Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes

Structural events and metamorphic consequences in Almora Nappe,

during Himalayan collision tectonics
Mallickarjun Joshi, A.N. Tiwari *
Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Almora Nappe in Uttarakhand, India, is a Lesser Himalayan representative of the Himalayan Metamorphic
Received 21 September 2006 Belt that was tectonically transported over the Main Central Thrust (MCT) from Higher Himalaya. The
Received in revised form 14 July 2007 Basal Shear zone of Almora Nappe shows complicated structural pattern of polyphase deformation and
Accepted 26 May 2008
metamorphism. The rocks exposed along the northern and southern margins of this nappe are highly
mylonitized while the degree of mylonitization decreases towards the central part where the rocks even-
tually grade into unmylonitized metamorphics.
Keywords:
Mylonitized rocks near the roof of the Basal Shear zone show dynamic metamorphism (M2) reaching
Almora Nappe
Basal Shear zone
upto greenschist facies (450 °C/4 kbar). In the central part of nappe the unmylonitized schists and
Polyphase deformation gneisses are affected by regional metamorphism (M1) reaching upper amphibolite facies (4.0–7.9 kbar
Metamorphism and 500–709 °C). Four zones of regional metamorphism progressing from chlorite–biotite to sillima-
nite–K-feldspar zone demarcated by specific reaction isograds have been identified. These metamorphic
zones show a repetition suggesting that the zones are involved in tight F2 – folding which has affected the
metamorphics. South of the Almora town, the regionally metamorphosed rocks have been intruded by
Almora Granite (560 ± 20 Ma) resulting in contact metamorphism. The contact metamorphic signatures
overprint the regional S2 foliation. It is inferred that the dominant regional metamorphism in Almora
Nappe is highly likely to be of pre-Himalayan (Precambrian!) age.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
During the Eocene–Oligocene period the convergence of Indian
and Sino–Tibetan plates (Molnar and Tapponier, 1975; Searle et al.,
1997 and DeCelles et al., 2001) resulted in the crustal shortening
that was largely accommodated by south directed deformation
resulting in tectonic transport and thrusting all along the arcuate
length of the Himalayan range and eastward extrusion through
strike slip faults. Almora Nappe is a consequence of tectonic trans-
port of rocks of the Higher Himalayan Metamorphic Belt (HMB) to
the Lesser Himalaya over the Main Central Thrust (MCT) during Eo-
cene–Oligocene (Ahmad et al., 2000 and DeCelles et al., 2001). The
Almora Nappe was first recognized by Heim and Gansser (1939).
Valdiya (1962) suggested that Almora Nappe is the southeastern
extension of the Jutogh Nappe of Himachal Pradesh. Gansser
(1964), Merh (1968), Gairola and Joshi (1980) and Valdiya (1980)
believe that the Almora Nappe rests over a thrust comprising the
northern and southern margins of the nappe termed as the North
Almora Thrust (NAT) and the South Almora Thrust (SAT)
respectively.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9935492091.
E-mail address: antiwari2000@yahoo.com (A.N. Tiwari).
Most of the relatively recent studies, viz. Agarwal (1994), Sri-
vastava and Mitra (1996), Bali and Agarwal (1999) have focused
on the petrotectonic history of only the mylonite zone of Almora
Nappe. Srivastava and Mitra (1996) have mapped the mylonite
zone of nappe near Takula, about 17 km north of Almora and have
described the mineralogical and grain size variations, shear sense
indicators and deformation mechanisms across the shear zone.
On the basis of these descriptions they have deduced the inverted
thermal profile in the mylonite zone and interpreted that this has
resulted from gradual cooling of the zone by heat transfer to a cold
footwall at the time of thrusting. Srivastava and Mitra (1996) in-
ferred the maximum temperatures of mylonitization to be be-
tween 500 and 600 °C near the southern margin of the NAT (?)
Zone on the basis of recrystallization of K-feldspar and plagioclase
in mylonites with a granite protolith. These mylonites actually be-
long to the Ramgarh Group (Joshi, 1999), which are tectonically
separated from the underlying quartzite-shale of the Damtha
Group of rocks by the North Ramgarh Thrust (NRT). The Ramgarh
Group of rocks are separated from the overlying Almora Group of
rocks comprising alternating sequence of quartzite–metapelite by
the North Almora Thrust (NAT). Thus the North Almora Thrust of
earlier workers (Heim and Gansser, 1939; Valdiya, 1980) was
redesignated as the North Ramgarh Thrust and the tectonic discon-
tinuity between the Ramgarh and the Almora Group of rocks,

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2008.05.012
 M. Joshi, A.N. Tiwari / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335
further south, was designated as the North Almora Thrust by Joshi
(1999). These findings were ratified in Nepal by DeCelles et al.
(2001) who identified Ramgarh Thrust (=North Ramgarh Thrust,
Joshi, 1999) and the Dandeldhura Thrust (=North Almora Thrust,
Joshi, 1999) in western Nepal Himalaya. However, Joshi (1999) de-
scribed the evolution of Almora Nappe emphasizing only the struc-
tural details.
This paper discusses the evolution of Almora Nappe integrating
the structural and metamorphic details. Three metamorphic
events, viz. regional, contact and dynamic metamorphism affecting
the Almora Nappe have been investigated and pre-, syn- and post-
shear zone structural regimes, have been distinguished across the
Almora Nappe. This study presents new time constraints for the
metamorphism of the Almora Nappe.
2. Geological setting
Almora Nappe is one of the largest Himalayan nappes extending
from Western Nayar in Central Uttarakhand, India to the Kali and
farther east through the Dandeldhura region of western Nepal
(Valdiya, 1980). The Almora Nappe comprises two units, viz. the
Ramgarh Nappe and the tectonically overlying Almora Nappe (sen-
su stricto) (Joshi, 1999). Valdiya suggested that Almora Nappe is
the southeastern extension of the Jutogh Nappe of Himachal Pra-
desh. The Ramgarh Nappe has been correlated with the Chail Nap-
pe of Pilgrim and West (1928) in Himachal Pradesh by Valdiya
(1980). The term Almora Nappe in the geological literature of Ku-
maun Himalaya means the composite nappe, which includes both
the Ramgarh and Almora Nappes (Valdiya, 1980). In the present
work this definition of Almora Nappe has been followed.
In Kumaun Lesser Himalaya the northern and southern bound-
aries of the Almora Nappe are demarcated by the North Ramgarh
Thrust and South Ramgarh Thrust (Joshi, 1999) which extend to
the western Nepal (DeCelles et al., 2001). These are the tectonic
discontinuities between the sedimentary rocks of the Damtha
and Jaunsar Groups and the Palaeoproterozoic low-grade meta-
morphic rocks metamorphosed up to greenschist facies of Ram-
garh Group. Similarly, the North Almora Thrust (NAT) in
northern flank and the South Almora Thrust (SAT) in southern
flank (Joshi, 1999) continue in western Nepal and have been des-
ignated as Dandeldhura Thrust (DT) by DeCelles et al., 2001,
which tectonically separates the low grade metamorphics of
Ramgarh Group from the overlying medium to high grade meta-
morphic rocks of Almora Group metamorphosed up to upper
amphibolite facies conditions (Joshi and Tiwari, 2004). In the
Almora Group of rocks the Cambrian–Ordovician granites are in-
truded at some places in the nappe (Trivedi et al., 1984; Joshi,
1999; DeCelles et al., 2001). Underlying the Ramgarh Thrust the
Damtha Group of sedimentary rocks is constituted mainly of sub-
litharenite and shales while fine to coarse-grained quartz arenite
and siltstone belong to the Nagthat Formation of Jaunsar Group of
the Lesser Himalayan sequence (Valdiya, 1980). According to Shu-
kla and Pant and Pant and Shukla, the sedimentary rock bodies of
the Nagthat Formation of Jaunsar Group, characterized by upward
fining shallow marine cycles represent a tide dominated regres-
sive sequence. Interestingly the thick lava flows showing pillow
lava structures are intertrapped within the sedimentaries of the
Nagthat Formation of Jaunsar Group. It is believed that the spilitic
lava flows represent submarine volcanism during Late Proterozoic
times. The metamorphic rocks of Ramgarh Group are highly
sheared greenschist facies metamorphics which occur as mylo-
nites and ultramylonites after quartzites and schists. However,
the metamorphic rocks of the overlying Saryu Formation are
strongly mylonitized only in the vicinity of the roof of the North
and South Almora Shear zones, i.e., in the vicinity of NAT and SAT
327
(Fig. 1). The degree of mylonitization gradually decreases upsec-
tion towards the central part of the Almora Nappe till the signa-
tures of shearing fade away and the mylonites grade into the
unmylonitized schists and gneisses. That the Saryu Formation
metamorphics in the central part of the nappe have remained
unaffected by shearing is ratified by the absence of shear sense
indicators and well preserved triclinic symmetry of the quartz c
-axes (Joshi and Tiwari, 2004). These unmylonitized metamorphic
rocks of Saryu Formation of Almora Group exposed in the central
part of the Almora Nappe preserve the structures which devel-
oped prior to the shearing associated with the southward tectonic
transport of the nappe during Tertiary Himalayan orogeny (Joshi
and Tiwari, 2004).
3. Tectonic history
Tectonic history of the Almora Nappe is preserved in three dis-
tinguishable structural regimes, viz. the pre-shear zone structures,
the syn-shear zone structures and the post-shear zone structures
with respect to the basal shear zone of the Almora Nappe.
The schists and gneisses of the Saryu Formation of Almora
Group exposed upsection in the central part of the nappe, unlike
its base, escaped the effects of mylonitization, and have preserved
the pre-shear zone structures. The pre-shear zone structures in-
clude the lithological banding (S0) striking E–W to WNW–ESE
and dipping due south and due north respectively in the northern
and southern halves of the central part (Fig. 2). The quartzites of
the Saryu Formation of the Almora Group in Khatyari region near
Almora town document well-developed F1 and F2 folds (Joshi and
Tiwari, 2005b). The bedding (S0) is folded by F1 folds, which are
gently plunging (P30°) and show reclined to recumbent geometry,
while the F2 folds affect the oldest foliation (S1) and axial planes of
F1 folds. The F1 and F2 folds show tight to isoclinal geometry and
plunge from sub-horizontal to about 25° in approximately NNE
direction. The axial planes of these folds dip at angles around 30°
in NNE direction. The F2 folds are coaxial with the F1 folds but gen-
erally show tight rather than isoclinal limbs. The F3 open folds
plunge between 10° and 35° in NNW direction, show chevron type
hinges and sub-vertical axial planes. Few F3 folds plunge in NNE
direction. The F4 folds are broad open warps showing a plunge of
20° in N70°E direction. The F3 and F4 folds are likely to have formed
during the Himalayan orogeny. The broad open F4 folds, in all prob-
ability, are an artifact of the movement of the thrust nappe and its
blocking by a ramp. The F1 and F2 folds are responsible for the
development of S1 and S2 foliation planes showing evidence of
multiple deformation, viz. D1 and D2. The older S1 schistosity
planes, developed during D1 deformation, defined by muscovite
and biotite flakes along with inequant quartz, have been affected
by tight to isoclinal folds (F2). The S2 schistosity planes are crenu-
lation cleavages developed during D2 deformation and are defined
by the mica flakes. Rare kyanite blades are also developed parallel
to both the S1 and S2 foliations. Both the foliation planes are gen-
erally parallel to each other (S1||S2) and define the regional folia-
tion. These F1 and F2 folds observed in the central part of the
nappe have escaped shearing both on mesoscopic (outcrop scale)
and on the microscopic scale. Moreover the quartz c-axes orienta-
tion diagrams for the schists and gneisses of the Almora Group ex-
posed in the central part of the Almora Nappe (Figs. 2 and 3) show
plain strain to flattening strain conditions during their last ductile
deformation (Joshi and Tiwari, 2004). It clearly indicates that these
rocks are totally unaffected by shearing and preserve the imprints
of only pre-shear deformation.
Syn-shear zone structures comprise a range of shear sense indi-
cators, viz. shear bands, asymmetric porphyroclast systems (ra, rb
and d-type), mica fish, pressure shadows and the characteristic
328 M. Joshi, A.N. Tiwari / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335

.
.
INDIA
.
CHINA X
SOMESHWAR
X X X X N
4 .
3 .
. . . .
MCT *94/18
4 .
MT 4 + * 94/17
* 94/16 + +
4
1 + 94/15
+ +
NA

4 * MANAN
T

2 NR = = 94/20* =
T NEPAL *
94/19 = =
~~ * * ~ ~ I
SR BT

5/35
SA 4
~ ~
T
M

DT
3 T ~ ~ * ~ ~ 5/2

~ ~ ~I
RT
DT 5/34

R
~ ~ *
~ ~ 5/33
5/13

~ o ~ o ~ ** ~ ~ ~
STUDY AREA . T * 5/32
. . 5/30b
. o ~ o o ~ o

Kosi R
. ~ o ~ o~ ~o o~ o ~ o ~
o . o~ o ~ o * ~ o ~ o ~ 5/30a
Delhi
INDIA . . .o ~
. o * ~ o
~ o ~ o ~ o
. ~
5/25b
~ ~ o~ 5/25a

A ~ .~. ~ ~ ** ~~. o ~. o. o~ o II~

0 480 .*
km 94/34d

INDEX . *. HAWALBAGH ~ ~ o
.o
94/34b 94/34c

X NAF ~ .. *
~ ~. 94/34a

Damtha/Jaunsar Group . ~ ~ ..
* ..
~. . ~ 94/39b

+ + Almora Granite Almora Group + . . *. ~. . III 94/39a

~
~o garnet mica schist Formation)
mica schist (Saryu ~ ~ . .
~ + . ~ ~ * . . IV
~ kyanite mica schist ~ + . ~ ~ ~ .. A51c
.. + + KHATYARI * ALMORA *
. .~
A51b A107
Gneiss ..
+ + . *KARBALAIII
~ A51a
. ~ .. .. ~
NAT/SAT . ~
= = phylite Ramgarh ~ . ~ .. .. . +
. .
+ granite gneiss Group
~ o . . .. *
. ---- . + A79 U

~ ~ ~ o .~ . * *. *. .IVII.I..~* ~.I o .
. * I AK1
A69
NRT/SRT AK2 AK4
contact aureole
--- overturned
~ ~ ~ F1 ~ * * . II.I . . .
F2 A50b
U
- syncline = = * * ~
A27
~ *
X
~. . .
A50a
A48 A49
X
* A31
o ~
* = ~ * SUALBARI
X
KAKRIGHAT A34
II
A33
=
= =
*
=
X

=
~ A26

~ ~
A23 ~ ~
= = = =
*= =
A22 = I
= 0 1 =
+ *A21 = = =
*A19 = = = km
*A18 + = = I
CHHARA
+ =
B KHAIRNA

Fig. 1. (A) Regional geological map of the study area (after Valdiya, 1980: Joshi, 1999). Box showing the location of selected Chhara–Someshwar transect. 1 – Damtha, and
Jaunsar Groups. 2 – Jaunsar Group. 3 – Ramgarh Group. 4 – Almora Group. MCT – Main Central Thrust, MT – Munsiari Thrust, NRT/SRT – North/South Ramgarh Thrust, NAT/
SAT – North/South Almora Thrust, MBT – Main Boundary Thrust, RT – Ramgarh Thrust (in Nepal, DeCelles et al., 2001), DT – Da(n)deldhura Thrust (in Nepal, DeCelles et al.,
2001). (B) Lithotectonic units and metamorphic reaction isograds in Almora Nappe along Chhara–Someshwar transect. I – chlorite-biotite zone, II – garnet-biotite zone, III –
kyanite-biotite zone, IV – sillimanite–K-feldspar zone. Dashed lines indicate garnet-biotite isograd, dashed lines with single dot indicate kyanite-biotite isograd and dashed
lines with double dots indicate sillimanite–K-feldspar isograd boundaries. NAF – North Almora Fault, F1 and F2 – Faults,  – indicates the locations for the given sample
numbers.

monoclinic symmetry shown by Lattice Preferred Orientation evidencing that the movement was persistently recorded on mes-
(LPO) of quartz. Preferred orientation of micas define the shear oscopic as well as microscopic scale and also that the opposite
band cleavages (White, 1979; Gapais and White, 1982). The c sense of rotation of porphyroclasts was not sector specific as is
and c0 -type shear band cleavages (Passchier and Trouw, 1996) are the case in a combination of noncoaxial deformation and pure
observed in the mylonites of both the North Almora Shear zone shear. Both the r- and d-type of porphyroclasts (Passchier and
(NASZ) and South Almora Shear zone (SASZ) and indicate a top- Simpson, 1986) are observed in the thin sections of protomylonites
to-south movement, but some shear bands oriented at high angles and mylonites of Ramgarh and Almora Groups exposed in both the
(60°) in the NASZ show top-to-north, i.e., a reversed sense of northern and southern flanks of the nappe. Most of the d-type of
movement which were also recorded by Joshi (1999). Joshi porphyroclasts (Fig. 4a) observed in the mylonites of SASZ show
(1999, Fig. 3b) also documented asymmetrically folded quartz top-to-south movements, but in some cases ra-type of porphyro-
veins from the NASZ which document a top-to-north movement clasts (Fig. 4b) show a reverse sense of movement, i.e., from top-
 M. Joshi, A.N. Tiwari / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335 329

z
N SOMESHWAR

. foliation
stretching
lineation
. y
x
x x x x

. . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .
... ... ... ... 21... ... ... .. . .30 .. . .
lower hemisphere
equal area . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .32 . 41
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
45 . . . .. .30
. . . . . .40 . . .. .. .
.. .. .. .. ..46.. .. .. MANAN
44
. .. .. .. .. . .

. .. .. .. .. ... ..
.
. .. . .. .
94/17. ... ... ... ...
. . . .. .. ..
. . .
. ... ... ...

x NAF
.....
NAT/SAT

NRT/SRT .. .. .. .. .. Mylonite
0 1 .
.
. .. . . . . .
.
.. . . . . . . .
. . . . . 5/2 . 41. . .
.12 .
. . . . .
. . . . .
.. 43.. 42.. .. ..
.. . ..40. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..
. . . .45 . . . . .
.. .
... . .. .
. .. ..
. . .
. . . ..
.
. . ... ... ... ... .. ..
km . . . .40 . . .. ... ... ... . . . . . . .. ..
. . . . . ... . . . . 5/13 .

.
35
. . . . ..
. . . . . 36 ... . .. . .. . ..
. .. . . . . .. . ..42. . . . . .40. . ..
. . . .
. .. .. .
94/34 . .. . . . 30 . .27.. .29. . . .
. .. . ..

.
. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. ..
. . . .

Kosi R
94/32 . .. .. .. .. .. ..31.. ..26.. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. . ...
94/45 . . .. . . . . . . .28. . . . . . . . . . .
.. . .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . . .
. . . . 32
. .. .. 28 .. .. . . 94/33
. .25. .. .. . . . . . . .. ..
28

26 10

20
25 8
A85 HAWALBAGH
10 94/39
12 8
10 8
12
11 14
10
A83 21
15 2225
A31
. 21
20 20

Kos
28 22 15
. . 20
ALMORA14

iR
.. .. . . . . . . 18 16
30
... ... ... ... . .. . ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... .

. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..
... .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .
. . .
. .
. . . . . . . . .. .. . .
. . . . .
... ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . .
. A50 33
.
34 26
34
32
30 24
6 10 A107

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.
.. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. ..14..16.. .. .
.. .. ... ... A21
.. .. .. . .
.. .. ..
. . .
. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .F1. . . . . .F2. . . . .
x . 20
. 20. .
. KAKRIGHAT .x . . .11. .18. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .
. . . . .
.
.
.
. 13
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
14
.
38.
.
.

39
..
. 17
.
.
.
. CHAUNSALI
... 32
... . 30
.. .18.
.
. . .. 28
. . ...
.
.
A98
.. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .16. . .. .. x .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .
.. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .x. ..22.. ..10.. .. 20 . ... 22 . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
. .20SUALBARI
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... ... ... . . . . . . 18. . . .20 . 20 . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . .
..........
.
.. .. .. ..
.. .. . . . .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 16
.
.. . . . . . ... ..20
. . .
. . . . . . . .. . .28. 24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... .30
.
. .. .. .. ... . .12
. . . . .18
.
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. . . . .. .. .. .
.. 26
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40. . . . . . .. 20.. .. .. .. .. .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .. . . A26 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
. . 24
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. . . . . . . . . 40.. .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .............. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...
. . . . . .
. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
CHHARA . .. .. .. .
. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
KHAIRNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Fig. 2. Map of quartz c-axes fabrics in schists, gneisses, quartzite tectonites and mylonites indicating specimen locations and the position of the mylonites, lower hemisphere
equal-area projections. Contours are generally 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12% uniform distribution. 300 grains of quartz were measured for each of the two thin sections (viz. XZ and
XY sections) of a rock sample and were fused in the XZ plane. The inset in the upper left hand corner explains the relationship of the crystallographic fabric to the structural
elements viz. foliations and stretching lineations.

A31
. A50
. A98 94/32
5/2
.
A26
. .
A107 94/39
.
5/13
94/17
.
A21
. . A83
. .
. A85 94/45 94/34 94/33
.
.
. SOMESHWAR
CHHARA . . .. .
(Mylonitized) . .. ... ... . ? ? ALMORA (Mylonitized)
F

RT
~ ~ ....I.II .. .... .
A

. .. .... . II + + NAT N
..III.. .V.
N

~~
. +
. o. + ? + + . . . .. .I.. .
= =+
SAT
~~~ ~ ~ II ~ II ~ o o
~ ~I
..

. . . . I X
~ II

SRT +
III ..IV .. I.I + ? +
= I o +
I = = =
+
.. ..I X
0 1 .. ..
km

Fig. 3. Geological cross section of Almora Nappe along Chhara–Someshwar transect showing tight to isoclinal F2 – folding of metamorphic reaction isograds. The dot within
circle shows the movement direction of the strike slip component of the fault towards the observer while the cross within circle shows the movement direction away from
the observer. In this diagram quartz c-axes orientations are also shown on equal area projections within the circles. The line drawn along the diameter shows the orientation
of foliation and the bold dots at the two ends of the line represent the stretching lineation in mylonites. The traces of foliations and lineations have been shown on the
diagrams for sheared rocks exposed closer to the thrust planes while in the upsection central part of the nappe only the traces of foliations are shown.

to-north in the mylonites of the northern flank. Joshi (1999) were under higher north–south stresses and locked while the shal-
explained the reversal in the sense of movement as a consequence lower levels were relatively free to move on either side. The basal
of continued compression of the Lesser Himalaya during the Ter- shear zone of Almora Nappe, lying at the interface of the deeper
tiary orogeny after the emplacement of the Almora Nappe at its and shallower levels, must have been still in a ductile state and
present location. The deeper levels comprising the autochthon it appears that due to differential stresses between the underlying
330 M. Joshi, A.N. Tiwari / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335

Fig. 4. a. Photomicrograph showing a d-type of porphyroclast system in Ramgarh Group of rocks. Notice the shear sense movement direction is top-to-south. Locality: south
of Kakrighat. Scale: 0.2mm. b. Photomicrograph showing the ra-type asymmetric porphyroclasts and the recrystallization of chlorite, biotite, muscovite and quartz within the
pressure shadow zone of garnet in the garnet mica schists of Almora Group. The shear sense movement direction is top-to-north. Locality: North of Manan. Scale: 0.2mm.

metasedimentaries and the basal shear zone a top-to-north move-
ment in the NASZ and a top-to-south movement in the SASZ, anal-
ogous to a decollement occurred. It is therefore that in the SASZ the
r-type asymmetric porphyroclasts show top-to-south second
shearing movement similar to the first movement. The mylonites
of Saryu Formation of Almora Group exposed closer to the roof of
the shear zone preserve the mica fish (Lister and Snoke, 1984)
considered as a special case of r-type porphyroclast systems
(Simpson, 1986) developed as a result of combined brittle and
crystal-plastic processes affecting the pre-existing mica lepido-
blasts. The shear sense movement direction indicated by mica fish
are top-to-south for both the northern and southern flanks of the
Basal Shear zone (BSZ) of the Almora Nappe in the area studied.
However, there are some mica fish of a later origin which suggest
top-to-north movement in the mylonites of the NASZ.
The Lattice Preferred Orientation (LPO) of c-axes of at least 300
grains of quartz were determined on a Leitz five axes universal
stage UT-5 for each thin section. Two thin sections (viz. XZ and
XY sections) were studied for each rock sample. All the measured
data for the two thin sections were fused in the XZ plane, by rotat-
ing the measured data from the XY plane through 90° to the XZ
plane. The interpretation of these quartz c-axes orientation
diagrams (Figs. 2 and 3) is summarized below:
1. The last ductile movement as deduced from the geometry of the
crossed c-axes type-I girdles (Simpson, 1986; Passchier and
Trouw, 1996) was directed from top-to-north for the mylonites
of the NASZ and top-to-south for the mylonites of the
SASZ.
2. By comparing the LPO patterns of quartz c-axes with the flinn
diagram of Lister and Hobbs (1980), it can be concluded that
the sample no. A.83, A.85, A.98, A.107, 94/45, 94/32, 94/33
and 94/34 were subjected to plain strain to flattening strain
conditions during their last deformation. All these samples
 M. Joshi, A.N. Tiwari / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335
belong to the schists and gneisses of the Saryu Formation of
Almora Group, exposed in the upsection central parts of the
nappe. Thus it is clear that these rocks have totally escaped
the intense shear deformation to which the basal parts of the
Almora Nappe have been subjected.
3. The girdles show strong clustering of C-axes close to periphery
and around the Y-axes, suggesting that the LPO patterns have
developed by a dominant basal <a> slip and prism <a> slip. At
low temperatures, the girdles develop by basal <a> slip while
at medium temperature conditions the girdles develop by prism
<a> slip (Wilson, 1975; Lister and Dornsiepen, 1982; Law, 1990).
Thus it can be concluded that the last ductile deformation
responsible for shearing occurred under medium to low tem-
perature conditions.
The brittle faults affected the Basal Shear zone of Almora Nappe
and represent the post-shear zone structures formed as a conse-
quence of neotectonic movements in response to still continuing
compression due to northward movement of the Indian Plate. In
the Khairna–Suyalbari region of SASZ a N–S striking fault (F1–F1)
with upthrown eastern block (Rawat, 1988; Joshi, 1999) is ex-
posed. The river Kosi flows along this fault in an unusually straight
course. Another brittle fault (F2–F2) striking NW–SE with the
northwestern block up thrown also appears to be a consequence
of neotectonic rejuvenation sub parallel to the SAT.
4. Metamorphism
The rocks of Almora Nappe along Chhara–Someshwar transect
have been subjected to two metamorphic events, viz. the regional
metamorphism (M1) and dynamic metamorphism (M2). The regio-
nal metamorphism (M1) relates to a pre-Himalayan event while the
dynamic metamorphism (M2) relates to the Himalayan orogeny.
Both the S1 and S2 planes are defined by preferred alignment of
chlorite, biotite, muscovite and rare kyanite. Garnet started crystal-
lizing during the D1 deformation (formation of S1) and the crystal-
lization outlasted the D2 deformation (formation of S2) which is
evidenced by the development of an idioblastic rim on many of
the garnets. The younger generation of micas as well as kyanite
are developed at varied orientations ranging from subparallel to
oblique to their older generation counterparts suggesting that
the two deformations took place during the same protracted meta-
morphic episode and the varied orientations of cross cutting later
generation minerals are highly likely to be a consequence of the
changing orientation of strain ellipsoid during the metamorphism.
However, the sillimanite needles in the gneisses are characterized
by fine size and random orientations. The sillimanite needles are
likely to have formed after the initiation of partial melting due to
increasing grade of metamorphism and the attendant change of
deviatoric stresses to hydrostatic stresses.
4.1. Metamorphic zones
The metapelites of Saryu Formation of Almora Group occur in
four metamorphic zones, progressing from chlorite–biotite to silli-
manite–K-feldspar zones. These four metamorphic zones have
been delineated on the basis of the critical mineral assemblages
and have been demarcated by specific reaction isograds.
Zone I : Chlorite–biotite zone
Garnet–biotite reaction isograd
Chlorite + muscovite + quartz = garnet + biotite + H2O – (i)
Zone II : Garnet–biotite zone
Kyanite–biotite reaction isograd
Mg–chlorite + muscovite = phlogopite + kyanite + H2O – (ii)
Zone III : Kyanite–biotite zone
331
Sillimanite–K-feldspar reaction isograd
Muscovite + albite + quartz = K-feldspar + sillimanite +
melt – (iii)
Zone IV : Sillimanite–K-feldspar zone.
The mineral assemblages typical of each metamorphic zone
vary from one unit to another. The stability fields of each metamor-
phic zone are delimited by specific reaction isograds. Most of the
reaction isograds show a steep dP/dT slope on a composite petro-
genetic grid, implying a strong temperature control on the charac-
teristic mineral equilibria. In the studied section the distribution of
these zones show a repetitive disposition (Fig. 1).
To deduce the P–T conditions of metamorphism, the character-
istic coexisting mineral assemblages, viz. garnet–biotite for tem-
perature, and garnet–biotite–muscovite–plagioclase and garnet–
Al2SiO5–quartz–plagioclase for pressure have been used. The gar-
net–biotite geothermometers using the Berman (1991) calibration
and garnet–biotite–muscovite–plagioclase barometry model of
Ghent and Stout (1981) and garnet–Al2SiO5–quartz–plagioclase
barometry model using the TWEEQU program (Berman, 1991),
based on internally consistent thermodynamic dataset, were used.
4.1.1. Chlorite–biotite zone (Zone I)
The phyllites and mica schists of Ramgarh and Almora Groups
exposed in the northern and southern margins of the area gener-
ally contain the stable mineral assemblage chlorite–biotite–
muscovite–plagioclase–quartz ± feldspar (Fig. 5a). The micas and
the chlorite define the main schistosity in these rocks. These rocks
have been later affected by intense mylonitization and are domi-
nated by the C- planes developed during shearing. The prograde
chlorite–biotite zone, however has been delineated on the basis
of the stable associations of chlorite and biotite minerals. Such
assemblages have been also observed by Atherton (1964), Albee
(1968) and Lal et al. (1981) in other metamorphic terranes. This
prograde mineral assemblage belonging to the lower green schist
facies has been discerned only within the microlithons, which have
escaped mylonitization, while the mineral assemblages in the
pressure shadows of asymmetric porphyroclast systems developed
during shearing (dynamic metamorphism) also belong to the lower
green schist facies conditions. Thus it is clear that the original
metamorphic rocks were regionally metamorphosed (pre-shear-
ing) up to green schist facies conditions and were subjected to
large scale shearing/mylonitization during Eocene–Oligocene peri-
od and were again dynamically metamorphosed (Himalayan) un-
der lower green schist facies conditions.
4.1.2. Garnet–biotite zone (Zone II)
The garnet–mica schists exposed southwest of Karbala show an
overturned synclinal closure which is the key for interpreting the
overall structure of the area. The garnet–mica schists of Saryu
Formation of Almora Group generally contain the stable
mineral assemblage chlorite–biotite–muscovite–garnet–plagio-
clase–quartz (Fig. 5b). The micas and chlorite define the main
schistosity planes in these rocks. The rocks of this zone show vary-
ing degrees of mylonitization due to shearing. The prograde
regionally metamorphosed mineral assemblages belonging to the
garnet biotite zone of the green schist facies conditions are charac-
teristically present only in the microlithons. Moreover, two gener-
ations of garnet, i.e., garnet within garnet have developed (Joshi
and Tiwari, 2004) in garnet mica schists exposed in central part
of the nappe indicating that this hiatus in crystallization and the
associated metamorphism could be pre-Himalayan. The mineral
assemblages of Himalayan dynamic metamorphism are restricted
to the pressure shadows. The widespread occurrence of mineral
assemblages of chlorite–biotite zone on low grade side and the
common occurrence of assemblages of garnet–biotite zone on pro-
grade side of the garnet–biotite isograd suggest the reaction: chlo-
332 M. Joshi, A.N. Tiwari / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335

Fig. 5. a. Photomicrograph showing the development of chlorite, biotite and muscovite lepidoblasts defining the foliation in microlithons of the Saryu Formation schists of
Almora Group. It is clear that these microlithons developed during the chlorite–biotite zone condition of regional metamorphism. Locality: Kakrighat. Scale: 0.08mm. b.
Photomicrograph showing the development of idioblastic garnet in association with biotite. The schists of Saryu Formation of Almora Group are unmylonitized and the
foliation on either side have been pushed away by the garnet growth during the metamorphism which outlasted the deformation. Locality: North of Almora town. Scale:
0.2mm. c. Photomicrograph showing the kyanite–biotite association in kyanite mica schists of Saryu Formation (Almora Group) formed after the reaction of Mg-
chlorite + muscovite = kyanite + biotite + H2O. Locality: Hawalbagh. Scale: 0.04mm. d. Photomicrograph showing the sillimanite needles enclosed in K-feldspar suggesting
reaction: muscovite + plagioclase + quartz = K-feldspar + sillimanite + melt. Rock type: sillimanite bearing gneiss of Almora Group. Locality: South of Karbala. Scale: 0.04mm.

rite + muscovite + quartz = garnet + biotite + H2O — (i) (Thompson
and Norton, 1968). The reaction isograd plotted on the composite
petrogenetic grid delineates the boundary between the lower
grade chlorite–biotite and the higher grade garnet–biotite zone.
The products of the reactant assemblages occur over a range of
temperatures because the reaction is continuous. The presence of
chlorite in Zone II can be explained by the reaction, chlorite1 + An
content of oligoclase = almandine rich garnet + chlorite2 + quartz +
H2O – (ii) (Winkler, 1976), where chlorite2 has a higher XMg. The
P –T conditions for this zone range from 504 to 560 °C at 4.48–
4.96 kbar (Fig. 6).
4.1.3. Kyanite–biotite zone (Zone III)
This zone is characterized by the mineral assemblage – garnet–
kyanite–biotite muscovite–plagioclase–quartz ± K-feldspar (Fig.
5c). In the Almora Nappe, the kyanite appears as tabular crystals
developed in medium to coarse grained kyanite–garnet mica
schists of the Saryu Formation of Almora Group exposed in the cen-
tral part of the nappe and these rocks are totally unaffected by
mylonitization. The Zone III (Kyanite–biotite Zone) characterized
by the common occurrence of higher grade mineral association,
viz. kyanite–garnet–biotite as compared to Zone II (garnet–biotite
zone) mineral assemblages suggests that the reaction at the
isograd is Mg–chlorite + muscovite = kyanite + phlogopite + H2O —
(iii) (Thompson and Tracy, 1979). The rocks in garnet–biotite zone
contain Mg-rich chlorite while the kyanite–biotite zone rocks are
enriched in the phlogopite (XMg = 0.52) content of biotite as a prod-
uct mineral. Chlorite is also present in this zone, only as a product
during the regressive phase of metamorphism. The stability of
mineral assemblages of kyanite–biotite zone is limited in the pet-
rogenetic grid (Fig. 6) by the reactions (iii), (iv) and (v) as well as by
the kyanite = sillimanite equilibria. P–T conditions determined by
thermobarometry are P = 5.13–7.79 kbar and T = 570–693 °C.
4.1.4. Sillimanite–K-feldspar zone (Zone IV)
The mineral assemblage characteristic of this zone is
sillimanite–kyanite (refractory)–garnet–biotite–K-feldspar–quartz ±
muscovite ± plagioclase (Fig. 5d). The Zone IV rocks are sillimanite/
kyanite gneisses exposed in central part of the Almora Nappe.
These high grade rocks are unaffected by mylonitization and be-
long to the upper amphibolite facies. The presence of kyanite in
rocks of this zone is as a relict phase due to its refractory nature.
In this zone the sillimanite occurs both in the form of needles
and as fibrolite. Fibrolite mats are inter grown with muscovite
and biotite flakes and appear synkinematic while the randomly ori-
ented needle shaped sillimanites within K-feldspar with unstable
muscovite–plagioclase association are either post-kinematic or a
consequence of partial melting due to which the stresses became
hydrostatic. The randomly oriented sillimanite needles show a sta-
ble association with the K-feldspar while the boundaries between
muscovite–plagioclase and muscovite–quartz are corroded and
fuzzy suggesting the reaction: muscovite + plagioclase + quartz =
K-feldspar + sillimanite + melt – (vi) (Thompson and Tracy, 1979).
The reaction is vapour absent melting reaction and is responsible
for the generation of melt and formation of the gneisses (Joshi
and Tiwari, 2005a). The persistence of muscovite and plagioclase
 M. Joshi, A.N. Tiwari / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335 333

(3) (5) 2005b). These folds are characteristically unaffected by mylonitiza-

(4)
tion and can be regarded as pre-shear deformational structures.

. dm
12

Ms
(1) Further, it is important to note that the LPO pattern of quartz c-

Mg Chl Ms

Zo
Phl As
W
Pl axes of schists and gneisses belonging to the Saryu Formation of

tz
Pg

lt
Me
Ky Ky

Kfs Ab Q
10 Sil Almora Group exposed in the central part of the nappe show tri-

As
Ms
clinic symmetry. It is clear that these rocks have totally escaped
. . the intense shear deformation and preserve the imprints of only
8 . (III)
. .. . pre-shear deformations. These unmylonitized rocks of Almora
z

. .

- -
-Gneisses
Chl Ms Qt
O
2

- -(IV)
Ga Bt H

-
(II) . . - - (2)
Nappe preserve pre-Himalayan metamorphic signatures (Joshi
and Tiwari, 2004) and have undergone greenschist to upper

..
Phl As (6)
6
P (Kbar)

Mg Crd Ms
(I) amphibolite facies metamorphism (Joshi and Tiwari, 2005a).
s H 2O Four metamorphic mineral zones of pre-Himalayan regional
Bt A
Alm l Ms Qtz
Ch Zone I metamorphism have been recognized, progressing from chlorite–
4
Zone II biotite to sillimanite–K-feldspar zone. In the geological cross section
Ky
And
Sil
And
.. . .. Zone III
(Fig. 3) along Chhara–Someshwar corridor, the repetitive disposi-
2 tion of metamorphic zones in relation to the structural features
-
- --
- - Zone IV
- indicates that the metamorphic isograd boundaries are involved
in tight F2 folding such that the grade of metamorphism increases
0
400 500 600 700 800 towards the core of the anticlines. The highest grade sillimanite–
K-feldspar zone (Zone IV) occurs in the core of the anticlines while
T (°C) the successively lower grade zones, viz. kyanite–biotite, garnet–bio-
Fig. 6. Schematic P–T grid illustrating the stability fields for different metamorphic tite and chlorite–biotite zones are disposed on either side of the core
zones of metamorphism. Abbreviations used: Ab – Albite, Alm – Almandine, And – of the fold. The area documents that the commonly accepted model
Andalusite, As – Aluminosilicate, Bt – Biotite, Chl – Chlorite, Crd – Cordierite, dm – of inverted metamorphism for the Himalayan metamorphics is not
dehydration melting, Ga – Garnet, Kfs – K-feldspar, Ky – Kyanite, Mg – Magnesium, applicable to the central parts of the Almora Nappe.
Ms – Muscovite, Pg – Paragonite, Phl – Phlogopite, Pl – Plagioclase, Qtz – Quartz, Sil
– Sillimanite, W – Water, Zo – Zoisite. d: Calculated P–T value for garnet–biotite
As the unmylonitized sillimanite bearing Precambrian gneisses
zone. j: Calculated P–T value for kyanite–biotite zone. : Calculated P–T value for (1865 ± 60 Ma; Trivedi et al., 1984) exposed in the central part of
sillimanite–K-feldspar zone. Al2SiO5 triple point and emerging univariant curves the nappe represent the culmination of regional metamorphism in
after Holdaway (1971). Arabic numerals refer to reactions discussed in the text. the Almora Nappe (Tiwari, 2000), it is inferred that the regional
Roman numerals refer to metamorphic zones.
metamorphism in the nappe is of Precambrian age. Moreover, well
preserved contact metamorphic assemblages and hornfelsic texture
in disequilibrium in the assemblages indicates that the peak meta- overprint the regional schistosity (Joshi et al., 1994) occurring
morphic condition had just crossed this reaction to the higher tem- around the intrusion of Early Palaeozoic granitoids (560 ± 20 Ma;
perature side (Fig. 6). Thermobarometric calculations suggest that Trivedi etal., 1984) further reinforce the inference that the dominant
the peak conditions of regional metamorphism reached at least the regional metamorphism is of Precambrian age which has escaped
sillimanite–K-feldspar zone at temperatures of 694–709 °C and the shearing during the nappe movement. The contact metamorphic
6.9–7.9 kbar pressure. imprint is also discernible in the area where the Almora Granite
(560 ± 20 Ma; Trivedi et al., 1984) intrudes the central parts of the
5. Discussion nappe south of Karbala. The contact aureole is characterized by the
hornfelsic texture overprinting the regional foliation (Fig. 7) and
5.1. Pre-Himalayan metamorphism (M1) by the development of andalusite idioblasts (Tiwari, 2000).

The development of two generations of garnet, i.e., garnet with-
in garnet (Joshi and Tiwari, 2004) indicates that this hiatus in crys-
tallization and the associated metamorphism is highly likely to be
pre-Himalayan. Earlier, Rosenfeld (1968) has described such occur-
rences of two garnets with different internal schistosity (Si) and
designated them as tectonometamorphic angular unconformity.
The evidence of pre-Himalayan metamorphism is reported from
Mount Everest where garnet bearing paragneisses yielded
449 ± 56 Ma (whole rock age by Rb–Sr) by Ferrara et al. (1983).
Also pre-Himalayan metamorphism is reported from Sutlej valley,
Himachal Pradesh where kyanite–sillimanite bearing paragneisses
are observed within the Lower Palaeozoic Kinner Kailas granite
(Marquer et al., 2000). Evidence of multiple deformation is quite
common in Almora Nappe, but central part of the nappe has es-
caped shearing, where the regionally metamorphosed schists and
gneisses of Saryu Formation show evidence of two phases of defor-
mations viz. D1 and D2. During D1 deformation S1 schistosity planes
defined by muscovite and biotite flakes along with inequant quartz
are developed, which have been affected by tight to isoclinal F2
folds. The S2 schistosity planes parallel to the crenulation cleavages
developed during D2 deformation are defined by the mica flakes
(Joshi and Tiwari, 2004). In Khatyari region near Almora town
the metapsammites of the Saryu Formation show well developed
recumbent to tight reclined type F1 and F2 folds (Joshi and Tiwari,
5.2. Himalayan Metamorphism (M2)
The whole of the Ramgarh Group and the basal parts of the
Almora Group of rocks exposed near thrust margins are strongly
mylonitized and have been dynamically metamorphosed (M2) dur-
ing Himalayan orogeny. Most of the mylonites indicate lower green
schist facies metamorphism of chlorite–biotite grade which has
been responsible for recrystallization of minerals in the pressure
shadows of the asymmetric porphyroclast systems. The phase rela-
tions of this Himalayan metamorphism (M2) are virtually similar to
those of the lower grade zones of regional pre-Himalayan meta-
morphism (M1) because the bulk composition of the rocks is likely
to be identical during both the metamorphisms.
One important feature of the Himalayan dynamic metamor-
phism (M2) is that the mineral constituents within the pressure
shadow zones do not always show fibrous/fine growth of minerals
parallel to the c -foliations. Recrystallized mineral assemblages
within the pressure shadows (Fig 2b) are quite common while
the characteristic fibrous/fine growth of mineral assemblages also
occur. The recrystallization of fine grained minerals aligned paral-
lel to the c -foliation into recrystallized aggregates of minerals
retaining overall shape of the pressure shadows can be attributed
to continuously changing domains of shear strain concentration.
Those pressure shadows which fall outside the last shear move-
334 M. Joshi, A.N. Tiwari / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34 (2009) 326–335
Fig. 7. Photomicrograph showing hornfelsic texture defined by randomly oriented muscovite and biotite developed during the contact metamorphism of garnet mica schists
of Saryu Formation (Almora Group) at the southern contact of the Almora Granite intrusion. The hornfelsic texture overprints the regional foliation (S2) defined by older
biotite and muscovite lepidoblasts. Scale: 0.08 mm.
ments are passively subjected to the ambient metamorphic condi-
tions and the relatively static heating of the pressure shadow
assemblage is responsible for the recrystallization of minerals
affecting the characteristic pressure shadow orientation of miner-
als in asymmetric porphyroclasts.
Conventional geothermobarometric methods are not suitable for
obtaining accurate estimates of temperature of mylonites for Hima-
layan dynamic metamorphism, because mineral assemblages found
in pressure shadow zones of the mylonites could not be used for any
reliable geothermobarometry. Nevertheless, the physical conditions
of metamorphism (M2) are estimated on the basis of the established
mineral reactions for the assemblages developed within the pres-
sure shadow zones in representative mylonites. The presence of bio-
tite in pressure shadow zones suggests temperatures of about 400 °C
or higher and suggest a minimum estimate of temperatures attained
during the dynamic metamorphism. The absence of fresh garnet in
pressure shadows clearly indicates that the reaction: chlorite +
muscovite + quartz = garnet + biotite (± Al2SiO5) + H2O (Hirschberg
and Winkler, 1968) was not crossed and suggests the P–T conditions
were around 450 °C/4 kbar during dynamic metamorphism. The
estimated temperature was further corroborated by quartz c -axes
diagrams (Fig. 2) that suggested medium to low temperature condi-
tion for the dynamic metamorphism. Srivastava and Mitra (1996),
however, have inferred temperatures in the range of 500–600 °C
on the basis of dynamic recrystallization of K-feldspar in what we
identify as the mylonitized Ramgarh Group of rocks (Joshi, 1999).
Thus it appears that locally high temperatures could have been at-
tained during the tectonic transport of the Almora Nappe.
6. Conclusions
In the Almora Nappe the structural elements present in the rock
bodies can be distinguished into three structural regimes viz. (a)
pre-shear zone structures, (b) syn- shear zone structures and (c)
post-shear zone structures with respect to the Basal Shear zone
(BSZ). The metamorphics of Almora Nappe associated with the
pre-shear zone structures that have escaped Tertiary shearing pre-
serve pre-Himalayan regional metamorphic signatures (M1), while
the mylonitized rocks show syn-shear zone structures document-
ing dynamic metamorphism (M2) related to the Himalayan orog-
eny. Four metamorphic zones progressing from the chlorite–
biotite zone (Zone I) to sillimanite–K-feldspar zone (Zone IV), have
been delineated on the basis of specific reaction isograds. These K-
feldspar–sillimanite bearing gneisses are an end product of regio-
nal metamorphism and have been dated at 1865 ± 60 Ma (Trivedi
et al., 1984). Across the Almora Nappe these zones show a typical
repetitive disposition indicating that the reaction isograd bound-
aries underwent tight post-metamorphic F2 folding (Joshi and Ti-
wari, 2007). This folded metamorphic sequence is intruded by
the Cambrian Almora Granite which has been responsible for a
contact metamorphic assemblage overprinting the garnet–mica
schists which progressively grade into the Precambrian gneisses.
Although an inverted thermal profile was recorded by Srivastava
and Mitra (1996) for the North Almora Shear zone which largely af-
fects the Ramgarh Group of rocks (Joshi, 1999) but it is docu-
mented in the present study that the commonly accepted model
of inverted metamorphism for the Himalayan metamorphics is
not applicable to the central parts of Almora Nappe. Thus thermal
inversion appears to be a phenomena related only to thrust move-
ment during the Himalayan orogeny and only the basal parts of the
Almora Nappe document the phenomenon, while sizable parts of
the nappe have remained unaffected by the inverted metamor-
phism. It is clear that the sillimanite bearing Precambrian gneisses
represent the culmination of regional metamorphism in the Almor-
a Nappe and thus the pre-Himalayan regional metamorphism is
highly likely to be of Precambrian age.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Head, Department of Geology, BHU, for providing
necessary facilities. ANT is thankful to the DST, New Delhi for pro-
viding financial support under SERC Fast Track Proposals for Young
Scientist Scheme (Project No. SR/FTP/ES-33/2004). We also thank
an anonymous reviewer whose constructive criticism helped us
in improving the paper.
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