GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY

K D W Nandalal
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Peradeniya
Peradeniya
 Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1-1

1.1 Uses of Groundwater .............................................................................................. 1-2
1.2 Advantages of Groundwater ................................................................................... 1-2
1.3 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle .................................................................... 1-3

2 AQUIFERS ...................................................................................................................... 2-1

2.1 Types of Aquifers ................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.1 Unconfined Aquifer .................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Confined Aquifers ....................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Porosity ................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.3 Permeability ............................................................................................................ 2-4
2.4 Specific Yield and Specific Retention .................................................................... 2-5

3 GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT .................................................................................. 3-1

3.1 Heads and Gradients ............................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Darcy's Law ............................................................................................................ 3-3
3.2.1 Darcy velocity ............................................................................................. 3-5
3.2.2 Validity of Darcy's Law .............................................................................. 3-5
3.3 Permeability ............................................................................................................ 3-5
3.3.1 Intrinsic permeability .................................................................................. 3-5
3.3.2 Transmissivity ............................................................................................. 3-6
3.4 Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of Hydraulic Conductivity ..................................... 3-6
3.4.1 Homogeneity and Heterogeneity ................................................................ 3-6
3.4.2 Isotropy and Anisotropy ............................................................................. 3-7
3.5 Stratified Medium ................................................................................................... 3-7
3.5.1 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity, when the flow is parallel to
the layers. .................................................................................................... 3-8
3.5.2 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity when the flow is normal to
the layers ..................................................................................................... 3-9
3.6 General Flow Equation ......................................................................................... 3-10

4 GROUNDWATER HYDRAULICS ............................................................................... 4-1

4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow .................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.1 Confined Aquifer ........................................................................................ 4-1
4.1.2 Unconfined Aquifer .................................................................................... 4-2
4.1.3 Base Flow to a Stream ................................................................................ 4-4
4.2 Steady Radial Flow to a Well ................................................................................. 4-6
4.2.1 Confined Aquifer ........................................................................................ 4-6
4.2.2 Unconfined Aquifer .................................................................................... 4-7
4.2.3 Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge ........................................... 4-10
4.3 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries .................................................................... 4-11
4.3.1 Well Near a Stream ................................................................................... 4-11
4.3.2 Well Near an Impermeable Boundary ...................................................... 4-13
4.3.3 Multiple Boundary Systems ...................................................................... 4-13
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of the hydrologic cycle 1-3

Figure 2.1 Unconfined and perched aquifers 2-1
Figure 2.2 A Confined Aquifer 2-2
Figure 2.3 Definition of porosity 2-3
Figure 2.4 Porosity in unconsolidated sediments varies with the degree of sorting and with
the shape of the grains 2-3
Figure 2.5 Porosity in consolidated rocks 2-4
Figure 2.6 Relationship between porosity, specific yield, specific retention and grain size 2-5
Figure 2.7 Specific yield and specific retention 2-6
Figure 3.1 Head and gradient 3-2
Figure 3.2 Calculation of gradient 3-3
Figure 3.3 Pressure distribution and head loss in flow through a sand column 3-4
Figure 3.4 A stratified formation 3-7
Figure 3.5 Possible combinations of heterogeneity and anisotrophy in 2 D plane 3-7
Figure 3.6 Flow parallel to strata 3-8
Figure 3.7 Flow normal to strata 3-9
Figure 3.8 Principle directions 3-10
Figure 3.9 Flow through a control volume 3-10
Figure 4.1 Steady unidirectional flow in a confined aquifer of uniform thickness 4-1
Figure 4.2 Dupuit assumptions 4-2
Figure 4.3 Steady flow in an unconfined aquifer 4-3
Figure 4.4 Steady flow in an unconfined aquifer between two water bodies with
vertical boundaries 4-4
Figure 4.5 Steady flow to two parallel streams from a uniformly recharged
unconfined aquifer 4-4
Figure 4.6 Steady radial flow to a well penetrating a confined aquifer on an island 4-6
Figure 4.7 Radial flow to a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer 4-7
Figure 4.8 Radial flow to a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer 4-8
Figure 4.9 Steady flow to a well penetrating a uniformly recharged unconfined aquifer 4-10
Figure 4.10 Well near a stream 4-12
Figure 4.11 Well near an impermeable boundary 4-13

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Freshwater of the hydrosphere and its rate of exchange 1-1
Table 2.1 List of porosities and hydraulic conductivities for unconsolidated
sediments and rocks 2-5
Table 3.1 Values of Coefficient of Permeability 3-6
Chapter 1 Introduction

1 INTRODUCTION

Ground-water hydrology is the subdivision of the science of hydrology that deals with the
occurrence, movement, and quality of water beneath the Earth's surface. It is interdisciplinary
in scope in that it involves the application of the physical, biological, and mathematical
sciences. It is also a science whose successful application is of critical importance to the
welfare of mankind. Because ground-water hydrology deals with the occurrence and
movement of water in an almost infinitely complex subsurface environment, it is, in its most
advanced state, one of the most complex of the sciences. On the other hand, many of its basic
principles and methods can be understood readily by nonhydrologists and used by them in the
solution of ground-water problems.

Most subsurface openings contain water, and the importance of this water to mankind can be
readily demonstrated by comparing its volume with the volumes of water in other parts of the
hydrosphere. The hydrosphere is the term used to refer to the waters of the Earth and, in its
broadest usage, includes all water, water vapor, and ice regardless of whether they occur
beneath, on, or above the Earth's surface. Most water, including that in the oceans and in the
deeper subsurface openings, contains relatively large concentrations of dissolved minerals
and is not readily usable for essential human needs. Table 1.1 contains estimates of the
freshwater in the hydrosphere. The largest volume of freshwater occurs as ice in glaciers.
About 14 percent of freshwater is ground water and that, if only water is considered, 94
percent is ground water. This vast water reserve, on which at least 1500 million people
depend for their drinking water supply, is stored in the pores that exist in materials such as
sand and gravel, and in the fractures that are found in rocks such as sandstone and limestone.

Table 1.1 Freshwater of the hydrosphere and its rate of exchange

Volume of Share in total Rate of water
Parts of the hydrosphere freshwater volume of exchange (yr)
(km3) freshwater (%)
Ice caps and glaciers 24000000 84.945 8000
Groundwater 4000000 14.158 280
Lakes and reservoirs 155000 0.549 7
Soil moisture 83000 0.294 1
Vapour in the 14000 0.049 0.027
atmosphere
River water 1200 0.004 0.031
Total 28253200 100.000

Ground-water hydrology, deals not only with the occurrence of underground water but also
with its movement. The movement of most ground water is exceedingly slow as indicated in
Table 1.1. It is important to note that the rate of exchange of 280 years for fresh ground water
is about 1/9,000 the rate of exchange of water in rivers.

Subsurface openings large enough to yield water in a usable quantity to wells and springs
underlie nearly every place on the land surface and thus make ground water one of the most
widely available natural resources. When this fact and the fact that ground water also
represents the largest reservoir of freshwater readily available to man are considered together,

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Chapter 1 Introduction

it is obvious that the value of ground water, in terms of both economics and human welfare,
is incalculable. Consequently, its sound development, diligent conservation, and consistent
protection from pollution are important concerns of everyone. These concerns can be
translated into effective action only by increasing our knowledge of the basic aspects of
ground-water hydrology.

1.1 Uses of Groundwater

Groundwater is used extensively by human populations on all continents. While many early
populations settled by sources of water such as rivers and lakes, many others based their
settlements on the existence of a spring or a well.

No authoritative estimates exist of the percentage of world water use that depends on
groundwater. About one-third of Asia's population, some 1000-1200 million people, are
thought depend on groundwater. Some countries like Denmark, the Netherlands, depend
almost entirely on groundwater. More than one-third of water use in France and the United
Kingdom is supplied from aquifers and the United States is 50 percent dependent on
groundwater.

1.2 Advantages of Groundwater

Groundwater has numerous advantages over surface water sources. First, its supplies are not
subject to abrupt change because of abnormal weather. Whereas in some countries, an
exceptionally hot and dry summer is sufficient to reduce surface reservoirs to dangerously
low levels, groundwater supplies will be little affected by one dry summer.

Secondly, as has been mentioned, groundwater is cheap to develop. This is partly because, if
it is unpolluted, it requires little or no treatment before use and partly because it can be
developed stage by stage. Whereas the development of surface reservoirs involves the
construction of large and costly dams and reservoirs, groundwater can be developed as and
when needed through the addition of boreholes and wells.

Thirdly, groundwater can often be tapped near to where it is needed while surface water must
either be developed at the sites of natural dams or reservoirs, or piped considerable distances
to where it will eventually be used.

However, groundwater is not just an alternative to the use of surface water. In many areas,
groundwater makes the use of surface water sources possible during dry seasons.
Groundwater provides the base flow to many of the world's rivers, and this flow continues
throughout the year, regardless of weather conditions. Many of the world's rivers would dry
up in hot and dry summers were they not fed by groundwater.

Finally, groundwater resources are also strategic resources in that they are often unaffected
by catastrophic events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption and war. While catastrophes of
this kind can have long-lasting and serious consequences for surface water supplies,
groundwater is rarely affected.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.3 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle

Groundwater is water that accumulates underground. There is a lot of it. Excluding the water
locked in the polar ice caps, groundwater constitutes some 94 percent of all the freshwater
that is potentially available for human use on or beneath the Earth's surface. The remainder is
stored in lakes, rivers and swamps.

Groundwater reserves are recharged for the most part by rain that infiltrates through the soil
into the underlying layers. These reserves are occasionally augmented by streams and rivers
that lose water to the underground strata. Once underground, the water flows at rates ranging
from more than 10 meters a day to as little as 1 meter a year, until it reaches an outlet. This
may take the form of a spring or of a system of slow seepages at the ground surface. These
seepages keep rivers flowing during dry periods.

Time scales of groundwater flow are long. It may take years or even decades for water to find
its way down through the soil to reach the water table, the level at which the ground is fully
saturated. Once there, the water may remain underground for tens or even thousands of years
before it reappears at the surface.

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of the hydrologic cycle

Sub-surface water: All water occurring naturally below earth's surface (both saturated and
unsaturated).
Ground water: Water in saturated zone. i.e., below water table.

The two sources (surface water and ground water) of water are inter-related. The use of one
may affect the water available from the other source. Therefore, both surface water and
ground water problems should be considered together in plans for water resources

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Chapter 1 Introduction

development.

Zone of aeration: The soil pores contain both water and air (in varying amounts).
After a rain, water may move downward through this zone. Some water is dispersed through
the soil to be held by capillary forces in the smaller pores or by molecular attraction around
the soil particles. Water in the upper layers of this zone is known as soil moisture.

If the retention capacity of the soil in the zone of aeration is satisfied, water moves downward
into a region, where the pores of the soil or rock are filled with water. Water in this zone of
saturation is called ground water.

Above the zone of saturation is a capillary fringe in which the smaller soil pores contain
water lifted by capillary action from the zone of saturation.

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Chapter 2 Aquifers

2 AQUIFERS

The water-bearing material in which groundwater is stored and through which it flows is
called an aquifer. For a rock to be an aquifer, it must be sufficiently porous and permeable.

2.1 Types of Aquifers

Aquifers are classified into two categories, unconfined and confined, based on their
geological structure.

2.1.1 Unconfined Aquifer

These outcrop at the ground surface. The water table is the top of the zone of saturation in an
unconfined aquifer, and water normally has to be pumped to the surface except where the
water table actually intersects the surface of the ground and forms a spring (Figure 2.1).
Restricted layers of impermeable rocks such as shale sometimes occur locally in an aquifer,
and these may support small, unconfined, groundwater bodies perched the regional water
table and separated from it by a zone of aeration; the permeable rock above the impermeable
layer is called a perched aquifer.

Figure 2.1 Unconfined and perched aquifers

2.1.2 Confined Aquifers

These are separated from the ground surface by an impermeable layer (Figure 2.2) and are
generally at greater depths than unconfined aquifers. Pressures in confined aquifers may be
sufficient for the water in wells that penetrate the aquifer to discharge naturally at the surface
without pumping. Water in confined aquifers is called artesian water and a well that
penetrates a confined aquifer is called an artesian well. The height to which water will rise in
an artesian well is called the piezometric level and the piezometric surface is an imaginary
surface joining the piezometric levels for a confined aquifer. The piezometric surface is

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Chapter 2 Aquifers

usually curved, because the pressure required to overcome friction as the water flows through
the rocks results in a decrease in the pressure head. Even if the pressure head is insufficient
for water to rise to the surface, water in artesian wells usually rises above the top of the
aquifer at the point where the well lies.

Figure 2.2 A Confined Aquifer

For artesian pressure to be maintained, the water that is discharged from the well must be
replaced by water that infiltrates into the aquifer where it outcrops and is thus unconfined.
This area of outcrop is called the recharge area of the aquifer. Naturally-flowing artesian
springs occur where the piezometric surface intersects the ground surface.

2.2 Porosity

The amount of water that a rock can store depends on its porosity, which is the proportion of
the volume of the rock that consists of pores. In other words, the ratio of openings (voids) to
the total volume of a soil or rock is referred to as its porosity. Porosity is expressed either as a
decimal fraction or as a percentage.

Vt −Vs V v
n= = (2.1)
Vt Vt

Where, n is porosity as a decimal fraction, Vt is the total volume of a soil or rock sample, VS
is the volume of solids in the sample, and Vv is the volume of openings (voids).

Figure 2.3 shows the definition of porosity.

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Chapter 2 Aquifers

Figure 2.3 Definition of porosity

The principal factors that control porosity are grain size and shape, the degree of sorting, the
extent of chemical cementation and the amount of fracturing. Figure 2.4 illustrates how
porosity varies with the degree of sorting and with the grain shape in unconsolidated
sediments.

Figure 2.4 Porosity in unconsolidated sediments varies with the degree of sorting and with
the shape of the grains

Unconsolidated sediments with rounded grains of uniform size are the most porous.
Sediments decrease in porosity as the angularity of the grains increases because the grains
can pack more closely together, the bumps of some grains fitting into indentations in others
(e.g., Fig 2.4 (c) and (d)). There is also lower porosity if the sediment is poorly sorted,
because small grains can occupy the spaces between larger grains.

Consolidated sedimentary rocks, and igneous and metamorphic rocks are usually less porous
than unconsolidated sediments. The cement in consolidated sedimentary rocks occupies what
would otherwise be spaces between the grains, so sandstone, for example, will be less porous
than a sand with grains of similar size. Igneous and metamorphic rocks generally have very
low porosity, because crystals interlock in them. However, there are volcanic rocks that
contain gas bubbles (vesicles) and some of these have quite high porosities.

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Chapter 2 Aquifers

Figure 2.5 Porosity in consolidated rocks

The porosity of rocks may be increased by processes that occur after the rocks have formed.
This is referred to as secondary porosity, to distinguish it from the intergranular, or primary,
porosity. One type of secondary porosity is solution porosity, which develops where part of a
rock has been dissolved, leaving open spaces (Figure 2.5 (b)). This is common in limestone,
which is dissolved by acidic rainwater and groundwater, and immense caverns may be
formed by this process. Another type of secondary porosity is fracture porosity, caused by
cracks in rocks (Figure 2.5 (c)).

2.3 Permeability

It is important to distinguish clearly between porosity and permeability. Porosity is a measure

of how much water can be stored in a rock, whereas permeability measures the properties of a
rock, which determine how fast water can flow through it. Permeability depends on the extent
to which pores are interconnected.

For unconsolidated sediments, the coarser sands and gravels are more permeable than the
finer-grained silts and clays, even though they are less porous. There are two major reasons
for this: first, the smaller grain sizes in silt and clay result in a greater surface area of particles
relative to volume, so water tends to be held in the pores by surface tension: and second, the
platy and angular shape of clay particles means that they tend to interlock and isolate the
spaces between them, which further inhibits the movement of water through the sediment.

Usually, consolidated sedimentary rocks (and igneous and metamorphic rocks) are not very
permeable: but sometimes secondary permeability, caused by processes such as solution or
fracturing, increases the overall permeability. The higher hydraulic conductivities of some of
the consolidated sedimentary rocks and igneous and metamorphic rocks in Table 2.1 are in
the main due to secondary permeability caused by fracturing.

Table 2.1 gives the porosity and hydraulic conductivity of various rocks. As hydraulic
conductivity depends on permeability, the figures in the last column could be said to
represent relative permeabilities. However, hydraulic conductivities rather than permeabilities
are given in the table, because these can be used to calculate flow rates using Darcy's low.

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Chapter 2 Aquifers

Table 2.1 List of porosities and hydraulic conductivities for unconsolidated sediments and
rocks
Geological material Grain size (mm) Porosity (%) Hydraulic conductivity, K (m/d)
unconsolidated sediments
clay 0.0005 to 0.002 45 to 60 <10-2
silt 0.002 to 0.06 40 to 50 10-2 to 1
alluvial sands 0.06 to 2 30 to 40 1 to 500
alluvial gravels 2 to 64 25 to 35 500 to 10000
consolidated sedimentary rocks
shale small 5 to 15 5x10-8 to 5x10-6
sandstone medium 5 to 30 10-4 to 10 (secondary permeability)
limestone variable 0.1 to 30 (secondary porosity) 10-5 to 10 (secondary permeability)
igneous and metamorphic rocks
basalt small 0.001 to 1 (upto 50 if vesicular) 0.0003 to 3 (secondary permeability)
granite large 0.0001 to 1 (upto 10 if fractured) 0.0003 to 0.03 (secondary
slate small 0.001 to 1 permeability)
schist medium 0.001 to 1 10-8 to 10-5
10-7 to 10-4

2.4 Specific Yield and Specific Retention

Although the porosity of an aquifer is a measure of the amount of water stored within the
pores or fissures, it does not provide a direct measure of the amount of water that may be
recovered by pumping or drainage. This is because a proportion of the water is always
retained around the individual grains by surface tension, and this is known as specific
retention. The specific yield is the maximum amount of water that can be recovered, again
expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the rock. Figure 2.6 illustrates the
relationship between specific yield and porosity, which is expressed by the equation:

Figure 2.6 Relationship between porosity, specific yield, specific retention and grain size

All three terms in the equation are expressed as percentages of the total volume of the rock.
The specific retention decreases with increasing grain size in unconsolidated sediments. A
few large particles would have a smaller total surface area than many smaller particles
occupying the same volume, and a smaller surface area retains less water by surface tension.
This means that less water is retained in coarse-grained sediments. However, the specific
yield is greatest for medium-grained sediments (sands), rather than for coarse-grained
sediments, because the porosity decreases with increasing grain size. Figure 2.7 shows the
definition of the above terms.

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Chapter 2 Aquifers

Figure 2.7 Specific yield and specific retention

The exploitable storage of water in an aquifer is the volume of water it will yield:

Y
Expoitable storage = V × (2.2)
100

Where, V is the volume of the aquifer that is being exploited, and Y the specific yield.

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Chapter 3 Groundwater movement

3 GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT

Groundwater in its natural state is invariably moving. This movement is governed by

established hydraulic principles. The flow through aquifers, most of which are natural porous
media, can be expressed by Darcy's law.

3.1 Heads and Gradients

The depth to the water table has an important effect on use of the land surface and on the
development of water supplies from unconfined aquifers. Where the water table is at a
shallow depth, the land may become "waterlogged" during wet weather and unsuitable for
residential and many other uses. Where the water table is at great depth, the cost of
constructing wells and pumping water for domestic needs may be prohibitively expensive.

The direction of the slope of the water table is also important because it indicates the
direction of ground-water movement. The position and the slope of the water table (or of the
potentiometric surface of a confined aquifer) are determined by measuring the position of the
water level in wells from a fixed point (a measuring point) as shown in Figure 3.1. To utilize
these measurements to determine the slope of the water table, the position of the water table
at each well must be determined relative to a datum plane that is common to all the wells. If
the depth to water in a nonflowing well is subtracted from the altitude of the measuring point,
the result is the total head at the well. Total head, as defined in fluid mechanics, is composed
of elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head. Because ground water moves relatively
slowly, velocity head can be ignored. Therefore, the total head at an observation well
involves only two components: elevation head and pressure head. Ground water moves in the
direction of decreasing total head, which may or may not be in the direction of decreasing
pressure head.

The equation for total head is,

ht = z + hp (3.1)

Where, z is elevation head and is the distance from the datum plane to the point where the
pressure head hp is determined.

All other factors being constant, the rate of ground-water movement depends on the hydraulic
gradient. The hydraulic gradient is the change in head per unit of distance in a given
direction. If the direction is not specified, it is understood to be in the direction in which the
maximum rate of decrease in head occurs.

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Chapter 3 Groundwater movement

Figure 3.1 Head and gradient

If the movement of ground water is assumed to be in the plane of Figure 3.1 in other words, if
it moves from well 1 to well 2-the hydraulic gradient can be calculated from the information
given. The hydraulic gradient is hl/L, where hl is the head loss between wells 1 and 2 and L is
the horizontal distance between them, or

hl (100m − 5m) − (98m −18m) 85m − 80m 5m

= = =
L 780m 780m 780m

When the hydraulic gradient is expressed in consistent units, as it is in the above example in
which both the numerator and the denominator are in meters, any other consistent units of
length can be substituted without changing the value of the gradient. Thus, a gradient of
5 ft/780 ft is the same as a gradient of 5 m/780 m. It is also relatively common to express
hydraulic gradients in inconsistent units such as meters per kilometer or feet per mile.

Both the direction of ground-water movement and the hydraulic gradient can be determined if
the following data are available for three wells located in any triangular arrangement such as
that shown on Figure 3.2.

1. The relative geographic position of the wells.

2. The distance between the wells.
3. The total head at each well.

Steps in the solution are outlined below and illustrated in Figure 3.2.

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Chapter 3 Groundwater movement

Figure 3.2 Calculation of gradient

a. Identify the well that has the intermediate water level (that is, neither the highest head nor
the lowest head).
b. Calculate the position between the well having the highest head and the well having the

lowest head at which the head is the same as that in the intermediate well.
c. Draw a straight line between the intermediate well and the point identified in step b as being
between the well having the highest head and that having the lowest head. This line
represents a segment of the water-level contour along which the total head is the same as that
in the intermediate well.
d. Draw a line perpendicular to the water-level contour and through either the well with the
highest head or the well with the lowest head. This line parallels the direction of ground-
water movement.
e. Divide the difference between the head of the well and that of the contour by the distance
between the well and the contour. The answer is the hydraulic gradient.

3.2 Darcy's Law

Aquifers transmit water from recharge areas to discharge areas and thus function as porous
conduits (or pipelines filled with sand or other water-bearing material).

The flow rate through porous media is proportional to the head loss and inversely
proportional to the length of the flow path. (In 1856, by Henry Darcy, a French hydraulic
engineer). i.e.

ΔH
vα [ vα i ]
ΔL

Where, ΔH = head loss

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Chapter 3 Groundwater movement

ΔL = length of the flow path

i = ΔH/ΔL = hydraulic gradient

ΔH
v=K (3.2)
ΔL

Where, K = Hydraulic Conductivity or Coefficient of Permeability (m/day). It depends on the

size and arrangement of the water-transmitting openings (pores and fractures) and on the
dynamic characteristics of the fluid (water) such as kinematics viscosity, density.

Figure 3.3 Pressure distribution and head loss in flow through a sand column

Bernoulli Equation (Total energy heads or fluid potentials)

2 2
p1 v1 p v
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 + h L
γ 2g γ 2g

Velocities in porous media are usually low. Therefore, heads are neglected.

Therefore,
p1 p2
h L = ( + z1 ) - ( + z2 ) (3.3)
γ γ

[Head loss is independent of the inclination of the cylinder]

Darcy's Law,

Q = - K . A .hL (3.4)
L
In general terms,
dh
Q = - K .A.
dl
or

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Chapter 3 Groundwater movement

Q dh
v= =-K
A dl
Darcy's velocity or specific discharge.

Negative sign indicates that the flow of water is in the direction of decreasing head.

Because the quantity of water (Q is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient (dh/dl), we
say that ground-water flow is laminar-that is, water particles tend to follow discrete
streamlines and not to mix with particles in adjacent streamlines for different rocks.

3.2.1 Darcy velocity

The actual velocity varies from point to point through the medium. On the average the actual
velocity is given by;
Q Q v
vact = = = (3.5)
Aact nA n

Where, n = porosity of the medium [ vact > v ]

v = darcy velocity

3.2.2 Validity of Darcy's Law

Applicable to cases where Reynold's number is on the order of 1.

ρ vd
For Re.No. ( N R = ) 1 < 1 , Darcy's Law is applicable. (This is valid for most of the
μ
underground flow).
Deviations from Darcy's Law: Where steep hydraulic gradients exist (e.g., near pumped
wells)

Reynold's No. expresses dimensionless ratio of inertial to viscous forces and this
distinguishes between laminar and turbulent flow.

3.3 Permeability

3.3.1 Intrinsic permeability

The Hydraulic Conductivity, K is related to both the porous medium and the fluid properties.
The product, k = Cd2, (where, C is the constant shape factor; d is the mean grain diameter of
the particles) is called the specific or intrinsic permeability and it is a function of the medium
only.
Hydraulic Conductivity/ Coefficient of Permeability, K

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Chapter 3 Groundwater movement

kρg
K= (3.6)
μ

Where, μ = dynamic viscosity (kg/m/s)

k units darcy
1 darcy = 0.987x10-8 cm2

Some typical values of coefficient of permeability of some porous media are given in Table
3.1

Table 3.1 Values of Coefficient of Permeability

Material K (cm/s) K (darcy)
Clear gravel 1 – 100 103 - 105
Clean coarse sand 0.01 – 1.0 10 - 103
Fine sand 0.001 – 0.005 1 – 50
Silt 1x10-5 – 5x10-4 0.01 – 0.5
Clay < 10-6 < 10-3
Sand stone 10-6 – 10-3 10-3 – 1.0
Shale 10-10 10-7

3.3.2 Transmissivity

The capacity of an aquifer to transmit water of the prevailing kinematic viscosity is referred
to as its transmissivity. Transmissivity, T is the rate at which water is transmitted through a
unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient.

T = K .b (3.7)

where, K = Hydraulic Conductivity in m/day, and

b = Saturated thickness of the aquifer in m.

3.4 Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of Hydraulic Conductivity

3.4.1 Homogeneity and Heterogeneity

The hydraulic conductivity, K is independent of position within a geologic formation.

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In x,y,z coordinate system,

K(x,y,z) = constant; Homogeneous

K(x,y,z) ≠ constant; Heterogeneous

Figure 3.4 A stratified formation

3.4.2 Isotropy and Anisotropy

Hydraulic Conductivity, K is independent of the direction of measurement at a point in a

geologic formation.
Kx = Ky = Kz ; Isotropic
Kx = Ky = Kz ; Anisotropic

Figure 3.5 Possible combinations of heterogeneity and anisotrophy in 2 D plane

3.5 Stratified Medium

A soil mass with parallel soil layers of different hydraulic conductivity values can be
transferred into an equivalent soil with homogeneous anisotropic hydraulic conductivity
property.

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3.5.1 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity, when the flow is parallel to the layers.

Total flow,
n
Qx = Q1 + Q2 + ... + Qn-1 + Qn = ∑ Qi
i =1

Cross sectional area

n

A x = A1 + A 2 + ... + A n-1 + A n = ∑ Ai
i =1

Figure 3.6 Flow parallel to strata

If width is unit,
n

Ax = ∑ ti
i =1

L1 = L2 = ... = Ln = L x

From Darcy's Law

dh
, Q = - KA .
dL

n n n
Q x = ∑ Qi = - dh ∑ K i Ai = - dh ∑ K i t i
i =1 dL i =1 dL i =1

Substituting in

dh n
dh ∑ Ki ti
dL i =1
= n
dL
K x ∑ ti
i =1
n

∑K t
i =1
i i

Kx = n
(3.8)
∑t
i =1
i

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3.5.2 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity when the flow is normal to the layers

A1 = A 2 = ... = A n-1 = A n

From continuity,

Q1 = Q2 = ... = Qn-1 = Qn

From Darcy's Law,

dh
Q = -A K
dL
Figure 3.7 Flow normal to strata

dh dh
Q = - A Kn [ ]n = - A K y [ ]y
dL dL

Ky = Equivalent hydraulic conductivity

since,
dhi dh
n n n
Q = − K i Ai = − Ki A i = Q
∑ dh = dh ; ∑ dL = dL = ∑ t
dLi ti
i y i y i
i =1 i =1 i =1 Q ⎛ ti ⎞
dhi = − ⎜ ⎟
A ⎜⎝ K i ⎟⎠
and substituting

n n
∑ dh i = - Q ∑ ti
= dh y
i =1 A i =1 K i
substituting for dhy in expression for Q,
n n
Q ti
∑ dh i (- A ) ∑
dh i =1 K i
Q = - A K y [ ]y = - A K y i =1n = - A Ky n
dL
∑ ti ∑ ti
i =1 i =1
n

1 ∑ Kt i

i
= i =1
n
(3.9)
Ky
∑t
i =1
i

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3.6 General Flow Equation

q = u i + v j+ w k

∂h ∂h ∂h
u = - Kx ; v = - Ky ; w = - Kz
∂x ∂y ∂z

Figure 3.8 Principle directions

Darcy's Law alone is not sufficient for analysis. Therefore, consider the continuity equation.

Figure 3.9 Flow through a control volume

Net flow in x-direction,

∂ ( ρ u) ∂ ( ρ u)
ρ u δ y δ z - (ρ u + δ x) δ y δ z = - δ x δ yδ z
∂x ∂x

In the same way net flow in y-direction,

∂ ( ρ v)
- δ x δ yδ z
∂y
and net flow in z-direction,
∂ ( ρ w)
- δ x δ yδ z
∂z
Change in fluid mass storage in control volume in unit time is
∂
= ( ρ n δ x δ y δ z)
∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
- ( ρ u)δ x δ y δ z - ( ρ v)δ x δ y δ z - ( ρ w)δ x δ y δ z = ( ρ n δ x δ y δ z)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
- ( ρ u) - ( ρ v) - ( ρ w) = ( ρ n)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

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∂ ∂ ∂ ∂n ∂ρ
- ( ρ u) - ( ρ v) - ( ρ w) = ρ +n
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t ∂t

∂ρ
n -mass rate of water produced by expansion of the water under a change in density
∂t
(controlled by compressibility of water),
∂n
ρ -mass rate of water produced by the compaction of the porous medium as reflected by
∂t
the change in porosity (controlled by the compressibility of aquifer).

Change in ρ and change in n are both produced by a change in hydraulic head h and that the
volume of water produced by the two mechanisms for a unit change in head is Ss (specific
storage).

Specific Storage (Ss) - Volume of water that a unit volume of aquifer releases from storage
under a unit decline in hydraulic head.

∂h
The mass rate of water produced (time rate of change of fluid mass storage) is ρ Ss
∂t

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂h
- ( ρ u) - ( ρ v) - ( ρ w) = ρ Ss (3.10)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ ∂u ∂ρ
- ( ρ u) = - ρ -u
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂ρ
Compared to the ρ the term u is negligible.
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂ρ
ρ >>> u
∂x ∂x

∂u ∂v ∂w ∂h
-ρ -ρ -ρ = ρ Ss
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂h
- - - = Ss
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

From Darcy's Law,

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂h
(K x )+ (K y )+ (K z ) = Ss (3.11)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

Equation of flow for transient flow through a saturated anisotropic porous medium,

(i)For Unsteady flow in Homogeneous medium,

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2
∂ h
2
∂ h
2
∂ h ∂h
Kx + K y + K z = Ss (3.12)
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
∂t

(ii)For Unsteady flow in Homogeneous and Isotropic medium,

Kx = Ky = Kz = K
∂ h ∂ h ∂ h Ss ∂ h
2 2 2
+ + = (3.13)
∂ x 2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2 K ∂ t
If steady there is no change with time
∂h
∴ = 0
∂t

(iii)For Steady flow in Homogeneous medium,

2 2 2
∂ h ∂ h ∂ h
Kx 2 + K y 2 + Kz 2 = 0 (3.14)
∂x ∂y ∂z

(iv)For Steady flow in Homogeneous and Isotropic medium,

Kx = Ky = Kz = K
2 2 2
∂ h ∂ h ∂ h (3.15)
+ + =0
∂ x 2 ∂ y2 ∂ z 2

Which is the Laplace Equation,

2
Δ h = 0 (3.16)

Limitations of Laplace Equation

a. Incompressible fluid flow

b. Homogeneous and Isotropic media
c. Sufficiently slow motion (Darcy's Law - Laminar flow)

Radial Coordinates

For axisymmetric groundwater flow to wells, radial coordinates are preferable. In a

homogeneous and isotropic aquifer, it can be shown that Equation is equivalent to:
∂ h 1 ∂h S ∂h
2
+ = (3.17)
∂ r2 r ∂ r T ∂ t
Where r is the radial coordinate from the well.

For steady flow this reduces to,

∂ h 1 ∂h
2
+ =0 (3.18)
∂ r2 r ∂ r

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4 GROUNDWATER HYDRAULICS

4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow

Steady flow implies that no change occurs with time. Flow conditions differ for confined and
unconfined aquifers.

4.1.1 Confined Aquifer

Let groundwater flow with a velocity v in the x-direction of a confined aquifer of uniform
thickness. Then for steady flow, Eq 3.15 reduces to:
2
∂ h
=0
∂ x2

Figure 4.1 Steady unidirectional flow in a confined aquifer of uniform thickness

Which has for its solution:

h = C1 x + C2

Where h is the head above a given datum and C1 and C2 are constants of integration.
Assuming
h = 0 when x = 0 and ∂ h / ∂ x = - (v/K) from Darcy's law, then

vx
h=- (4.1)
K

This states that the head decreases linearly with flow in the x-direction.
Or solve from fundamentals,

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∂h
v=− K
∂x
∂h
q = bv = − Kb
∂x
Vx
h =− + h0
K

4.1.2 Unconfined Aquifer

In an unconfined aquifer, direct analysis solution of the Laplace equation is not possible. The
difficulty arises from the fact that the water table in the two-dimensional case represents a
flow line. The shape of the water table determines the flow distribution, but at the same time
the flow distribution governs the water table shape. To obtain a solution Dupuit (1863)
assumed

(a) Flow lines are horizontal and equipotential lines are vertical, and
(b) Hydraulic gradient is equal to the slope of the free surface and invariant with depth.

This theory neglects the vertical component and reduces the two dimensional system to a
one-dimensional one for the purpose of analysis.

Note: At point A and B,

piezometric head is not the
same, because the flow is not
hotizontal.
e.g., close to a pumping well

Figure 4.2 Dupuit assumptions

In many groundwater problems, solution based on Dupuit's assumptions compare favourably

with those of more rigorous methods.

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Figure 4.3 Steady flow in an unconfined aquifer

Discharge per unit width, q at any vertical section can be given as,

⎛ dh ⎞ dh
q = ⎜ − K ⎟ h = − Kh
⎝ dx ⎠ dx

Where, K is hydraulic conductivity, h is the height of the water table above an impervious
basen and x is the direction of flow.

Integrating,

K 2
qx = − h +C
2

If h = h0 where x = 0, then the Dupuit’s equation,

K 2
C= h0
2

(h )
2
Kh Kh 02 K
qx = − + = 2
0 − h2
2 2 2

q=
2x
(
K 2 2
h0 − h ) (4.2)

The water table is parabolic in form.

Flow between two fixed bodies of water of constant heads h0 and h1, is shown in Figure 4.4.

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Figure 4.4 Steady flow in an unconfined aquifer between two water bodies with vertical
boundaries

The water table slope at the upstream boundary of the aquifer;

dh q
=− (4.3)
dx Kh0

But the boundary h = h0 is an equipotential line. Because of the fluid potential in a water
body is constant. Therefore, the water table must be horizontal at this section, which is
inconsistent with above equation. In the direction of the flow, the parabolic water table
increases in slope. By doing so, the two Dupuit’s assumptions, become increasingly poor
approximation to the actual flow; therefore, the actual water table deviates more and more
from the computed position in the direction of flow. The fact that the actual water table lies
above the computed one can be explained by the fact that the Dupuit flows are all assumed
horizontal, whereas the actual velocities of the same magnitude have a downward vertical
component so that a greater saturated thickness is required for the same discharge.

4.1.3 Base Flow to a Stream

Figure 4.5 Steady flow to two parallel streams from a uniformly recharged unconfined
aquifer

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Two long parallel streams completely penetrating an unconfined aquifer with a continuous
recharge rate W occurring uniformly over the aquifer with Dupuit’s assumptions, the flow per
unit thickness;

dh
q = −K h
dx

by continuity
q = Wx

dh
Therefore, Wx = − K h
dx

Wx dx + Kh dh = 0

x2 h2
W + KW = C1
2 2

If h = h1 when x = a

a 2 h a2
W + = C 1
2 2

x2 h2 a2 h2
W +K =W +K a
2 2 2 2

(
Kh 2 = Kha2 + W a 2 − x 2 )

h 2 = ha2 +
W 2
K
(
a − x2 ) (4.4)

If Qb is the base flow entering each stream per unit length of stream channel,

Qb = 2 a W (4.5)

If h is known, at any point, Qb or W can be computed provided K is known.

Extension of this analysis have been applied to design the spacing of parallel drains on
agricultural land for specified soil, crop and irrigation conditions.

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4.2 Steady Radial Flow to a Well

When a well is pumped, water is removed from the aquifer surrounding the well, and the
water table or piezometric surface, depending on the type of aquifer, is lowered. The
drawdown at a given point is the distance the water level is lowered. A drawdown curve
shows the variation of drawdown with distance from the well. In three dimensions the
drawdown curve describes a conic shape known as the cone of depression. Also, outer limit
of the cone of depression defines the area of influence of the well.

4.2.1 Confined Aquifer

Figure 4.6 Steady radial flow to a well penetrating a confined aquifer on an island

Flow is assumed to be two dimensional to a well centered on a circular island and penetrating
a homogenious and isotropic aquifer.

The well discharge Q at any distance r equals,

⎛ dh ⎞ dh
Q = A v = 2π r b ⎜ K ⎟ = 2π K b r
⎝ dr ⎠ dr

for steady radial flow to the well,

Q
dh = ln r + C1
2 π Kh

Q
h = ln r + C1
2π K h
Boundary conditions, h = h0 when r = rw and h = h0 when r = r0 yield,

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h0 − hw =
Q ⎛r ⎞ (h − h )
ln⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ or Q = 2 π K b 0 w
2π K b ⎝ r w ⎠ ln⎛⎜ 0 ⎞⎟
r
⎝ rw ⎠

In the more general case of a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer, there is no
external limit for r. From the above derivation at any given value of r, which shows that h
increases indefinitely with increasing r.

Q = 2π K b
(h − hw ) (4.6)
ln⎛⎜ r ⎞⎟
⎝ rw ⎠

Figure 4.7 Radial flow to a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer

4.2.2 Unconfined Aquifer

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Figure 4.8 Radial flow to a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer

The well completely penetrates the aquifer to the horizontal base and a concentric boundary
of constant head surrounds the well. The well discharge is,

dh Dupuit’s
Q = 2π r K h
dr assumption

Q dr
h dh =
2π K r
h2 Q
= ln r + C1
2 2π K

Integrated between the limits h = hw at r = rw and h = h0 at r =r0 yields

h02 − hw2
Q =π K
ln⎛⎜ 0 ⎞⎟
r
⎝ rw ⎠

converting to heads and radii at the two observation wells,

h22 − h12
Q =πK (4.7)
ln⎛⎜ r2 ⎞⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠
Rearranging to solve for the hydraulic conductivity,

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ln⎛⎜ r2 ⎞⎟
Q
K= (4.8)
π (h − h1 ) ⎝ r1 ⎠
2
2
2

The equation fails to describe accurately the drawdown curve near the well because the large
vertical flow components contradict the Dupuit’s assumptions; however, estimates of K for
given heads are good. In practice drawdown should be small in relation to the saturated
thickness of the unconfined aquifer.

The transmissivity can be approximated in above equation by

⎛ h +h ⎞
T = K⎜ 1 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

Where, drawdowns are appreciable, the heads h1 and h2 in above equation can be replaced by
(h0 – s1) and (h0 – s2), respectively. Then the transmissivity for the full thickness becomes,

Q ln⎛⎜ r2 ⎞⎟
T = K h0 = ⎝ r1 ⎠ (4.9)
⎡⎛ s2 ⎞ ⎛ s 2 ⎞⎤
2 π ⎢⎜⎜ s1 − 1 ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ s2 − 2 ⎟⎟⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 2h0 ⎠ ⎝ 2h0 ⎠⎦⎥

Yet the maximum h is the initial uniform head h0. Thus, from a theoretical aspect, steady
radial flow in an extensive aquifer does not exist because the cone of depression must expand
indefinitely with time. However, from a practical stand point, h approaches h0 with distance
from the wells and the drawdown varies with the logarithm of the distance from the well.

Equation, Q = 2 π K b
(h − hw ) is known as the equilibrium or Theim equation. It enables the
ln⎜ ⎛ r ⎞
⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
hydraulic conductivity or the transmissivity of a confirmed aquifer to be determined from a
pumped well. Because any two points define the logarithmic drawdown curve, the method
consists of measuring drawdowns in two observation wells at different rate. The
transmissivity is given by,
Q ⎛r ⎞
T =Kb = ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
2 π (h2 − h1 ) ⎝ r1 ⎠

Where, r1 and r2 are the distances and h1 and h2 are the heads of the respective observation
wells. From a practical stand point, the drawdown s rather than head is measured, so that
equation can be written as,
Q ⎛r ⎞
T =Kb = ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ (4.10)
2 π (s1 − s2 ) ⎝ r1 ⎠

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To apply above equation, pumping must continue at a unifom rate for a sufficient time to
approach a steady state condition. That is, one in which drawdown changes negligibly with
time. The observation wells should be located close enough to the pumping well so that their
drawdowns are appreciable and can be readily measured.

The derivation assumes that the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic and is of uniform
thickness and of infinite areal extent, well penetrates the entire aquifer and that initially
piezometric surface is nearly horizontal.

4.2.3 Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge

Figure 4.9 Steady flow to a well penetrating a uniformly recharged unconfined aquifer

The flow Q towards the well increases as the well is approached, reaching a maximum of Qw
at the well. The increase in flow dQ through a cylinder of thickness dr and radius r comes
from the recharged water entering the cylinder from above,

dQ = − 2 π r dr W

Integrating, Q = − π r 2 W + C
But at the well r → 0 and Q = Qw, so that

Q = − π r 2 W + QW

Substituting this flow in the equation for flow to the well gives,

dh
2π r K h = − π r 2 W + QW
dr

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Integrating and noting that h = h0 at r = r0 yields the equation for drawdown curve;

h02 − h 2 =
W 2
2K
( Q
)
⎛r ⎞
r − r02 + W ln⎜ 0 ⎟
πK ⎝r⎠

QW ⎛ r0 ⎞
(
ln⎜ ⎟ = h02 − h 2 +
πK ⎝r⎠
W 2 2
2K
r0 − r) ( )

π K (h02 − h 2 ) π W (r02 − r 2 )
QW = + (4.11)
ln⎛⎜ 0 ⎞⎟ 2 ln⎛ r0 ⎞
r
⎜ r ⎟
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

h02 − hw2
By comparing this equation with equation Q = π K the effect of the vertical
⎛
ln⎜
r0 ⎞
⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
recharge becomes apparent.

It follows that when r = r0, Q = 0 , so that Q = π r 2 W

Thus, total flow of the well equals the recharge within the circle defined by the radius of
influence; conversely, the radius of influence is a function of the well pumpage and the
recharge rate only. This results in a steady state drawdown. However, the analysis assumes an
idealized circular outer boundary with a constant head and no flow conditions that rarely
occur in the field.

4.3 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries

Frequently wells are located near streams, lakes and other bodies of surface water that are
hydraulically connected with the aquifer being pumped. Sometimes wells are located near
berried rock valleys, faults or other similar structures that cut the aquifer, preventing ground
water flow across the impermeable barriers.

Unless the pumping periods of these wells are relatively short, the zone of influence of these
wells will eventually extend to these boundaries and the formulae for flow around wells in
infinite aquifer become inapplicable. If these boundaries can be assumed to form effectively
infinite and fairly straight sections cuttings through the aquifer, problems of flow towards
wells located near such boundaries can be solved relatively easily with the method of images.

4.3.1 Well Near a Stream

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Figure 4.10 Well near a stream

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4.3.2 Well Near an Impermeable Boundary

Figure 4.11 Well near a \n impermeable boundary

4.3.3 Multiple Boundary Systems

Aquifers delimited by two or more boundaries

Number of wells = Ne = 360/We - 1

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