ME 322 - INSTRUMENTATION

KANNANGARA C.H.
KANNANGARA C.H.
E/17/152
E/17/152
SEMESTER 5
GROUP 01
01/09/2021
SEMESTER 5
04/09/2021

ME 322 Mechanical Engineering Laboratory I August 2021

ME 322 Mechanical Engineering Laboratory I 2021/June
DATE: 04/09/2021
TITLE: INSTRUMENTATION
AIM: To study different experimental measurement techniques relating to strain,

force, displacement, acceleration etc.

OBJECTIVE: 1. Use electrical resistance strain gauges to measure strain.

2. Use electrical resistance strain gauges in a transducer.

INTRODUCTION

In Engineering, it is often required to measure strain, load, displacement, acceleration, etc. There are
different techniques and instruments used for this purpose. Some of the components use to measure
these parameters are: Strain gauges, Load cells.

Strain gauges
Electrical resistance strain gauge is a very accurate and sensitive instrument. The basic principle is that
the electrical resistance of material changes when the material is strained. In the strain gauge this
change is measured and related to the strain. Electrical resistance strain gauges are relatively low in
cost and can be easily mounted on a surface where the strain measurement is required. Its output is
linear. These reasons make the strain gauge widely used in such situations where accurate, reliable
and repeatable data is needed. With proper use and understanding, strain gauges are capable of
almost limitless applications in any engineering problem including the measurement of strain, stress,
load, pressure, torque, and displacement. However, the accuracy of the final results depends on
selection of the proper gauge size, gauge material, installation method, and also on the user.
Therefore, the gauge selection and installation are of paramount importance.

Load cell (a transducer)

Strain gauge transducers are instruments in which strain gauges are acting as sensing elements. Since
almost any kind of physical parameter can be expressed as a mechanical strain, these transducers are
very widely used in a variety of instruments. A load cell is also a kind of strain gauge transducer use to
measure axial loads.
One arrangement that can be used in a load cell is attaching 4 strain gauges; 2 in axial direction and
the other 2 in the transverse direction on the surface of a cylinder at diametrically opposite to each
other as shown in Figure 1. When the load applied axially on the cylinder, strain will be induced in the
gauge. Then strain can be used to measure the load as explained below. The load cell can be a hollow
or solid cylinder depending on the magnitude of the axial load to be measured.
If the cylinder is hollow capacity of the load cell is less and the load cell should be short enough to
prevent from buckling. If the capacity should be high, solid load cells can be used.
Transverse gauges in load cell increase the sensitivity of it. Error due to any asymmetric loading is
cancelled by active gauges which are placed diametrically opposite to each other. There can be error
due to change in ambient condition such as temperature, to reduce this error; additional gauges are
placed around circumference of the cylinder.

Strain Gauge locations

1 2
Axial strain gauge

Transverse strain gauge 4

(a) Elevation (b) Plan

FIGURE 1: STRAIN GAUGE ARRANGEMENT FOR LOAD CELL

Displacement gauges

This is a very simple instrument with a spindle to which a rotating indicator is connected.
Relative movement of the spindle can be determined by using the graduated circular dial.

THEORY

CALIBRATION OF LOAD CELL

The strain in the gauge proportional to the ratio of resistance changes:

ΔR/R α c
ΔR/R = Kc ; where K- gauge factor

When an axial load is applied to the load cell the axial strain will be induced. But most of the loading
cases it is difficult to get a pure axial loading there may be an eccentricity. Due to the eccentric loading
bending strain will be induced. At the same time ambient temperature can change and due to this
additional strain will be induced. Therefore, it is necessary to consider all these effects to get accurate
strain measurement.
Consider two axial strains are ε1, ε2 and two perpendicular strains are ε3, ε4. So, the strain due to axial
load and bending and temperature effect can be defined by:

ε = ε𝑎 + ε𝑏 + ε𝑡
ε𝑎 – strain due to axial load, ε𝑏 – strain due to bending, ε𝑡 – strain due to temperature effect
Consider axial strain gauge -1,
ε1 = ε𝑎 + ε𝑏1 + ε𝑡 ........................................ (1)
Consider axial strain gauge -2 (diametrically opposite to the first one)

ε2 = ε𝑎 − ε𝑏1 + ε𝑡 ........................................ (2)

Consider perpendicular strain gauge -3

ε3 = −𝜐(ε𝑎 + ε𝑏2 ) + ε𝑡 .............................. (3)

where 𝜐 is the Poisson’s ratio

Consider perpendicular strain gauge -4 (diametrically opposite to the first one)

ε4 = −𝜐(ε𝑎 − ε𝑏2 ) + ε𝑡 .............................. (4)

Therefore, (1) + (2)

ε12 = ε1 + ε2 = 2ε𝑎 + 2ε𝑡 ...........................................(5)

(3) + (4)

ε34 = ε3 + ε4 = −2𝜐ε𝑎 + 2ε𝑡 .......................................(6)

In order to balance the temperature effect, (5) – (6)

ε12 − ε34 = ε1 + ε2 − ε3 − ε4 = 2(1 + 𝜐)ε𝑎 ................... (7)

From the principle of strain gauges

ε1 = (1/K) × δR1 /R1

ε2 = (1/K) × δR2 /R2
………….. (8)
ε3 = (1/K) × δR3 /R3
ε4 = (1/K) × δR4 /R4
 B
R1
R3

A V DB
C

R4 R2
D

FIGURE 2: WHEATSTONE BRIDGE ARRANGEMENT

If the four gauges are positioned in the Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure 2, the ratio of output

voltage to supply voltage δVDB / V is given by:

δVDB / V = (1⁄4) (δR1 /R1 + δR2 /R2 – δR3 /R3 – δR4 /R4

Strain Indicator reading = 𝐾⁄4 ( ε1 + ε2 − ε3 − ε4 ) = (1⁄2) × K(1 + 𝜐)ε𝑎 ………… (9)

Considering axial deformation of a rod

ε𝑎 = P/AE
where P = Axial Force
E = Young’s modulus of material

Substituting on (9)

δVDB / V = K(1 + 𝜐) × P/2AE

= {1⁄2 K(1 + 𝜐)/AE} × P ............................................ (10)

This variation can be used to calibrate the load cell

δVDB / V α P
THEORITICAL DISPLACEMENT

FIGURE 3: DEFLECTION OF THE BEAM

Consider the deflected beam:

𝑑𝑠 = 𝑅. 𝑑𝜃 ≈ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜃 1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑅
𝑑𝑣
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
Then,
𝑑2𝑣 1
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑅
Simple bending formula,
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
Flexure formula,

𝑀 1
=
𝐸𝐼 𝑅

𝑑2 𝑣
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑃
𝑀=− 𝑥
2

𝑃 𝑑2 𝑣
− 𝑥 = 𝐸𝐼 2
2 𝑑𝑥
Two time integrate with respect to x, assuming EI to be constant,
𝑃𝑥 2
𝐸𝑙𝑣 = − + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
12

Boundary conditions v (0) =0 and v’ (L/2) = 0,

𝑃𝑥
𝑌= (3𝐿2 − 4𝑥 2 )
48𝐸𝐼

THEORETICAL STRAIN
T

FIGURE 4: CROSS SECTION OF STEEL BEAM

Simple bending Formula is,

𝑀 𝜀 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅

𝜎 𝑀
=
𝑦 𝐼

Furthermore,
𝐷
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ( − 𝑇)
2
Therefore,
𝐸𝜀 𝑀
=
𝐷 𝐼
( 2 − 𝑇)

𝑀 𝐷 − 2𝑇
𝜀= ( )
𝐸𝐼 2
1. CALIBRATION OF LOAD CELL

Measure the outer diameter and inner diameter of the load cell.
Attach two strain gauges in axial direction and two in perpendicular direction as shown in Figure 1.
Connect strain gauge terminals to the strain indicator, to form a Wheatstone bridge.
Apply the load gradually in 10 kN intervals up to 50 kN. Measure the strain values for
the corresponding loading.
Plot the graph for load vs. strain indicator reading.

OBSERVATIONS

Inner diameter = 60.20 mm

Outer diameter = 99.20 mm

TABLE 01: VARIATION OF STRAIN WITH LOAD CELL

Strain Indicator Reading / (µ)

Load /(kN)
Loading Unloading Average
0 0.00 0.00 0.00
10 10.30 11.20 10.75
20 18.60 20.00 19.30
30 25.80 27.20 26.50
40 33.30 35.00 34.15
50 40.60 40.60 40.60

45

40

35
Average Strain / (µ)

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 10Figure 20
05: Variation ofLoad30 Vs Average
Load 40Strain 50 60
/ (kN)

FIGURE 5: VARIATION OF LOAD VS AVERAGE STRAIN

2. VERIFICATION OF THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL DISPLACEMENT

Measure the dimensions of the supported steel beam.

Place dial gauges at quarter and middle point of the beam.
Place the load cell (if any) at the mid span of the steel beam along with loading head.
Apply the load gradually in 10 kN intervals up to 50 kN.
For each load reading, measure the displacement and strains.
Similarly take all the above reading during unloading.

Dimensions of the steel section

Height (D) = 204 mm

Width (W) = 126 mm
Thickness (flange) (T) = 13.00 mm
Clear span (L) = 928 mm
Thickness (web) (B) = 8.65 mm
Measurements

a) Displacement
TABLE 02: VARIATION OF DISPLACEMENT WITH LOAD AT DIFFERENT
POSITIONS
Displacement / (mm)

Load/ (kN) At near quarter span At mid span At far quarter span

Loading Unloading Loading Unloading Loading Unloading

0 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.01 0.00 0.01

10 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.02
20 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.03
30 0.06 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.05
40 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.07 0.06
50 0.09 0.09 0.13 0.13 0.09 0.09

b) Strain
TABLE 03: VARIATION OF STRAIN WITH LOAD AT DIFFERENT POSITIONS

Mid span 3 gauges rosette fixed to web

Load/ (kN) At upper flange At lower flange At loading only

Loading Unloading Loading Unloading Ɛ1 Ɛ2 Ɛ3

0 0.00 -2.03 0.00 1.08 0.00 0.00 0.00

10 -30.12 -31.09 29.59 32.47 -15.50 -15.50 30.02
20 -59.43 -70.01 61.72 67.03 -35.86 -40.61 62.81
30 -85.24 -96.36 87.15 88.01 -52.84 -65.38 87.49
40 -120.87 -128.30 123.56 130.00 -83.17 -94.18 116.55
50 -150.03 -150.03 156.30 156.30 -105.77 -123.39 140.91

Ɛ1 – Along beam axis, Ɛ2 – Perpendicular to beam axis, Ɛ3 – Diagonal

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS
1. AVERAGE STRAIN INDICATOR READING

Consider the 5th set of reading from Table 1,

Applied load = 40 kN
Average strain indicator reading = (33.30+ 35.00)/2 = 34.15 µ

2. AVERAGE EXPERIMENTAL DISPLACEMENT

Consider 5th set of readings from table 02,

Applied load (P) = 40kN

0.07+0.08+0.07+0.06
Average Displacement at quarter span =
4

= 0.07mm
0.09+0.11
Average Displacement at mid span =
2

= 0.1mm
3. THEORETICAL DISPLACEMENT

NA

FIGURE 6: CROSS SECTION PARTS OF STEEL BEAM FOR INERTIA

Consider Figure 06,
Considering the second moment of area about neutral axis (NA),
INA = IABCD - IEFGH - IIJKL
𝑊𝐷3 𝑊(𝐷−2𝑇)3 𝐵(𝐷−2𝑇)3
= − −
12 12 12
𝑊𝐷3 (𝑊−𝐵)(𝐷−2𝑇)3
= −
12 12
0.126×0.2043 (0.126−0.00865)×(0.204−2×0.013)3
Therefore moment of Inertia of section (I) = −
12 12

= 3.3989 x 10-5 m4
Consider the 4th set of readings from Table 02,

Applied load (P) = 40 kN

𝑃𝑥(3𝑙2 −4𝑥 2 )
Displacement (y) =
48𝐸𝐼

𝑙 𝑙 2
𝑃(4)(3𝑙 2 −4(4) )
Displacement at quarter span ( x = l/4) =
48𝐸𝐼

0.928 0.928 2
40×103 ×( 4 )×(3×0.9282 −4( 4 ) )
=
48×210×109 ×3.3989×10−5
= 6.415 × 10-5
= 0.0641 mm

𝑙 𝑙 2
𝑃(2)(3𝑙 2 −4(2) )
Displacement at mid span ( x=1/2 ) =
48𝐸𝐼
0.928 0.928 2
30×103 ( 2 )×(3×0.9282 −4( 2 ) )
=
48×210×109 ×3.3989×10−5
= 9.331 × 10-5
= 0.0933 mm
4. AVERAGE EXPERIMENTAL STRAIN
Consider 5th set of readings from Table 03,

Applied load = 20kN

−(120.87+128.3)
Average Strain at upper flange =
2
= -124.585 µ

123.56+130
Average Strain at lower flange =
2
= 126.78 µ
5. THEORETICAL STRAIN

Consider 5th set of readings from table 03,

𝑀(𝐷−2𝑇)
Strain (Ɛ) =
2𝐸𝐼
−𝑃𝑥
Bending moment (M) =
2
At the mid span,
𝑙
−𝑃(2)
M (x=1/2) =
2
0.928
−30×103 ( 2 )
=
2
= -9.28 kNm

𝑀(𝐷−2𝑇)
Strain at mid span (Ɛ) =
2𝐸𝐼
−9280×(0.204−2×0.013)
=
2×210×109 ×3.3989×10−5
= -115.713 μ
RESULTS

TABLE 04: EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL DISPLACEMENT AND STRAIN OF STEEL BEAM

Average Experimental
Theoretical Experimental strain
Displacement
Displacement */(mm) /(μ)
/(mm)
Theoretical**
Load
strain
/
/ (μ)
(kN) At quarter At the At quarter At the mid At upper At lower
span mid span span span Flange Flange

0 0.0025 -0.005 0.0000 0.0000 -1.015 0.540 0.000

10 0.0175 0.025 0.0160 0.0233 -30.605 31.030 -28.928
20 0.030 0.045 0.0321 0.0467 -64.720 64.375 -57.856
30 0.050 0.075 0.0481 0.0700 -90.800 87.580 -86.784
40 0.070 0.100 0.0641 0.0933 -124.585 126.780 -115.713
50 0.090 0.130 0.0802 0.1166 -150.030 156.300 -144.641

𝑊𝑥
*Use 𝑦 = (3𝐿2 − 4𝑥 2 )
48𝐸𝐼

𝑀 2𝐷−𝑇
** Use ℰ= ( )
𝐸𝐼 2
DISCUSSION

Comments about results

Study results obtained during the experiment and give comments about the variations (if any) in
experimental and theoretical results as indicated below and the space provided.

1). Variations (if any) in theoretical and measured vertical displacements at mid-span.

Mid-span experimental and theoretical values came out slightly with different values. This can
happen because of observation errors. Fractional error in displacement was minimized because of
the loading and unloading. Temperature changes can cause variations between the results because
of the thermal expansion of the beam. The experiment can go for some time, therefore temperature
can cause variations. Since calculations are done based on assumptions, variations between
theoretical and experimental results can occur. Other than that, installation errors, errors within the
equipment and observation errors can cause deviations to the results.

2). Variation (if any) in theoretical and measured strains in the web.

Theoretical and experimental values came with a different. At 0kN load condition in the table we can
see values. Therefore from the beginning an error has been added to the calculations which finally
gives an accumulated error. In here as well temperature can affect to the results since temperature
affect to the strain gauge (thermally expand or contract). There can be eccentricity with the
centerline of the load which can give a bending component where a strain can be generated due to
bending. Other than that defects on the beam and observation errors can deviate the results.
3). Comment on magnitudes and signs of strains in the web.

It can be seen that the values of the diagonal strain gauges have the maximum values. Here (+) says
that the element is under tension while (-) means the element is under compression. Since the load
is applied from the top the top flange is under compression while lower flange is under tension. It
can be seen by the values from table. It can be seen that also the theoretical strain is always lower
than both top and lower flange values.
REFERENCES

1) Strain Gauge Technology, Second Edition, A.L Window, Elsevier

2) R.C.Hibbeler, mechanics of materials, Chapter 2

3). https://www.hbm.com/en/0014/strain-gauges/ (02.09.2021 8.30 p.m)

4) https://ueidaq.wordpress.com/2014/01/03/temperature-effects-in-strain-measurement/ (03.09.20219
p.m)

5) https://strainblog.micro-measurements.com/content/strain-measurement-errors (04.09.2021 10 p.m)

6) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258186927_Uncertainties_Associated_with_Strain-
Measuring_Systems_Using_Resistance_Strain_Gauges/citations (04.09.2021 11.p.m)