Teaching English As A Second Language Methodology Research Paper

Type of paper: Research Paper

Topic: Literature, Education, Communication, Canada, Teaching, Skills, Students, Learning

Pages: 10

Words: 2750

Published: 11/12/2019

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Introduction

The aim of this paper is to identify the best approach of teaching English as a second language in
Canada. English is one of the two official languages in Canada. It is the major language in the whole
country except Quebec and most Canadians can speak English. According to the recent census
conducted in Canada, 58 percent of Canadians speak English as their first language, though 85
percent of Canadians can speak English (Statistics Canada, 2008). There is a considerable percentage
of people who speak English as a second language. However, Canada is now home to people of
different nationalities from all over the world and many people are still moving to Canada in droves
in search of educational and economic opportunities. A good percentage of these immigrants do not
come from English speaking countries and for them to operate in Canada, they need to learn English
as a second Language. The influx of newcomers into Canada has made the teaching of English as a
Second Language a very important part of the Canadian teaching and education system. This paper
will therefore focus on the teaching of English language to newcomers in Canada. For this teaching
to be effective, an efficient approach must be used to impart linguistic skills unto these newcomers.

There are various approaches that can be used to teach English as a Second Language to newcomers
but which approach is the most effective. Most scholars and analyst argue that communicative
approach is the best method of teaching English as a Second Language because it has succeeded in
many English teaching environments. Is communicative approach the best method of teaching
English as a second language to newcomers in Canada? Communicative approach or communicative
language teaching is an approach of teaching English as Second Language that focuses on interaction
as a means and goal of teaching and learning the language and though other methods are effective
in teaching English as a Second Language, this is the most effective approach of teaching the
language to newcomers. This paper will review the background literature concerning the use of the
communicative approach and discuss various variables that are related to English as a second
language. It will use theoretical positions to support the thesis that communicative approach is the
best method.

Background

Importance of English in Canada

This paper will focus on teaching of English as a Second Language to newcomers in Canada most of
whom have not been exposed to the language before. Why should newcomers to Canada learn
English as a Second Language in the first place? To start with, English is the major language in
Canada by far and more than 80 percent of Canadians can speak and use the language either as
mother tongue or a second language (Statistics Canada, 2008). English is one of the two official
languages in Canada and it is more predominant than French, the second official language in Canada.

Most official and national functions in Canada are carried out in English which. Most education
institutions in Canada use English as the medium of communication and instruction except in
Quebec area where French is predominant (Statistics Canada, 2008). Canada has become a preferred
destination for many people around the world and it has attracted immigrants from different
countries. Most of these countries do not use English as a Second Language which means that
newcomers to Canada from these countries must learn English for them to survive in Canada.

Teaching Methods and Approaches

An approach to teaching is a theory that is based on assumptions about how students learn. These
theories are put into practice through the teaching methods. A method is a strategy that moves
students towards achieving a certain objective which is to learn a second language. Over the years,
there are many methods of teaching English as a Second Language that have developed and while
some have failed by the way side, there are some that are still in use in the modern teaching of the
language. Modern theories and methodologies have led to the emergence of innovative approaches
and most distinguished linguists have worked hard to develop effective ways of teaching the
language to non native speakers and they have tried various teaching methods. Various methods of
teaching English as a second language have been tried and used over the years and each had its own
strengths and weaknesses. The main methods that have been used in the past for a long time are
audio lingual methods and direct method. Audio lingual method focuses more on grammar
(Richards, 2006).
It utilises phrases and repetitive set ups on the other hand direct method focuses on teaching
vocabulary and it involves drilling words over and over until students build up a vocabulary base.
However, there was an understanding later that being able to communicate and use the language
proficiently goes beyond the ability to use vocabulary and grammar and to translate. Educators and
linguists were dissatisfied with the conventional methods of teaching English as a second language
that did not yield the results they desired. The linguist felt that the students were not learning the
whole language when the translation and grammar methods were used because after learning, the
students did not know how to use appropriate social language, use linguistic expressions and could
also not communicate in the linguistic context (Richards, 2006).

Further research led to the development of a teaching methodology that would be effective in
teaching English as a second language and this method is the communicative approach.
Communicative approach replaced the audio-lingual and grammar translation methodologies of
English as a second language instruction. This method was meant to foster authentic use of language
and create classroom exchanges where the learners engaged in actual communication with each
other. Communicative teaching of language makes use of actual situations that necessitate linguistic
interaction and communication. The teacher sets up a real life situation that the students can
encounter in a real life setting and unlike the traditional approaches that relied on repetition, the
communicative approach has a variety of outcomes based on the situation set by the teacher
(Richards, 2006). The life based simulations that the teacher uses change daily and the motivation of
the students to learn emanates from their desire to meaningfully communicate about topics that are
also meaningful. Did the communicative approach succeed where the traditional methods failed?
How does communicative approach work?

Educators and linguistic experts believe that the communicative approach revolutionised the
teaching of English as a Second Language by creating experiences that the conventional methods
could not create. The strengths of the communicative approach lie in the two main methods that are
used to teach the English as a Second Language. These are the content based instruction and task
based language teaching. Educators and experts argue that communicative approach is the best
method of teaching English as a Second Language especially to learners who have not been exposed
to the language before because it applies linguistic content to tackle some tasks in a linguistic setting
(Richards, 2006). The content based instruction focuses on acquisition of linguistic skills and
knowledge while the task based learning focuses on provision of communicative activities that are
needed in the learning of the language.

Literature Review

Various scholars and linguistic experts have over the years raised points in support of the
communicative approach as the most effective method of teaching English as a second language and
have advised teachers of this discipline to use the approach widely. Why is communicative approach
the best method of teaching this discipline?

According to William Littlewood, the author of a book titled "Communicative approach to language
teaching methodology” communicative approach is the only approach that can help students of
English as a Second Language to use English for wide range of functions and purposes. It also makes
them be able to use language in different settings and also be able to use the language for formal
and informal purposes (Littlewood, 2003). They can use English in speech in a manner that is a
different from the written language. Communicative approach also enables the learners and the
users of the language to produce and comprehend different types of texts like conversations,
narratives and interviews. Lastly Littlewoods contends that communicative approach helps the
learners to maintain communication even if they have challenges emanating from the differences
between English and their native languages because it avails to them different kinds of strategies for
communication.

Another linguist namely Larsen-Freeman, of Oxford University, the communicative approach

provides opportunities for the learners to experiment with whatever they have been taught and
whatever they have learnt. Communicative approach, according to Freeman, makes the learners to
be tolerant of their errors and the errors made by their peers and provides the learners with the
avenue to develop accuracy and fluency in the language (Larsen-Freeman, 2003). He says that the
approach helps the learners the learners to link different linguistic skills such as speaking, listening
and reading together and use them in a real linguistic context. Instead of teaching grammar and
vocabulary, the approach helps them to discover the aforementioned and this is the best and way of
learning these two elements of language (Adams, 2006).

De Rolf (2004) is another scholar that supports the communicative approach to teaching of English
as a second language. In his paper titled “English communication through practical experiences”
published in the journal of English as a Second Language, De Rolf argues that conventional methods
of teaching English as a second language rarely give the students the confidence to use the language
outside the classroom context .The methods only helps the students in a very limited way. According
to this scholar, the main aim of teaching English as second language is to help the students in the
aspect of communication (De Rolf, 2004). I think the above reasons given by the three scholars are
plausible and support the thesis that communicative approach is the best method of teaching
English as a second language.

Comparing the Communicative Approach with the Conventional Approaches

Communicative approach is the best method of teaching English as a Second Language. The
approach excels because it does not focus on the basics of the language and the structure of the
language; if focuses on learners acquiring knowledge and skills that help them to use the language.
Unlike traditional methods of teaching English as a second language that were behaviouristic, this
method is quite holistic. The most notable strength of this approach is that it prioritises the semantic
content of linguistic learning where the learners learn through meaning and not the other way
round. The learning activities that the approach uses engage the students in an authentic and
meaningful use of language and this creates more motivation to learn the language. The traditional
methods like the audio-lingual and the direct methods did not have any motivating elements
because they engaged the students in mechanical learning of the patterns of language. The primary
aim is meaningful communication and when students make errors, they are able to learn from these
errors which help them to make more meaningful discourses. The approach is also learner centred
as opposed o the audio-lingual and the direct methods used in the past where the teacher was at
the centre of the teaching and the learning activities. Putting the students at the centre of teaching
and learning activities makes the process focus on the needs of the students and not the goals of the
teacher. The approach which is centred on the learner serves the social affective needs of the ESL
learner. It also motivates the students to learn the language.

Effective communication involves the use of emotions, feelings, expression of ideas and very many
other paralinguistic features of language. This means that using the conventional methodologies
does not give the learners the opportunity to use the aforementioned features of language thus
neglecting vital skill of communication. Using the communicative approach to teach English as a
Second Language creates a context for meaningful application of language, thus enhancing the
linguistic abilities of the students. It is especially very helpful in teaching set texts in literature and
ensures that the learners are more involved in the teaching learning process. Using this technique of
teaching breaks the monotony of the traditional teacher based methods that are less interesting
(Adams, 2006). It also prepares the students to communicate better in the outside world after their
school life. This is because communicative approach helps the students to learn language in its
operative context. The value of communicative approach in ESL teaching should be emphasized
because it is one of the most effective linguistic development tools that provokes creativity,
develops skills of self expression and also serves to stimulate reality. Activities like hot seating where
a learner is put at the centre of a debate to answer questions on a specific role are very viable in the
teaching of English as a Second Language. The approach also helps in critical analysis, writing reports
and also in public expression. It also helps the learners to be able to use language to react quickly to
situations because through spontaneous use of language and the mind.

Argument

Though communicative method is the best method of teaching English as a second language, I
believe that it is not possible to teach English to newcomers using only one method. Though the
conventional methods have some drawbacks and challenges, they can be used to supplement the
communicative approach to produce a whole some experience. This means that teachers of English
as a Second Language should ensure that they use a wide range of methods to teach English as a
second Language.
Conclusion

Canada has become a preferred destination for many people searching for educational and
economic opportunities and since English is the major official and national language, people who
settle in Canada from non Anglophone countries need to learn the language to survive in Canada.
This means that teaching of English as a Second Language has become a very important discipline in
the country and these newcomers can only get relevant linguistic skills if the correct approaches and
methods are used. This paper has tackled the communicative approach asserting that the approach
is the best method of teaching English as a second language to newcomers in Canada. The paper has
used supporting evidence from relevant literature written by authoritative scholars in educational
and linguistic circles. The bottom-line is that the communicative approach has succeeded where
conventional methods of instruction have failed.

The communicative approach is a very holistic approach that focuses on the semantics of language
instead of structure and patterns. It helps the learners to achieve a wide range of linguistic functions
and gives them a meaningful and authentic experience. The approach also removes the focus of the
teaching- learning process from the teacher to the students making the teaching of English as a
second language and this helps in satisfying their social affective needs. However, it cannot work in
isolation it needs to be supplemented by the conventional methods of teaching English as a second
language so that the newcomers can have a whole some experience. A mixture of different methods
is better than just using one method which is deemed to be the best. Therefore, people who settle in
Canada from countries that do not use English as means of communication can get a meaningful and
authentic linguistic experience if the teachers of English as a second language use the collaborative
approach together with the conventional methods to teach this discipline since it has been proved
beyond doubt to be the best method of teaching English as a second language especially in such a
setting.

References

Adamson, B. (2006). Fashions in Language teaching methodology. In Davies & C. Elder (Eds), The
Handbook of Applied linguistics (pp 604-619: London: Blackwell

De Rolf, J.D. (2000).English communication through practical experiences.

The journal of English as a Second Language, 21 (1) 22-25.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2006). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Littlewood, W. T. (2003). Communicative approach to language teaching methodology (CLCS

Occasional Paper No. 7). Dublin: Dublin University, Trinity College, Centre for Language and
Communication Studies. (EDRS No. ED 235 690, 23 pages)

Richards, J. C. (2006). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis.
Cambridge-UK: Cambridge University Press.
Statistics Canada. (2008). Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867-1967. Ottawa: Federal Publications
http://www65.statcan.gc.ca/acyb_r000-eng.htm.

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There are very famous and productive methods of teaching English. Some popular methods are
Grammar-cum-Translation, Direct Method, Audio-Lingual, Suggestopedia, and Silent Way. The
methodology of teaching English differ from person to person. A teacher in a classroom with 25-50
students, the sole speaker striking facts and theories at the students, is the traditional teaching
method. Like any other topic, teaching language has undergone a lot of changes. It has shifted to role-
plays, interactive games, short visuals, etc. from the traditional ways.
Teaching a language has different ways and paradigms. Let's look at some of the most effective and
popular methods of teaching English.
In the history of teaching languages, there are many teaching approaches and techniques, with some
being more well-known and successful than others. Language teaching methods are reliant on and
affected by various hypotheses of language learning. The historical backdrop of language teaching
advances in multiple ways.
There are a lot of methods of English teaching, and we've listed a few that are very famous and active
methods.

1. Grammar-cum-Translation Method
2. The Direct Method
3. The Audio-Lingual Method
4. Suggestopedia
5. The Silent Way
6. Total Physical Response
7. Community Language Learning
8. Communicative Language Teaching
9. Task-Based Learning
10. Lexical Approach

Grammar-cum-Translation Method
The name itself explains the functionality of the grammar-cum-translation method. The strategy of
teaching English in grammar orientation depends on a ton of interpretation. The technique is the
conventional or 'old style' method of learning a language. A few nations approach this teaching style.
The fundamental thought behind this strategy is that the students become familiar with all grammar
rules to translate various sentences easily.
Many teachers recognize this technique as incapable since it does not include the spoken form of the
language, and communication skills are ignored. Furthermore, it does not allow the learners to think
directly in the target language. Thus, it hinders the creation of a direct link between thoughts and
expression. Consequently, this technique doesn't improve the student's communicative ability in the
language but only builds strong language writing skills.
The Direct Method
The Audio method is also known as the direct method, which involves thinking and speaking in
English. Here the communication between the teacher and the student is strictly in English, and the
student is barred from using their native language. This way, the student can get a stronghold on the
accent and fluency, the frequency of grammatical errors in this would be less. 
This method is widely used as it helps the students learn the English language in a way a native
English speaker would speak like and not the orthodox textbook way. 
The following principle and procedures that guide the natural method are,

1. Teachers and students both use the target language in the classroom.
2. Students tend to have daily sessions on vocabulary and sentences.
3. Grammar is instructed inductively.

The Audio-Lingual Method

The audio-lingual method is also recognized as the Army Method. During the first world war, the
American Armed forces started escalating oral courses known as the 'Military particular Training
Program' (ASTP). Instructive organizations later received it as the audio-lingual method.
The striking highlights of the audio-lingual method are,

1. Language teaching starts with communication; the material is educated before it is offered in
composed structure.
2. The objective language is the study hall's main language; the students' primary language isn't
utilized.
3. The teacher is the role model for the student; student-to-student interaction happens in chain
drills.

The army method is identified with the natural method. The most significant difference between the
audio-lingual method and the natural method is its focal point of teaching. The natural method focuses
on the learning of vocabulary, while the audio-lingual practice focuses on communication.
Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is a behaviourist theory developed by Georgi Lozanov, the Bulgarian psychotherapist
in the 1970s. The method involves using the environment, music, decoratives, etc., for learning the
language.  
It depends a lot on the atmosphere and the physical environmental factors of the class. When
teachers prepare to utilize the Suggestopedia method, there's a great deal of craftsmanship and music
included. Each suggestopedia exercise is divided into three unique stages:

1. Deciphering
2. Concert Session
3. Elaboration

The Silent Way

The silent way leans mainly on the student's self-sufficiency. The teacher demonstrates only as a
facilitator attempting to urge students to be more efficient in their learning. The fundamental of these
lines of teaching is for the teacher to state practically nothing so that students can assume
responsibility for their education. 
This learning method follows a basic schedule, grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation continually
drilled and reused for support. The teacher assesses their students through their mistakes, and they
may never set a conventional test as students are urged to address their language blunders.
Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response, also called TPR, is a methodology that follows 'learning by doing. For
example, apprentices will learn English through a series of activities, "Close the door", "Stand up",
"Open your book", and "Stroll to the window and open it." With TPR, the most significant aptitude is
aural perception, and everything else will be regular.
Community Language Learning
Community language learning is a language-teaching approach in which students cooperate to create
what parts of a language they might want to learn. It depends on the counselling approach.
CLL is most likely one of the English teaching methods where the student feels the most secure.
There's an extraordinary accentuation on the relationship and bond between the student and teacher.
In contrast to a ton of different methods and ways to deal with teaching English as a Second
Language, a great deal of the native language is utilized for translation purposes.
Communicative Language Teaching
The thought behind this methodology is to assist students with conveying all the more successfully
and effectively in sensible circumstances that they may wind up. Therefore, this teaching includes
concentrating on important capacities like thanking, complaining, suggesting, inviting, and requesting
directions to give some examples.
Communicative Language Teaching has the following qualities:

1. The point is to make the student achieve communicative capability, for example, utilizing
language precisely and appropriately.
2. Communicative Language Teaching underscores the elements of a language rather than the
principles.
3. Utilize techniques to energize student cooperation in typical habitats- information gap
exercises, role-play, group, and pair work.

Task-Based Learning
Task-based language teaching is also called task-based instruction. The principal point of this way to
deal with learning is task finishing. Typically, the teacher sets relevant and exciting tasks. Then,
students are required to draw on their information in English to finish the job with as few mistakes as
could be expected under the circumstances. Such assignments can incorporate visiting a specialist,
directing a meeting, or calling customer care for help.
Lexical Approach
The lexical approach in language teaching looks to create a proposition for schedule plan and
language teaching established on a view of language in which lexis assumes a focal job.
The Lexical approach depends on computer studies that have recently distinguished the most
customarily utilized words. This approach in teaching centres around vocabulary is securing and
teaching lexical lumps arranged by their recurrence and use. Teachers of the Lexical Approach place
an extraordinary accentuation on bona fide materials and practical situations for increasingly important
learning.
 (Keerthana R , Feb 8, 2022) (https://www.getmyuni.com/articles/methods-of-teaching-english)

Methods Of Teaching English Language Essay 

Language teaching methods are dependent on and influenced by different theories of
language and language learning. The history of language teaching puts forward different
kinds of methods. These methods are adopted by different people in different situations
according to the need of the learners. Different methods may be appropriate to different
contexts.

The efficiency of a method depends upon a complex of factors which vary from place to
place and situation to situation. The challenge today is to avoid dogma and rigidity through
fresh consideration of priorities, and to root all new strategies in the realities of the situation.
An attempt has been made here to take into sweep the history of language teaching methods
beginning from the earliest times to the present time. Some of the important methods and
approaches to teach English as a second language are discussed here.

2.3.1 The Grammar Translation Method

The Grammar Translation method aimed at making learners understand grammar in
traditional terms, and acquire a wide literary vocabulary of a second language. Ultimately,
learners were expected to become proficient in writing the language accurately, and also
appreciate the literary significance and value of reading text.

This method focused on application of rules of grammar, which are practiced through
translation exercises. Learners are asked to write a piece of composition on a topic based on
the reading passage. It aimed at teaching learners more about the target language, but not how
to use it.

This method favours to teach English by rules not by use. It aims at training the learners to
write the language accurately by regular and systematic practice in translating words and
sentences from their mother tongue. Students get no opportunities to participate in the
discussions of the unit. Translations into mother tongue affect the originality of the words. It
does not allow the learners to think directly in target language. Thus, it hinders to create a
direct link between thought and expression.

Most of the instructors acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself as it does not
stress on the spoken form of the language and communication skills were neglected. The
material this method worked with was literary and as such of little use in transactions. Hence,
this method does not enhance the students’ communicative ability in the second language.

2.3.2 The Direct Method

The term ‘direct’ refers to the fact that learners are in direct contact with the target language.
The aim of this method was to develop in the learners, the ability to think in the language,
whether in speaking, reading or writing.

The following procedures and principles guide this method:

Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.

Only every day vocabulary and sentences are taught.

Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded sequence placed around question
and answer interactions involving both the teacher and students in small and interactive class.

Grammar is taught inductively.

Concrete vocabulary is taught by using real life objects and pictures and abstract vocabulary
is taught by connecting various ideas.

Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized. (Sinha, 2005. 114)

In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language. The learner is not allowed
to use his or her mother tongue.

The direct method was popular towards the end of 19th century sometime and in the
beginning of the 20th century. This method was successful in private schools but found it
difficult to use in public schools as there was a demand on teachers that they should use high
proficiency and native – like fluency in spoken language.

It was not possible to learn the second language just like the first language since there was
not enough time and opportunities available in the schools. Teachers were expected to teach
only in target language which was a great struggle for them. Learners were confused as there
was no selection and grading of vocabulary and grammar were carried out.

2.3.3 The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)

During First World War, the American army began intensive oral/aural courses known as the
‘Army specialized Training Programme’ (ASTP) and were later adopted by educational
institutions as the audio lingual method (Brown, 2000.74).

The salient features of the audio-lingual method are:

Language teaching begins with the spoken language; the material is taught verbally before it
is offered in the written form.

The target language is the only language of the classroom; the mother tongue of the learners
is not to be used.

New language items are introduced and practiced situationally, through contextualized
dialogues.

Items of grammar are called structures and graded following the principle that simple forms
are taught before complex ones. Grammar is induced from examples given and no explicit
grammar rules are to be provided.

Reading and writing are initiated once an adequate grammatical foundation is laid.

The teacher is the role model; student-to-student interaction takes place in chain drills or
when students take different roles in dialogues. (Krishnaswami, 2003)

The audio-lingual method began to decline as students failed to achieve long-term

communicative capability. It was realized that habit formation, over learning and avoidance
of errors was not the best way to learn a second language (Brown, 2000.75). Although, this
method provided potentially good tools for SLA, its lack of concentration on meaning and
fluency detracted from its success.

2.3.4 The Bilingual Method

This method was developed by Dr. C. J .Dodson. He says, ‘a different attitude is necessary
toward the place and function of the mother tongue in the process of learning a second
language’. It was proved that the mother tongue, when used as a meaning conveyor,
facilitates rather than hinders the imitation responses of the learners. This sparing use of the
mother tongue also releases more time for practice and active contact with the foreign
language which is crucial at the beginning stages for acquisition of correct language habits.

Dodson’s Bilingual Method within the framework of the structural approach allows the use of
the mother tongue in the class; he postulates a rule: only the teacher is to use the mother
tongue for the words and sentences that are being learnt, and are for classroom instructions.
He divides the bilingual method cycle into stages; in the initial stages, the teacher uses the
mother tongue more liberally even in asking questions and in giving explanations and
instructions. But, in the later stages, the use of the mother tongue is reduced gradually, and
the teacher and the taught use only the target language (Krishnaswamy, 2003).

Later, this method was not accepted as it opens the ‘floodgates’ of the mother tongue which
results in the excessive use of it in English language classes; this, in turn, considerably
reduces whatever little exposure there is to English.

2.3.5 The S-O-S Approach/Method

The audio-lingual method came to India in a modified form. The advocates of S-O-S
approach emphasized a systematic study of the principles and procedures that could be
applied to the selection and organization of the content of a language course.
The main characteristics of this approach are:

Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is
presented in written form.

The target language is the language of the classroom.

New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.

Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service
vocabulary is covered.

Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught
before complex ones.

Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is
established.

But later on, S-O-S approach suffered from many of the draw-backs of the audio lingual
method, as a certain rigidity was built into the way this approach was translated into text
books and teaching materials. The methodology advocated to realise the approach had
acquired ritualistic dimensions like other rigid methodologies. In the mid-sixties, however,
the view of language, language learning and language teaching underlying this approach was
called in question. Reaction to this approach led to communicative language teaching.

2.3.6 Communicative Approach

The communicative language teaching means little more than an integration of grammatical
and functional teaching. Littlewood (1981.1) states, “One of the most characteristic features
of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well
as structural aspects of language”. Dell Hymes (1972) referred to ‘communicative
competence’ that includes both grammatical knowledge and ability to use this knowledge and
perform different kinds of functions.

This approach is a natural extension of the notional-functional syllabus. It has already been
realized that the classical paradigm afforded an unsuitable basis for the teaching of language
for communication (Trim, 1981). The notional-functional syllabus threw up ideas, worked
out syllabuses and these in turn have become the basis of the communicative approach.

Communicative approach claims that learners’ motivation is increased if they feel that they
are working on communicative skills; they assert that a language is learnt effectively when
the focus is not on language and that learners learn how to communicate by communicating,
by interacting with their teachers and fellow students. It is a learner-centred approach. CLT
provides the learner the opportunities not only in grammatical competence but also in social
skills to satisfy his/her daily needs as larger aim.

Characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching

Communicative Approach or communicative language teaching has following characteristics:
The aim is to make the learner attain communicative competence, i.e. using language
accurately and appropriately.

The prime focus is on the learner. The teacher is just a facilitator – a person who ‘manages’
the environment and the materials which will help the learners become autonomous.

It relies on ‘authentic’ materials. The tasks set are purposeful and meaningful. Thus, the
communicative task can be judged immediately for its ‘success’ by the learner
himself/herself.

CLT emphasizes the functions of a language rather than the rules.

Communicative tasks aim at making the learners fluent (especially during the early stages), as
well as accurate in the target language.

Use of techniques to encourage student participation in natural environments – group and pair
work, role play, simulation and information gap exercises.

2.3.7 The Lexical Approach

Linguistic theory has also recognized a more central role for vocabulary in linguistic
description. Linguistic theory has also recognized more central role for vocabulary in
linguistic description.

Lexical approach in language teaching seeks to develop proposals for syllabus design and
language teaching founded on a view of language in which lexis plays a central role.

Willis stresses, “The lexical syllabus not only subsumes structural syllabus, it also indicates
how the structures which make up syllabus should be exemplified “since the computer corpus
reveals the commonest structural patterns in which words are used (Cullis, 1990: vi).

Specific roles for teachers and learners are also assumed in a lexical approach. The status of
lexis in language teaching has been considerably enhanced by development in lexical and
linguistic theory, by work in corpus analysis, by recognition of the role of multiword units in
language learning and communication.

2.3.8. The Need for an Eclectic Approach

It was as a reaction to the profession of teaching methods in the 1970’s and 1980’s and the
rigidity frequently found in the application of these methods that the eclectic approach was
proposed. The teachers have been choosing the method which suits their teaching aims and
classroom situation.

An eclectic approach according to Rivers (1981. 54) allows the language teachers to attract
the excellent practices of all the leading methods and use them in their classroom teaching. It
is obviously essential because teachers are engaged in the daily task of assisting students to
learn a new language. The teachers have neither time nor can they apply each and every new
method that comes into practice.
The preference of English language teachers around the world today is for some of
communication teaching and learning. It is essential that the learners are given a lot of
opportunities to practice in and outside the classroom. It is also important that they have
enough time and freedom absorb, reproduce and analyze what they have been exposed to. It
is equally essential that they internalise the linguistic structure and use it whenever necessary
for communication.

The eclectic approach is criticized because it does not offer any guidance regarding the basis
and the principles by which the aspects of various methods can be opted and used.

2.3.9 Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

Content- based instruction (CBI) refers to an approach to second language teaching in which
teaching is organized around the context or information that students acquire, rather than
around a linguistic or other type of syllabus.

Language is used for specific purposes. The purpose may be academic, vocational, social or
recreational but it gives direction, shape and ultimately meaning to discourse and text. When
learners focus on the language samples, they are exposed to, they become engaged in
following through and seeing if the purpose is attained and how their own interests relate to
this purpose.

Many CBI practitioners recommend the use of realia such as tourist guide books, technical
journals, railway timetables, news paper ads, radio and TV broadcasts and so on.

Critics have noted that most language teachers have been trained to teach language as a skill
rather than as a content subject. Thus, language teachers may be insufficiently grounded to
teach subject matter in which they have not been trained. As CBI is based on a set of broad
principles that can be applied in many different ways and is widely used as the basis for many
different kinds of successful language programmers, one can expect to see CBI continues as
one of the leading curricular approaches in language teaching.

2.3.10 Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)

In this age of information technology, there is hardly any sphere of human activity that has
been left untouched by computers. Computers have revolutionized data storage and retrieval
and have added a new dimension to educational technology.

Technology cannot replace the teacher in the classroom, but can lend assistance to facilitate
learning.

Computer lessons address all the skill areas-listening, speaking, reading and writing. It also
makes distance learning possible as well as convenient.

The language laboratories can set up with equipment that provides individual learners with a
headset.

The advantages of computers in language teaching are:

It can control presentation. It can combine visual and graphic information with text it can
highlight features using colour and movement.

It can provide novel and creative stimuli for learning. New language can be created in an
interactive mode.

It provides immediate feedback. And this can be used for error correction. It can also help in
error-analysis.

Its adaptability helps teachers to adopt instructional materials to suit the needs of the students.

Conclusion
The basic principles and procedures of widely practiced methods for teaching a second
language are described. Both Direct and Oral methods which proposed an eclectic approach
based on the learners, gained prominence over Grammar Translation method. The new tools
advanced by technology and science contributed much to the development of audio-lingual
and audiovisual methods in language teaching. As a reaction to audio-lingualism, cognitive
code learning began to recognize learning as an innovative process and looked for common
features of all languages. The Communicative Language teaching with its stress on meaning,
fluency and real life communication came into existence from the notion of language as a
social process. It then became recognized approach for language teaching.

The researcher agrees with Mitchell and Myles (2004.261), ‘that there can be no best method
which is relevant at all times and in all circumstances with all types of learners. In keeping
with today’s learners the teachers use diverse language teaching methods.

2.4 Language Skills

The main purpose of any classroom teaching in English is to improve the communicative
abilities of the learners. To improve the communicative abilities, the classroom teaching has
to be necessarily skill oriented. English language is widely used for communication purposes
and so competence in language skills has become necessary to improve the communicative
abilities specially listening, speaking, reading and writing (LSRW).

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Among these four skills, both listening and reading are called as receptive skills or passive
skills and the other two skills, namely speaking and writing are called as productive skills or
active skills. It is important to note that these skills are interconnected in order to achieve the
overall objectives of communication. Everything takes place and develops within the
linguistic, cultural and social boundaries of the concerned society in which the particular
language is spoken. It is the curriculum, syllabus; text book, teaching methodologies under
the efficient functioning of the teacher in the classroom, those students are shaped in
communicative competence.

2.4.1 Listening Skills

Listening is the capacity to process information coming from an aural source. Such
information is first filtered by the perceptual processes of the listener and absorbed into the
short-term memory. Selected information is then stored into the long-term memory for
retrieval at a later stage, if and when required.

Listening places a far greater load on the memory because the listeners cannot go back to the
previous text in order to check or revise comprehension.

According to Rivers (1968) there are two basic levels while learning to listen, they are the
levels of recognition and selection and the levels of selection. When the learners begin to hear
a second language, they hear only meaningless sounds but when a person is continuously
exposed to a language, he/she may begin to recognise elements and patterns of grammar
automatically.

Listening comprehension attained the signpost of a wide range of theories of second language
acquisition (SLA) and classroom teaching, which focus on the beginning levels of second
language proficiency.

Further, in L2 teaching classrooms, not only English but also other L2 learning situations, the
centrality of listening comprehension in L2 learning process has been exceptionally
established with appropriate theories and practices. For e.g., Rost (1994) summarizes the
importance of listening comprehension in L2 learning process as follows:

Listening is an important skill in the classroom for the learner to get the correct input, without
it, he/she cannot gain anything.

Spoken language offers the learner to interact with others.

The spoken language challenges the learner to understand the language as native speakers
actually use it.

Listening exercises gives an opportunity to the teachers to draw the attention of the learners
by giving various interesting listening inputs.

(Rost, 1994. 141)

Place of Listening Skills in Second Language Acquisition

In the sixties, behaviourists influenced language teaching. Language learning was understood
as basically habit formation. The audio-lingual and audio-visual teaching methods were based
on the above view. Moreover, in this approach, teaching of listening comprehension in
second language profession was viewed as only mastering discrete skills and the main focus
was on teaching and testing those discrete skills; listening was considered a passive skill and
the learner a passive receiver of information.
In the early 70’s, listening comprehension was given importance in learning a language. For
e.g. in Total Physical Response (TPR) approach and in The Natural approach this trend can
be seen. It is believed that listening helps to internalize the language system and thereby
acquire language. In other words, by listening to a language a learner not only will learn to
comprehend listening inputs but also will be able to improve his/her reading, writing and
speaking skills.

Listening Comprehension Process

Listening comprehension has been realized as high-level active process and the listener has
an important role by way of interacting with the text interpreting the text based on several
other factors such as his/her background knowledge, the context and the purpose of listening.
This is evident from some of the recent definitions of listening comprehension.

“Listening comprehension is an inferential process in which the listener constructs meaning

through this interaction and the interpretation of the text is guided and influenced by the
context of situation listener’s purpose for listening (Buck, 1997. 28).

Lynch & Mendelson, (2002) defines listening, “listening involves making sense of spoken
language, normally accompanied by other sounds and visual input, with the help of our
(listeners’) relevant prior knowledge and the context in which we (listeners) are listening.”

Rost (2005. 503) opines, listening refers to a complex cognitive process that allows a person
to understand spoken language.

From the above definitions, one may conclude that, listening comprehension is not a simple
process and the processes cannot be overtly observed. Buck (1997) claims that, listening
comprehension is an “inferential process” and through that operation listeners take the
responsibility of ‘constructing meaning’. Listeners interact with the text, which is supported
by the context. And listener’s purpose also plays a key role in making meaning. According to
Lynch and Mendelson (2002) , listening comprehension a bundle of related processes such as
recognition of sounds uttered by the speaker, perception of intonation patterns, interpretation
of the relevance of what is being said to the current topic and so on. Rost (2005) precisely
says that, listening comprehension is a ‘complex process’ and this process is carried out by
the listener to construct meaning of ‘spoken language (P. 503).

Purpose of Listening
While listening to various texts, one applies different skills to process the text, depending on
the purposes for which one is listening.

Listening is the only medium through which one access the sounds of a language and all the
supra segmental features of the language, such as tone, pitch, stress, pause, etc. Hence,
listening is a pre-requisite for speaking and at a later stage, for reading.

Without knowing how a language sounds, one cannot engage confidently in speaking in the
language, and without knowing how the sound patterns of the language function, reading its
graphics serves little purpose. Teaching discriminative listening helps the learner to
comprehend the language.
Listening can be a major source of pleasure and relaxation. Listening to the sounds in nature
can be very soothing. Listening to someone reading stories aloud or poem is a pleasurable
activity. Listening is also an important social skill.

Difficult Factors in Listening

There are five major factors that researchers believe affect listening comprehension.

Text characteristics (Variation in a listening passage / text or associated visual support.

Interlocutor characteristics (Variation in the speaker’s personal characteristics.

Task Characteristics (Variation in the purpose for listening and associated response).

Listener Characteristics (Variation in the listener’s cognitive activities and in the nature of the
interaction between speaker and listener).

Teaching Listening Comprehension

Though listening may be the specific form, listening comprehension involves a number of
language skills. Teaching listening comprehension is of two types: 1. Teaching linguistic
nuances like phonetic differences, identification of similar sound in words, recognizing word
boundaries and morphemes, distinguishing syntactical and lexical items in sentences, etc; 2.
Teaching how to listen to a context, how to draw meaning of unfamiliar words and how to
recognize them in a speech. Both the forms are important and undividable for teaching of
listening skills. But any error is found in teaching either of these forms; its effect will be seen
in speaking, reading and writing skills as well.

Testing listening skills

The main aim of testing listening skills is to help students understand the meaning of words
and to provoke them to critically assess the given material. The test items consist of:
dialogue, news, railway announcement, years, days, sentence, words, word pairs and
numbers. These items were used to test the listening comprehension skills of students under
study.

Conclusion
Here, the emphasis is on the importance of addressing the differences between spoken and
written texts in the teaching of listening skills. It is only when learners are aware of the
unique characteristics of authentic listening input that they can be equipped with the skills to
handle real life communication.

2.4.2 Speaking skills

Speaking is ‘the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-
verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts’ (Chaney, 1998. 13). It is an extremely important
faculty, and essential for an individual’s living as are the abilities of seeing and walking.
Speaking is also the most natural way to express one’s own feelings, thoughts, opinions,
ideas and insights. Without the ability of speaking, people fail to orally communicate with
their fellow human beings and remain in isolation from any kind of society.

Language is a social phenomenon and a system for communication in speech and writing.
Written language is the representation of spoken language by visual symbols. Language
indeed is a special possession of humankind. Without language human civilization would
have been impossible.

Today language is not only a library language but also a language of opportunities and
possibilities. Recognizing the new role of English in the present era, the academic bodies are
launching new courses with the goal of equipping students with requisite knowledge and
skills. In addition to this, spoken English institutes are mushrooming in almost all cities and
urban areas. In a liberalized global world English is the best medium of communication and
the gateway to educational opportunities and economic success.

Importance of Speaking Skills

The need for developing speaking skills in English has grown enormously during the recent
years. With the incredible increase in international trade, tourism and travel, and exchange of
efforts in various fields and professions, the demand for acquiring the spoken form of English
has gone up considerably.

India being a multi-lingual country, English is often called upon to play the role of a lingua-
franca in the context of inter-state movement and communication. Speaking is a
multidimensional skill and there is no specific definition of it because of its complex nature.
Globally authors, linguists, language experts and researchers have come up with different
views based on their experience, research and experiments and produced various ideas.

Penny Ur (1996.120) defines speaking in the following way:

Speaking is the most important skill since people who know a language are referred as “the
speaker” of a language. In addition, speaking is the ability that includes all other kinds of
knowing. It is the productive skill in the aural mode”.

According to Brown and Yule (1983), when the speaker says words to the listener, it is not
only to express what is in his/her mind but also to cater to the needs or information services
of the listener.

Process of Communication
Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non-verbal messages. It is continuous
process. For a successful oral communication speakers need knowledge of language features,
ability to process information, and language and the spot. The rapid processing skills help
speakers process the information and language on the spot.

The ability to make use of the words or language to express oneself in ordinary voice is to
perform the linguistic knowledge in actual communication and ability to express ideas,
feelings, thoughts, and needs orally.
Communicative Competence
The term communicative competence is coined by the anthropological linguist Dell Hymes
(1967, 1972). Light (1997. 63) has described communicative competence as “Being able to
meet the changing demands and to fulfill one’s communication goals across the life span.
Communicative competence is the ability to send messages which promote attainment of
goals while maintaining social acceptability.

Testing Speaking
Effective communication depends on one’s ability to express oneself in speech clearly,
accurately and fluently. The learners follow different strategies to communicate to the
teachers and to their fellow students. In the present research study, test is given to find out the
different techniques used by the learners to communicate effectively.

2.4.3 Reading Skills

Human existence has centered on the development of oral traditions and over the years,
spoken language as a tool of communication has gained our importance. However, with the
vast amount of information growing around, reading as a skill and the ability to read for
different purposes has gained great importance.

Reading is an indispensable skill and as a means of communication, it is as important as

speaking. More than simply using any reading material as a tool for constructing knowledge,
it is importance to know how it is used. The students have to be trained to learn with the
texts- a process via which students interact with the texts as they build their own meaning and
knowledge. Reading plays a crucial role in language learning/teaching because of its ability
to feed one’s existing knowledge in different ways.

Definitions of Reading
Reading comprehension can be defined as an active thinking process through a reader
intentionally constructing meaning to form a deeper understanding of concepts and
information presented in the text (Neufeld, 2006). To comprehend readers must use
information they already possess to filter, interpret, organize and reflect upon the incoming
information from the page. Efficient interpretation of the text involves a combination of the
word recognition skills, linking of new information to prior knowledge, and application of
appropriate str