Land Grants in Gupta period

 Grants of land were provided to religious and ritual specialists, as well as to officers and
other government officials. This did not generate revenue for the state, but it did allow for
some reorganisation of revenue demands at the local level and the establishment of small
centres of wealth in rural areas, which, if replicated, could lead to broader improvements
in the overall situation.
 The grantee took on the role of a pioneer in the introduction of agriculture if the land
granted to brahmans (whether as ritual specialists or as administrators) was wasteland or
forest. Brahmans were competent in the supervision of agrarian activities, aided by
agricultural manuals such as the Krishiparashra, which may have been written during this
period or later.
 Some normative writings forbade brahmans from engaging in agricultural activities
unless they were in grave need, but this did not prevent brahmanical expertise in
agricultural activity from developing. By encouraging commercial activity in a variety of
ways, including through payments to guilds, even if the interest was to benefit a religious
institution, and by putting commercial entrepreneurs on city councils and in other
positions with the potential for investment and profit Increasing the number of taxes
collected from business and bringing them into the state requires a corresponding increase
in the number of officials in the state's hierarchy.
 Although land grants were initially limited, by the seventh century CE, they had become
more widespread, gradually resulting in a political economy that was distinguishable from
that of pre-Gupta eras.
 The defeated kings of nearby kingdoms were occasionally changed into tributary or
subordinate rulers, which are referred to as feudatories in modern writing. Kings who
conquered neighbouring kingdoms were commonly referred to as feudatories in modern
literature. Agreements were also established with monarchs of this calibre, as well. The
name samanta, which originally meant "neighbour," came to signify "tributary ruler"
throughout time as the meaning of the phrase evolved.
 With this came the establishment of more clearly defined connections between the
monarch and the local rulers, relationships that were increasingly important in later
periods, as a result of the conflict between royal demands and the aspirations of the
samantas. The power of the king was undermined in areas where the latter were powerful.
 However, he required the agreement of the samantas — the samantachakra or circle of
samantas – in order to maintain his pestige. Samantas found themselves in an uncertain
situation of being either possible allies or potential adversaries.
 Grants of land have resulted in the creation of further sorts of intermediaries, in addition
to tributary rulers. Some of the grants went to temples, monasteries, and brahmanas,
among other religious institutions. Temples were given to sects that were in charge of the
temples' administration as a result of such grants. Villages could also be given to a temple
as a gift to help with the upkeep of the temple.
 In addition to serving as a place of worship, the temple now now serves as a centre for
local administration and government. It is likely that the award to the Brahman served as
a reminder of his privileged position at a time when land grants were considered emblems
of particular favour.
 The agrahara donation of rent-free land or a village that could be made to a group of
brahmans, the brahmadeya award to a group of brahmans, and grants to temples and
monasteries were all exempt from taxation under the Indian Constitution. The brahmans
were frequently people who were well-versed in the Vedas or who possessed specific
knowledge, such as that of astrology.
 Traditionally, gifts to brahmans were intended to ward off the ills of the current Kali Age,
but it appears that astrology was more commonly used in this period. In the early
twentieth century, land grants began to take precedence over monetary donations to
religious organisations. Land was more permanent, it could be passed down through
generations, and it was less susceptible to manipulation.
 Such grants were more favourable to landlordism among brahmans beneficiaries, though
monasteries did not lag far behind in this regard. Another notable aspect of this time
period was that commanders were periodically compensated with money from land
grants, which served as an alternative to cash compensation for military or administrative
service.
 This is recorded in some land-grant inscriptions from this period onward, as well as in
Xuan Zang's narrative of his journey through China (Hiuen-Tsang). There were fewer of
these grants available. Because there were many literate brahmans who were also
performing official tasks, not all donations to brahmans were intended for religious
purposes. Vassalage, which entails a warrior class with bonds of obedience and
protection, is not something that is usually encountered.
 Such awards separated the owners from the supervision of the central authority, hence
predisposing administration to a more decentralised form of governance. Those who have
received major land grants that generate income could pool their resources and combine
their strength to mount a serious challenge to the ruling family.
 If they were also able to gather support from peer groups and others, such as forest chiefs,
or coerce the peasants into fighting for them, they would be able to overturn the current
authority and install themselves as kings, at the very least on the periphery of the
kingdom's borders. In exchange for legitimising and validating the dynasty, or averting a
misfortune by the performance of rites or gaining merit on the part of the king,
Brahmanas as religious benefactors were granted property, presumably as a reward for
their services.
 It was sought after to establish lineage ties with historical figures in order to elevate one's
social standing through a presumed descent. Because of the appropriation of authority and
resources, the recipient may be considered the parent of a dynasty if the grant was big
enough to qualify. The grants were also part of a process of evangelising, in which the
beneficiary hoped to spread his religion throughout the world.
 The Vedas were taught to many brahmans, but when they resided in forested regions or in
communities already observing their own beliefs and rituals, the extremely different
observances of the brahmans may have produced conflicts that necessitated a negotiated
adjustment on the part of the two parties. When faced with this circumstance, the Puranic
sects proved to be effective mediators between Vedic Brahmanism and the faiths of the
local people. Even if the Brahman had taken over the priest's ritual, he would have
required to assimilate local mythology and iconography into the ever-expanding Puranic
sects, which were themselves constantly evolving.