bar for a particular load (Ms 06 wn fens the elevation of the| 55 | 4K?= bd?/12. [ifthe bar is of circular cross-section (cylindrical rod) of radius r, AK? = nr 4/4], The Young’s modulus of the material of the bar 2 is calculated using the formula E= _Mglia_ 8h (AK *) ee Fig. 29 The readings are tabulated as shown below: L=.....m, a] 2m Load Microscope reading Elevation [/] (M8) | loading unloading mean aes w wigd gm Wrio gr | ae toe? Mean h =... The experiment may also be repeated for different lengths L between the knife edges applying the same external torque (Mga). In each case, the elevation hcan be measured. It is seen that the quantity (L?/h isa constant. using this constant, the young’s modulus E of the material of x) a the bar can be calculated using the formula E = Mga 8(AK)56 for different values of the : ated The experiment may be repe of the Young’s modulus Fig lue external torque (Mga) and the mean val found out. th Theory of uniform bending - Expression for elevation at the middle in uniform bending : Consider a bar placed symmetrically over two knife edges Pand Qas in the above experimental set up. Let the bar be bent uniformly by loading it symmetrically with equal weights. (Mg and Mg) beyond the knife edges at distance a. The reactions of the knife edges at P and Q and Mg and Mg upwards. The forces at D and P form a couple whose torque is Mga. i.e; the external torque applied to bend the bar = Mga The internal bending moment of the bent bar = EAR) where R is the radius of curvature of the bar. In equilibrium condition of the bent bar, external torque = internal bending moment = E(AK*) al eye (1) Fora given external torque, LHS is Constant. Again the quantities E and (AK?) are constant on the RHS, hence the radius of curvature R is also constant. This shows that the bending of the bar is uniform The radius of curvature R of the bar can be expressed in terms57 From the property of segment of a circle we have. PF x FQ = CFx FG fx SF ener-n Fe Rh-# Since #7 is very small compared with 2Rh, it : can be neglected Fig30 os = @ = ohh oo 4 Putting this value of R in equation (1) Mga = ECAR?) 8h LE — Mga 8h (AK?) Knowing the elevation h from the experiment, the only unknown quantity Ecan be calculated. This gives the Young’s modulus of the material of the bar. Examples 1. Calculate Young's modulus of the material of a wire of length 3.5 mand diameter 0.3 mm, when the elongation is 2 mm, under a tension of 0.75kg. Young’s modulus E = Mel. mrta M =0.75 hy 0.75 x 9.8 x 3.5 & = 98me2 Fo QO XXL = 3.5 _ nx (OQ. r =0.15x195 x 10!! pascal 3, = 1.82x 1 = 2x 105, E =? 2. Calculate the load that must be suspended from uel ine mm, in diameter to produce an elongation of 0.02% of ginal lengy (E =2 x 10"'pascal ) M =? diameter = 1x10% a “ee r =0.5x103q T= 0.02 xl M = ExKrl 100 el E=2x10"Pa =2x10"x 3.14 x 0.5 x 103) x 0.02 x Z 9.8xLx 100 = 3.204 kg.wt 3. Asteel wire of I mm radius is bent to orm a circle of radius 10 cm. What is the bending moment and the maximum stress? (E of steel= 20 Gpa) 5 Bending moment = 20K) r =1x10°m a R =10x107m =2%10"'« 3.14% (1, 10-34 °Pa 410x192 — E 2 = 1.57N-m (AK2) = 239 : Ez Er _ 2x10"'x103 .. Maximum stress ro = "10x 107 =2x 10'Pa 4. A beam of width 2cm. and thickness 3mm. supported horizontally on knife edges 0.8m apart is loaded with weights 10 x10° kg. from its ends, which projects 0.15 m beyond the knife edge. If the centre of the beam is thereby elevated by 2mm, calculate the Young's modulus of the beam -2 -3)3 oo (4K?) = = 2x10 — y b =2x 10m =45 x 19°! d =3x 10°m : L =0.8m 2, = ma M=10x107kg g =9.8ms7 - 2 — 10x10x 9.8 x (0.8)? x 0.15 a =0.15m 8x 2x 103x 4.5x 107! he item = 1.31 x 10 pascal Ex? 5. 4 cylindrical bar supported horizontally on two knife edges 0.4m apart projects by equal amauiis beyond the knife edges. The total length of the bar is 0.6m and its radius 4x10 m. When loads of Skg are suspended from each end, the centre raises by 4.8mm. Find the Young's modulus of the material of the bar. For the bar of circular cross-section 4 24 AK = 3 ~ S1dx Ax 10) = 200.96 x 10-2 2 Young’s modulus E = Mglta = 5x9.8 x (0.4)?x 0.1 8 84.8 x 10x 200.96 x 10-2 = 10.16 x 10! pa60 i tillever Non-uniform bending - Can! ‘ at one one end ang 7 rizontally ' i ich is clamped hot nd isknownasacantie,. A bar which is clamp he other €! 5 der the action ofa load applied aut of the cantilever is not the 5 7h : dius of curvature of ‘slaty itis proportional tothe ne radius fthe : J a ny, AN ex] determi ‘¢ modulus ofa bar by uniform oe ox 7. Whatisa cantilever ? {yy : tive an . loaded end ofa cantilever, “xPression for depression at the77 Describe, with relevant theory, an experiment to determine Young’s modulus of a bar by cantilever depression method. Derive an expression for depression at the middle of a bar, subjected to non-uniform bending. Describe an experiment to determine Young’s modulus of a bar by non-uniform bending method. . Derive anexpresion for period and frequency of transverse vibration ofa loaded cantilever. . Describe the experimental method of determining Young’s Modulus of the material ofa bar by cantilever oscilation method. . Explain why ginders are made of I-form.3. Fluig, Molecular forces 7 inacapilry ne wat = =xperiments like rise 0 rests mutual ae nat rain = amo ophercal shape show that there © betwee, i s molecules, Such forces are known — Neri os ac ha “arise due to non uni! i.e, molecules ‘ is is unlike coul interact only with the closest neighbours. (This md force F which is F © which is a long range force) The greatest distance within which molecules Can attract cach other is known asmiolecularrange. A sphere drawn witha molecule 8 centre and molecular range as radius, is known as ‘sphere of influence’, A molecule attracts and is attracted by all the molecules, lying within the sphere of influence, while for the molecules outside the sphere of influence the attraction will be inappriciable (negligibly small). Molecular force between molecules of the same substance are called cohesive force and the force between molecules of different substances is known as adhesive force, Molecular inerpretation and definition of surface tension Fig. 40n Consider a given mass of liquid taken ina beaker. The liquid is formed of molecules. The molecules are within the body of the liquid as well ason the surface of the liquid, Taking a molecule within the liquid, it is subjected to cohesive force of attraction in all directions. So the net pull on it is zero. On the other hand, if we consider a molecule on the free surface of the liquid, it is subjected to a net down-ward pull, though there ishorizontal force between this molecule and nearby molecules on the surface. Hence, due to the presence of the net down- ward pull, and the force of cohesion between the more-widely spaced molecules on the surface, a tangential force exists on the surface of the liquid. This tan- gential force tends to contract the area of the surface of the liquid. This tangential force tends to contract the area of the surface to the minimum. Hence the free surface of a liquid is always in a state of tension and it behaves like a stretched elastic membrane. The tangential force acting per unit length on the free surface of a liquid tending to contract the area of the surface to the minimum, is known as the surface tension («) of the liquid. It is expressed in newton per meter (Nm ~). Surface tension (a) = Tangential force length The dimension of force = [M] [L] [T*] The dimension of length = [L] The dimensions of surface tension = [MLT?/L] = [MT~] Ifo,and a, are the surface tensions of two liquids separately, their interficial surface tension (o,,)when they are in equilibrium is given by 0-9, IMlustrations to the phenomenon of surface tension(Examples) 1, When a shaving brush is dipped in water, the hairs of the brush spread in all directions inside water. When the brush is taken out, the hairs cling together. this is due to the formation of a water film be> tween adjacent hairs. The surface of the film contracts to keep Mining, area. Hence the hairs cling together. 80 Sir 2. When a small amount of water is sprayed in space, Smay OV Water droplets are formed. The droplets are spherical in shape, Thisiy due to surface tension on the surface of the drop, contrcting the Afeage = ro the surface to the minimum. It is the sphere which has the minimyy ar Surface area, fora given mass of liquid, than any other shape. Hence th, r droplets are spherical in shape. This principle is used in the Manufactur, th of lead shots. n 3. When a capillary tube is dipped in water, there is rise of a ‘ water inside the tube. The capillary rise is due to surface tension of wa. ter. The force of adhesion between glass and water molecules is greater than force of cohesion among the water molecules and so it Pulls the water upward around the edge. Similarly. when a capillary tube is dipped in mercury. the level of mercury depresses inside the tube. The cohesive force between mer- cury molecules is stronger than the adhesive force between glass and mercury molecules. The result is that the cohesive force pulls the mer- cury down around the rim. 4. The absorption of ink by a blotting paper, the rise of oil inthe wick ofa lamp, the floating of a greased needle on water, the walkingof some insects on the surface ofa pond are due to surface tension, show- ing that a free liquid surface behaves as a stretched membrane. 5. A drop of oil, thrown on water surface, spreads on the sur face. The surface tension of oil is less than that of water. So the bound- ary of two liquids on the surface is sujected to unbalanced surface ten sional forces and hence the spread. 6. During soldering a flux is used with the solder. The purpose using a flux (resin) with soldering lead is to assist spreading of the solder readily over the metal to be soldered, due to its small surface tension.81 Similarly detergent solution, due to its small surface tension, spreads readily over the fabric to remove the dirt, held by grease. 7, When a glass rod is dipped in water and taken out, the glass rod is found to be wet. This is because the adhesive force between water and glass molecules is greater than the cohesive force between water molecules. On the other hand when the glass rod is dipped in mercury, the rod is not wet. In this case, the cohesive force between mercury molecules is greater than the adhesive force between glass molecules and mercury molecules. Surface energy Let us consider a soap bubble that is blown at the nozzle ofa fine tube. The bubble is spherical in shape. To increase the surface area of the bubble against surface tensional force, we have to do work, by blowing more air into it. The work done is stored as the surface (poten- tial) energy on the surface of the bubble under isothermal conditions. The fi Sonne pocag work done per unit area in incresing the surface area ofa liquid is equal to the surface tension of the liquid. i.e., surface tension _ work done increase in area of surface In the light of this definition, surface tension in also expressed in joule permetre?, (Jm~). When the work done is completely used to increase the surface energy, we write the above equation as increase of surface energy ion= ~, Surface Tens increase of surface area ”. Increase of surface energy = increase of surface area x surface tension.