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● Colors:
Black
Copper(II) oxide solid
Carbon (graphite)
Iodine and astatine solid

White
Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
Salts not containing transition metals
Silver chloride solid
Lead chloride solid
Litmus in halogen (bleaches)

Blue
copper(II) ion in solution
copper(II sulfate hydrated
Litmus in base
Cu2+ ion flame (blue-green)

Purple
Iodine vapor
Oxidizing agent KMnO4 before reaction (colorless after)

Green
Universal indicator in water
Chromium(III)
iron(II)

Yellow
Silver iodide solid
Lead iodide solid
Sodium ion flame

Orange
Bromine liquid
Oxidizing agent Potassium dichromate goes orange to green (not in new syllabus)

Red
Litmus in acid
Li ion flame

Brown
Iodine solution
iron(III) ppt (red-brown)

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Reducing agent KI goes colorless to brown

Cream/off white
Silver bromide
Lead bromide

Pink
Copper solid

Lilac
K+ flame

Apparatus:
Conical flask for mixing and titration
Pipette for exact volume (10,25 or 50 cm3)
Burette for adding variable volume
Boiling flask for heating and mixing
Volumetric flask for changing concentration/ diluting
Measuring cylinder
Gas syringe for collecting and measuring gas
Gas jar for collecting gas

Salt Analysis
Zinc ion dissolves in both
Al and Cr dissolves in NaOH only
Cu dissolves in ammonium solution
(CuZn - NH3aq ZAC- NaOH)
Note: elements of ions soluble in NaOH all form amphoteric oxides

Test for water

Cobalt(II) chloride goes blue to pink
Copper(II) sulfate goes white to blue

Diffusion
Faster at high temperature, lower Mr

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Diatomic molecules
H2,N2,O2,Halogens
CO

Triatomic Molecules
Ozone (O3), Water, CO2

Kinetic Particle Theory

1. Kinetic Molecular Theory:
a. Particles move randomly; vibrating in solids, sliding in liquids, freely in gases
b. Particles have forces between them; electrostatic in ionic and metallic,intermolecular
in simple covalent
c. Particles have distances between them; closer in solids to far apart in gases
d. Particles are arranged in layers in most solids, but have no fixed arrangement in
other states
2. Diffusion is when particles move from an area of higher concentration to lower
concentration (where they are more to where they are less)
a. They diffuse slower if they are heavy (calculate relative mass)
b. They diffuse faster if they have high kinetic energy (high temperature)
3. Pressure is more when particles collide more, volume is how far they are; so in less space
they collide more and vice versa, so P is inversely proportional to V
4. Temperature is average kinetic energy of particles, so with high temperature they move
more, this increases volume or also increases pressure
5. Converting states of matter: those that need energy (melting, boiling, evaporation,
sublimation) and those that release energy (freezing, condensation, gas to solid sublimation)
6. Definitions: Diffusion, Relative mass, proton number, nucleon number, isotopes, allotropes

Atomic Structure
7. Atom has protons (+), electrons (-) and neutrons (no charge).
a. It is overall neutral because protons and electrons are equal in number and cancel
each other's charge
b. Mass number is for protons and neutrons only because electrons have negligible
mass. Only hydrogen has the same mass number as proton number because it
doesn't have a neutron.
c. Isotopes have different neutrons so their mass differs. Their proton numbers are the
same.
d. Valence electrons are what determines chemical properties. So atoms with the same
number of valence electrons have the same chemical properties.

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e. Shells have a max capacity of 2n2. this is octet rule*. Number of shells is same in the
same period, number of valence electrons is same as group number. For bonding,
they try to achieve their preferred numbers for each shell. 2 for only the first shell.
For O level: preferred numbers are 0 and 8
For IGCSE, 0,8,18,32
8. Definitions: Isotopes, proton number, nucleon number, relative atomic mass,

Chemical Bonding
9. Ionic bonding is between metal and nonmetal
a. Electrons are transferred to complete octet but you should always mention which
atom loses electrons and how many of them, similarly which atom gains electrons
and how many
b. Metals lose, nonmetals gain*
c. Know how to draw dot and cross diagrams. Always put square brackets and charge
on ion diagram
10. Covalent bonding is between nonmetals
a. Electrons are shared in pairs. This is shown in lewis structure using lines. One line is
one pair
b. Group number determines how many electrons are shared. For example Group 4 will
share 4, group 6 will share 2. This makes molecules and giant structures
c. Know how to make dot and cross diagram
d. Know how to make lewis structure for hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine,
water, ammonia, methane, hydrogen chloride and C2H4, H2; Cl2; O2; HCl; N2; H2O; CH4;
CO2; HCN;
11. Metals have metallic bonding
a. Electrons are delocalised and make sea of electrons
b. Cations are in layers so metals can be made into sheets and wires (malleable and
ductile)
c. If you draw it, draw 3 layers at least and also electrons around and between layers
12. Electrical conduction: ionic conduct in molten or when dissolved (free ions), simple
molecular and giant (diamond, silicon dioxide) don’t conduct (no free electrons), metals and
graphite conduct (free electrons)
13. Melting point: things with stronger forces have higher melting points (FEM: Force, Energy
requirement and Melting point, all three are high or all three are low). IMFA broken for
simple molecular only, bonds broken for all others
14. Forces: Lattice structure (ionic,metallic, giants) have electrostatic forces (strong), molecular
structures have intermolecular forces of attraction (weak)
15. Definitions:
a. metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive ions in a lattice and
a ‘sea of electrons’
b. ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions in a
lattice

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c. covalent bonding as the electrostatic attraction between nuclei and shared pairs of
electrons
d. Intermolecular forces of attraction are between molecules while covalent bond is
inside molecules. IMFA is affected in physical process while bond in a chemical
process

Chemical Formulae
1. Naming compounds has a few rules.
a. For ionic compounds, write cations first, anions after. Transition metals have their
charges written in brackets. If a single atom makes an anion, it has ide at the end e.g.
Sulfur makes sulfide. If multiple atoms make an anion, they have ate at the end* e.g.
sulfur and oxygen make sulfate. There are others as well but not important for us
right now.
b. Remember the formula and charge for molecular ions
ammonium
carbonate,
sulfate,
Sulfite
nitrate
Hydroxide
c. In transition metals, remember charges for Silver (+1), Zinc (+2) and Scandium(+3).
Other transition metals have charges mentioned.
d. Covalent compounds should mention number of atoms of an element using mono,
di, tri and tetra. Usually mono is avoided unless there is a confusion. e.g. Carbon and
oxygen make CO and CO2 so mono and di are used to differentiate.
2. Remember the cross multiplication rule (ratio-flip rule) for ionic formulas. First write formula
of cation and anion. Then find the ratio of their charges then flip the ratio.

Periodic Table
1. Noble gasses are unreactive because they have complete valence electrons.
2. Helium for balloons, Neon for lights, Argon for bulbs and manufacturing steel.
3. Metals become more reactive down the group because atoms gets bigger and takes less
energy to lose electron. Nonmetals become less reactive down the group because atoms get
bigger and takes more energy to gain electron.
4. Group 1 elements have low melting points, low density (float on water). Their melting points
decrease down the group. They react with water and acids and give hydrogen gas.
5. To show this trend in reactivity, we can put Li, Na, and K in water and see that reaction is
faster. Metals shoots across surface faster and bubbles are produced rapidly; faster in K, less
so in Li.
6. Halogens (Group VII) are nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules.
7. Metallic character decreases left to right

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8. Down the group their density and m.p. increases. F and Cl are gases, Br liquid and I solid. At
will be solid as well.
9. Color darkens. F yellow, Cl green, Br brown, I black. At will be black as well.
10. Down the group reactivity decreases. F>Cl>Br>I. They show displacement reaction where a
more reactive element displaces a less reactive element. Also, when writing ionic equation
for this, don’t ionize molecules.
11. Transition metals are heavy/high density (physical), have high melting points (physical),
variable oxidation states (chemical) and form colored compounds (chemical).
12. Transition metals or compounds are used as catalysts. Iron in the Haber process,
vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact process, nickel in hydrogenation of alkenes.

Catalysts lower the energy requirement of a reaction. This saves money and preserves energy
sources. They can be poisoned by impurities though.

Reactivity Series
If an element displaces an ion, element is more reactive
𝐶𝑙2 + 𝑁𝑎𝐼 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐼2 so Cl is more reactive

Metals

Displacement Principle
A more reactive ion can displace a less reactive ion in favorable conditions. Reactivity series can be
used to compare reactivity.
K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe H Cu Ag
Copper can only displace H in concentrated acids. Other wise things on the left displace things on the
right. The greater the difference, faster the reaction.
In a cell/battery, more reactive element can transfer electrons to less reactive element. For example,
if you connect Mg and Cu together, electrons go from Mg to Cu. Mg becomes positive and Cu
becomes negatively charged.
Zn is the only metal that is extracted as gas
H is used as reducing agent for CuO, C for oxides of metals below it, electrolysis for elements above C

Alloys
Mixtures of metal(s) or other substances
Alloy has lower melting point than the metal with highest melting point. For example, if we
mix chromium (mp 1907) and iron (mp 1537), this alloy would have mp lower than 1907
Steel is carbon with iron and something else
Brass, pewter, bronze are other important alloys
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Alloys with magnetic material are magnetic

Catalysts:

Haber Process to make Ammonia Iron

Contact process to make SO3 Vanadium(V) oxide

Hydrogenation to make margarine from Nickel

vegetable oil

Hydrolysis to make alcohol from alkene Acid (Phosphoric acid for IGCSE)

● Zinc and Scandium are not typical transition metals. Their compounds are white and their
valencies are fixed. Zinc +2, Sc +1

Nonmetals
Sulfur
Source is volcanic activity
Present in crude oil as impurity so produces SO2 when burnt
SO2
Formed in combustion of sulfur (fuel and volcanic activity)
Bleaches wood pulp for paper industry
Oxidizes in reversible reaction to make SO3 using V2O5 catalyst. 2 atm and 450C
Is a reducing agent, Is easily oxidized so KMnO4 goes purple to colorless with it

SO3
Dissolves in water to produce sulfuric acid. Explosive reaction
Dissolves in conc sulfuric acid to produce oleum which then dissolves in water to produce
sulfuric acid. No explosive reaction

CO2

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Lime family
CaO lime produced when CaCO3 is thermally decomposed
Reacats with acidic impurities in
Flue gas
Iron extraction: 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑎𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑂3

Ca(OH)2 (s) slaked lime solid used to treat acidic soil.

Ca(OH)2 (aq) limewater produces CaCO3 with CO2 so basically turns milky
CaCO3 limestone decomposes to make CaO, present in marble
Treats acidic impurites in iron ore and flue gas

Moles and Stoichiometry

13. In moles, find moles first. It helps. Remember the 4 formulas and where to apply them.
𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝑛 = 24
for gases, 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 for solutions, 𝑛 =
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
6.02×10
23 for finding particles and

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑀𝑟
for anything else.

14. The two short cuts

a. When question is only about gases, mole ratio is same as volume ratio.
b. When question is only about two solutions.
𝑐𝑣 𝑐𝑣
( )
𝑁 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
= ( )
𝑁 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
15. For stoichiometry (questions where information is about one substance and question about
the other), remember the 3 step rectangle method; Find moles of first substance then moles
of second substance (using mole ratio) then required quantity
16. Periodic table has period for shell numbers, groups for valence electrons. 7 periods, 8
groups. Metals on left, transition metals in middle, metalloids on staircase and, nonmetals on
right.
17. Stoichiometry: remember the three steps
a. Moles of substance 1

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b. Moles of substance 2
c. answer

Redox
Any reaction with element involved is a redox reaction

The following reactions are examples of redox reactions:

- Burning/Combustions
- Rusting
- Reaction between metals and acids
- Extraction of metals
- Displacement reactions
- Respiration
- Photosynthesis

Oxidation and reduction always happen together, never alone.

Reactions that involve reduction and oxidation are redox reactions.

Redox Reactions are classified as:

Gain or loss of Oxygen

In Chemical Reactions, when a substance gains oxygen, it has been oxidised.

Example-Burning Carbon in oxygen

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

Carbon has been oxidised as it gains Oxygen to become Carbon Dioxide.

If Oxygen is lost, the substance is reduced.

Example of this is in displacement reactions of metal oxides.
Example- Magnesium being heated with Copper(II) Oxide

Mg(s) + CuO(s) → MgO(s) + Cu(s)

Magnesium is Oxidised, Copper is Reduced.

Since both Oxidation and Reduction reactions have taken place together, this is a redox
reaction.

Copper (II) oxide is described as the oxidising agent as it caused oxidation of magnesium.

Magnesium is described as the reducing agent as it removed oxygen from copper (II) oxide.

Oxidising agent is a substance which causes oxidation of another substance.

Reducing agent is a substance which causes reduction of another compound.

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Extraction of metals from their ores, particularly iron oxide from its ore is a redox reaction.

Iron is extracted from its oxide by heating with carbon in the blast furnace by the reaction:
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)

Iron (III) oxide loses oxygen, so it is reduced.

Carbon monoxide gains oxygen, so it is oxidised.

Carbon monoxide is described as the reducing agent as it has reduced iron (III) oxide by
removing oxygen from it.

Gain or loss of Hydrogen

Transfer of electrons
The general rule for what is oxidised and reduced in the transfer of electrons can be
summed up in this Mnemonic.
OIL RIG
Oxidation is Loss of Electrons, Reduction is Gain of Electrons.
When electrons transfer in the same element that is not redox, it is conduction.

Change in oxidation number

Not a Redox Reaction

- Thermal Decomposition
- Precipitation
- Neutralization

Ionic equations
Neutralization
+ −
𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻2𝑂
Carbonate-Acid
+ 2−
2𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂
Ammonium
+ +
𝑁𝐻4 → 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻
Precipitation
Aq ions of insoluble salt → solid salt
+ −
𝐴𝑔 (𝑎𝑞)
+ 𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞)
→ 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠)

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2+ 2−
𝐵𝑎 (𝑎𝑞)
+ 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4
(𝑎𝑞) (𝑠)

Electrolysis
● electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound (an electrolyte) using
electricity
● Ionic compounds can undergo electrolysis when molten or dissolved
● Polar covalent compounds like acids and water can do electrolysis when impure
● Electrolysis is a chemical process so compounds decompose permanently
● Conduction is a physical process so metals do not decompose permanently
● Electrolysis is evidence of ions and ionic lattice. In solid there is no electrolysis but it
happens when they melt (lattice breaks)
● Electrolysis product at anode is oxygen when dilute and halogen when concentrated
● Electrolysis at cathode of aq solutions is hydrogen or noble metal (copper, silver or
gold)
● In electroplating, anode is impure and cathode is pure.
● In purification of copper, solution changes color in inert anode, not with reactive
anode
● In extraction of Al, Cryolite lowers the mp and dissolves aluminium oxide
● Conc sodium chloride gives three products; NaOH, H2 and Cl2
● If both hydrogen and oxygen are produced, pH stays the same, if only hydrogen
produced then pH increases, if only oxygen then pH decreases (this is because
water has H+ and OH- so if hydrogen is produced, H+ is used up so pH increases,
with oxygen OH- is used up so pH decreases)

Energetics
Fuels:
O level

IGCSE

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Hydrogen is fuel for rockets (comes from cracking, also used to make margarine)
235
U is radioactive fuel (doesn’t produce harmful or greenhouse gases but is hard to dispose
off)
Fuel cell is more efficient, less polluting but expensive than regular fuel. It generates
electricity by using hydrogen, oxygen and produces water

Kinetics
Increasing concentration means more particles per unit volume
Increasing pressure means gas particles come closer (more particles per unit volume)
Catalyst gives alternative pathway with lower activation energy so more particles have
activation energy
Increasing temperature means particles have greater kinetic energy
Increasing surface area means more particles are exposed

So more successful collisions per unit time

Reaction faster

Reversible reactions

Environmental Chemistry
Air and Oxygen:
- Air Consists of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and Remaining 1% is mixture of gasses,
mainly Argon, and little amounts of Carbon Dioxide
- Air can be fractionally distilled, by first cooling it into Liquid Air, then gasses with the
lowest melting point distill over first, in this case, Nitrogen, then Other gasses distill.

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- Oxygen is used in making steel, in oxygen tanks in hospital, and in welding

Atmospheric Pollutants:
Pollutant Source(s) Harms/Effects:

Carbon Monoxide Incomplete combustion of Causes headaches, breathing

Difficulties, even death
carbon containing substances
Supply of O2 in body reduced

Sulfur Dioxide Volcanoes and combustion Breathing difficulties

of fossil fuels Acid Rain

Oxides of Nitrogen Lightning Activity and Internal Breathing Difficulties

Combustion engines Acid Rain

Methane Bacterial Decay of GreenHouse gas, causes

Vegetable Matter Global warming

Unburnt Hydro-Carbons Internal Combustion Causes Cancer, reacts with

Engines nitrogen oxides to form Ozone

Ozone Photochemical Reactions Photochemical Smog

Catalytic Converters:
Their main aim is to reduce harmful gas often released by cars, by oxidizing them to make
gasses less harmful.
1: They Oxidize Released Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide
2: Nitrogen monoxide and carbon monoxide reacts to form Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen
3: Unburnt HydroCarbons are also Oxidized to produce Carbon dioxide and Water

Flue Gas Desulfurization:

Its main aim is to reduce Sulfur Dioxide emissions by reacting it with calcium carbonate
Calcium Carbonate Reacts with Sulfur Dioxide to form Calcium Sulfite and Carbon Dioxide
Equation: CaCO3 + SO2 —-> CaSO3 + CO2

Acid Rain:
Acid Rain is formed when acidic air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
react with water in the atmosphere.
Source 1:
Sulfur Dioxide in Air Reacts with Water molecules to form Sulfurous Acid. In Presence of
Excess oxygen, this slowly oxidizes into Sulfuric Acid
Source 2:
In Presence of Oxygen in air, Nitrogen Dioxide is converted into Nitric Acid
Effect 1:
Acid Rain Reacts with metals and carbonates like marble and limestone. When this
happens, Metal Bridges and stone Buildings are damaged
Effect 2:
Acid Rain Leaches nutrients from soil and causes plants to die
Effect 3:
Acid Rain Reduces the pH value of natural water bodies, making it too acidic for the Aquatic
life to survive.

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Organic Chemistry

Lab Skills and ATP

16. Tests: chemical tests for
a. ammonia (using damp red litmus paper); goes blue
b. carbon dioxide (using limewater); turns cloudy
c. chlorine (using damp litmus paper); bleaches
d. hydrogen (using a burning splint); pop sound
e. oxygen (using a glowing splint); relights
f. sulfur dioxide (using acidified potassium manganate(VII)); purple to colorless
g. water with anhydrous copper (II) sulfate (turns blue with water). Cobalt chloride
(blue to pink) can also be used but isn’t examiner favorite.
17. Drying agents: they absorb water. Concentrated sulfuric acid is a good one.
18. Collection of gases: upward delivery for lighter gases (mass less than 28), downward delivery
for heavier (more than 32), collection over water for all (except those soluble in water)
19. Know the usage of these purification processes
a. Dissolving, filtration, evaporation and crystallization
b. Simple and fractional distillation. Know its uses in air, liquor and crude oil
c. Paper chromatography, know how to calculate Rf value, same substances have the
same Rf value, it is high for more soluble things
20. Lab tips: Electric heater for flammable substances, bunsen burner for rest. Don’t cover
conical flasks if gas is produced. Collect gases in gas syringe preferably, or collect over water.
Remove water with drying agent. Check for

Following things are important for ATP.

1. Chemical tests for gases; hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorine and ammonia.
2. Drying agents and their setup specifically concentrated sulfuric acid
3. Purification techniques mainly filtration, distillation, fractional distillation and
chromatography. Being able to draw their setup would help although isn't compulsory.
Knowing the steps is important. Remember that residue is collected, washed and dried,
filtrate is crystallized and dried.
4. Observations and setup of some experiments we discussed
a. Displacement reactions for group VII (color changes when a more reactive substance
displaces less reactive one)
b. Collecting hydrogen when acid reacts with group 1 metal (bubbles, metal floats and
moves around, pH increases, temperature rises)
c. Collecting carbon dioxide when acid reacts with metal carbonate (bubbles, gas turns
limewater milky)
d. Using indicators to check pH and to check whether a liquid is acidic, basic,
amphoteric or neutral
e. Using filtration to separate soluble and insoluble things
f. Using chromatography to identify pure things in a substance, using locating agents
and formula for Rf value
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g. Chemical test for water: anhydrous copper (II) sulfate turns blue
h. Physical tests include pH meter, conducting electricity, checking melting & boiling
points
i. Titration is not important for grade 9
5. Test for Anions:
a. carbonate (by the addition of dilute acid and subsequent use of limewater); gives
CO2
b. chloride (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous silver
nitrate); white ppt
c. iodide (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous silver
nitrate); yellow ppt
d. nitrate (by reduction with aluminium and aqueous sodium hydroxide to ammonia
and subsequent use of litmus paper),
e. sulfate (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous barium
nitrate), white ppt
f. sulfite (by warming with dilute acid): white ppt which dissolves gas evolved turns
aqueous potassium manganate purple to colorless.

FAQs
● Why are things unreactive?
1. Very strong bond so activation energy too high (diamond, graphite, nitrogen).
These things will react at higher temperature e.g. Nitrogen in car engine or
lightening, graphite in electrolysis of aluminum oxide
2. More reactive elements closeby: this is called sacrificial protection. Zinc or Mg
blocks with Iron
3. Some barrier not allowing reaction: Aluminum has oxide layer, we paint gates
and car bodies
4. Complete shell: noble gasses

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● How to use water to make reactivity series?

1. Reactivity increases if something reacts with water at low temperature.
Reactivity is higher if reaction is faster. Reactivity decreases in this order:

Cold Fast
water slow
fast
hot water
slow
fast
steam
slow
no reaction

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