Course Name: Heat Transfer

Course Code: UME 720

Topic: Introduction to Heat Transfer

by
Dr. Madhup Kumar Mittal
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology
Introduction to Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer is a process of transfer of heat from high temperature
location to low temperature location.
• The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer,
just as the voltage difference is the driving force for electric current
flow and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow.
• The magnitude of heat transfer rate depends on the magnitude of
temperature difference. The larger the temperature difference, the
higher the heat transfer rate.

• There are three processes or modes of heat transfer

✓ Conduction
✓ Convection
✓ Radiation.
Conduction
Mechanism of conduction heat transfer
atoms or molecules

Heat
Lattice structure of solid source
• Conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of collision between the particles.
Key points of conduction heat transfer
• Conduction takes place mainly in solids. In case of liquids and gases, conduction does take place, but not as good as in solids
because the molecules in them are not as close as they are in solids and so they do not collide as frequently as in solids.
• Metals are better conductor of heat than Non-metals because metals have free electrons which can transfer heat from one
end to the other very quickly.
e- e-
e-
e- e- e-

Lattice structure of metal Lattice structure of non- metal

• Conduction does not involve any movement of bulk (macroscopic) portion of matter for the transfer of heat.
• Heat conduction process is also called heat diffusion process.
Fourier's Law of Conduction
Let us consider a plane wall whose left face is maintained at higher temperature than right face. Let the
temperature variation across the wall in x-direction is given by a function t(x).

Heat conduction rate (heat transfer per unit time) in x-direction, through a plane located at a
c distance x from left face is given by the Fourier Law which is expressed as:
t
𝑑𝑡 Here in this equation, –ve sign indicates that the heat flow takes
b 𝑄𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 ……..(1)
𝑑𝑥 place in the direction of –ve temperature gradient.
t1 𝑥
A
t(x) where, Qx = heat conduction rate in x-direction, at plane x, ( unit J/s or W)
Qx d
t2 k = It is a constant parameter and its value depends on the wall
x material. This parameter is called thermal conductivity of
a x
the material, which is a measure of the ability of a material
L
to conduct heat.
A = surface area of plane perpendicular to the direction of
heat flow
𝑑𝑡
= temperature gradient in the direction of flow, at plane x.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Fourier’s Law of Conduction
𝑑𝑡
Fourier’s law of conduction is given by: 𝑄𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 ……..(1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
t
In case the temperature variation across the wall in x-direction
is non-linear as shown in figure, then heat transfer rate will
vary along the direction of heat flow due to varying temperature t1
x1
gradient along the direction of heat flow.
𝑑𝑡 x2
𝑑𝑡
i.e., 𝑄𝑥1 = −𝑘𝐴 & 𝑄𝑥2 = −𝑘𝐴 Qx1 Qx2 t2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 x
𝑥1

In case the temperature variation across the wall in x-direction t

is linear as shown in figure, then
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 t1
= = t(x)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
𝐿 x1
x2 t2
𝑡1 − 𝑡2 Qx1 Qx2
∴ 𝑄𝑥1 = 𝑄𝑥2 = 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 x
𝐿 L
Note: Temperature variation across the wall is observed to be linear when wall achieves steady state.
Convection
Mechanism of convection heat transfer

Convection
current

• Heated fluid rises from the bottom to the top of the water. Cold fluid descends downwards to
fill the space vacated by the hot fluid.

• Movement of fluid from one place to another due to temperature or density difference is called
convection current.

• Convection is a process of heat transfer caused by the bulk movement of the fluid. Convection
is possible only in fluid medium and is directly linked with the bulk motion of medium itself.
Convection
Newton-Rikhman Law of Convection Thin layer Temperature variation
Ts As
of fluid within thin layer
• In practical applications, we are normally
interested in convection heat transfer,
which occurs between wall surface and Tf
wall Ts
surrounding fluid. Tf
fluid

Thin layer of fluid Magnified view of thin layer of fluid

• Heat convection rate (heat transfer per unit time) between wall surface and surrounding fluid is given by
Newton-Rikhman Law as given below:
Q = h.As.(Ts −Tf) where, h = it is a constant parameter and its value depends on surface geometry,
nature of fluid motion, and thermodynamic & transport properties of
fluid. This parameter is called heat transfer coefficient, convection
coefficient or film coefficient.
As = wall surface area in contact with fluid
Thermal Radiation and Radiation Heat Transfer
• Thermal radiation is the thermal energy emitted by a body in the Radiation
form of electromagnetic waves (or massless particles known as
photons) as a result of its temperature.

• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal

radiation. The radiation energy emitted per unit time by a body at
absolute temperature Ts (i.e. T in K) is given by: Radiation
𝐸 = 𝜀. 𝜎𝑏 . 𝐴𝑠 . 𝑇𝑠4 (unit: W)
ε, As

where,
Bodt at Ts
ε = It is called emissivity and it is the radiative property of the
surface. Its value lies in the range of 0 to 1
σb = It is known as Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.67×10−8 W/m2-K4
Thermal Radiation and Radiation Heat Transfer
• When a body at temperature Ts is completely enclosed by a Enclosure surface
large evacuated enclosure whose surface is at temperature temperature Te
Te, the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the body
surface and enclosure surface is given by:
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀𝜎𝑏 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑒4 --- (1) Evacuated
Enclosure
• The above Eq. (1) can also be expressed in the same form
as the convection heat transfer equation, i.e.,
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑟 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑒 --- (2)
where hr is called 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 heat transfer coefficient Body

• On comparing Eqs. (1) & (2), we get:

ℎ𝑟 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑒 = 𝜀𝜎𝑏 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑒4

ℎ𝑟 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑒 = 𝜀𝜎𝑏 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑒 𝑇𝑠2 + 𝑇𝑒2 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑒

∴ hr in Eq. 2 is: ℎ𝑟 = 𝜀𝜎𝑏 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑒 𝑇𝑠2 + 𝑇𝑒2 --- (3)

Thermal Radiation and Radiation Heat Transfer
• If the space between body and enclosure is filled with any gas Enclosure surface
such as air, then the surface of body also simultaneously transfer temperature Te
heat to surrounding by convection heat transfer process. If the
surrounding air temperature is Ta, then the total rate of heat Air at
temperature Ta
transfer from surface to surrounding is given by:
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑

= ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 + ℎ𝑟 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑒 --- (1)

where, h is convective heat transfer coefficient and hr is
radiative heat transfer coefficient Body

• If the enclosure surface temperature is assumed to be same as that of

surrounding air temperature, i.e., Ta, then Eq. (1) can be expressed as:
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ + ℎ𝑟 . 𝐴𝑠 . 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
= ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎

where hr is: ℎ𝑟 = 𝜀𝜎𝑏 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑒 𝑇𝑠2 + 𝑇𝑒2

Thermal Resistance
• The concept of thermal resistance in thermal system is similar to the concept of electrical resistance in
electrical system.
• The thermal resistance concept significantly simplifies the analysis of complex thermal system problems.
t
• In electrical system, the driving • In thermal system, the
force for flow of current is the V1 driving force for flow of t1
V2 A
voltage difference and the current I t(x)
heat is the temperature Q
flow through an electric element Re t2
difference and the heat
is given by Ohm's Eq.: x
flow through a plane wall L
t1 t2
voltage difference across the element in steady state is given by: Q
Current flow (I) = Rth = L/kA
electrical resistance ofelement
𝑡1 − 𝑡2 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 𝑡1 − 𝑡2
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝐿 𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 = = =
𝐼= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒 𝐴 𝜌𝑡ℎ 𝐴
𝑘𝐴
𝐿
where, 𝑅𝑡ℎ = is called thermal resistance
𝑘𝐴
temp. difference across the wall 𝑡1 − 𝑡2
∴ Heat flow (Q) = =
thermal resistance of wall 𝑅𝑡ℎ
Thermal Resistance
Conductive Resistance t
• The heat flow through a plane wall in steady state is given by:
t1
𝑡1 − 𝑡2 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 t(x) A
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 = = Q
𝐿 𝐿/𝑘𝐴 𝑅𝑡ℎ t2
𝐿 x
L
where, 𝑅𝑡ℎ = is called conductive resistance t1 t2
𝑘𝐴 Q
Rth = L/kA

Convective Resistance
• Similarly, the heat transfer by convection from wall surface to surrounding ts
fluid can also be expressed in terms of thermal resistance as:
tf
𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑓
𝑄 = ℎ𝐴 𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡𝑓 = = Thin
1/ℎ𝐴 𝑅𝑡ℎ
layer
1 ts tf
where, 𝑅𝑡ℎ = is called convective resistance
ℎ𝐴 Q
Rth = 1/hA
END