THE CELL’S INTRICATE MACHINERY

A eukaryotic cell is composed of numerous parts with specific functions.

How do cell parts harmoniously function to keep the cell alive?

ORGANELLES
• Very small (Microscopic)
• Perform various functions for a cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be
membrane-bound
- Membrane-bound for EUKARYOTIC
CELLS
- Not membrane-bound for
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Cells’ organelles have these functions:
Manufacturing,
Storage,
Protection Genetic Control
Distribution, and
Breakdown

Structural Support,
Movement, and
Energy- Processing Communication
between cells
 CELL STRUCTURES
FOR PROTECTION

Plasma Membrane Cell Wall Cytoplasm

Cell Structure for Protection:

PLASMA MEMBRANE
• aka CELL MEMBRANE, a thin barrier that acts as a boundary
• separates the cell from its external environment
• a semipermeable membrane, a LIVING system that controls the
passage of needed materials into and out the cell
• acts as a gatekeeper that regulates the passage of important
molecules, ions, and gases

Outsid
e
of cell
Carbohydrate
chains
Proteins
Cell
membra
ne

Inside
of cell Protein
(cytoplasm channel Lipid bilayer
 Cell Structure for Protection:

PLASMA MEMBRANE
• a PHOSPHOLIPID
bilayer embedded
with a variety of
molecules
- a charged phosphate
group
- glycerol
- two fatty acid chains

• Phosphate group and

glycerol are joined to
form the HEAD
• Fatty acids composed
the TAIL
 Cell Structure for Protection:

PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Head is the POLAR molecule since it bears the
charge. It can join hydrogen bonds with water
molecules.
• Tail (fatty acids) are NONPOLAR, they cannot form
hydrogen bonds and water

• The polar heads are HYDROPHILIC (water-loving)

- attract water
- They are oriented in two different directions, and face
the cell’s external environment.

• The nonpolar tails are HYDROPHOBIC (water-fearing)

- repelled by water
- They face inward when there is no water
 Cell Structure for Protection:

PLASMA MEMBRANE
• The membrane touches the cytoplasm inside the cell,
and the watery fluid outside the cell.
• The properties of polar heads and nonpolar tails cause
the phospholipids to arrange themselves like a
sandwich.
• The polar heads are able to interact with the fluids
outside and inside the cell. The nonpolar tails are the
like the filling inside the sandwich.
• CHOLESTEROL Functions of the embedded molecules in the
- strengthens the cell
membrane PLASMA MEMBRANE
- makes it flexible,
but less fluid, so it
becomes less
permeable to
water-soluble
molecules such as
ions and simple
sugars

• CARBOHYDRATES
- serve as
identification tags
- enable cells to
distinguish one from
 Membrane
proteins have
different
structures and
functions.
 FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS
• TRANSPORT Proteins (extend) - help materials cross the membrane
• CHANNEL Proteins (form tunnels) - help cells to import or export
materials and expel wastes
• CELL RECOGNITION Proteins (recognizes) - enable cells to distinguish
own cells from others; includes GLYCOPROTEINS and GLYCOLIPIDS

Transport Proteins Channel Proteins Glycoproteins

 FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS
• ENZYMATIC Proteins (for reactions)
- participate in metabolic reactions such as degradative and synthesis
• CYTOSKELETON Proteins (muscle and skeleton)
- maintain cell shape and motility
• RECEPTOR Proteins (adjust shape)
- facilitate exchange of signals with other cells by changing its shape

Enzymatic Proteins Cytoskeleton Proteins Receptor Proteins

 Cell Structure for Protection:

PLASMA MEMBRANE
• has unique molecular markers that make it possible for other cells to be
recognized and interact with
• cells were able to establish connections, allowing various cell-to-cell
communication, paving the way for the formation of tissues and organs

• FLUID MOSAIC MODEL – description of cell membrane’s arrangement

- Cell membrane is flexible, not rigid.
- The variety of molecules scattered along the membrane represents
different textures and patterns that make up a mosaic.
Cell Structure for Protection:

CELL WALL
• In plants, as well as algae, fungi, and bacteria, a cell membrane is
surrounded by another boundary, a strong CELL WALL.
• A rigid layer that gives support, protection, and shape to the cell.
• They can cling to each other to support the entire organism.
 Composition of cell walls varies among
organisms.
They are made up of complex
carbohydrates, the polysaccharides.
Plants and algae Cellulose

Fungi Chitin

Bacteria Peptidoglycan
Cell Structure for Protection:

CYTOPLASM
• fills the space between
the nucleus and cell
membrane
• CYTOSOL – the fluid
portion chemically made
up of high concentration
of water, which
suggests its necessity
for maintaining cell
structure.
• Water is an essential
component of life, as it
acts as natural solvent
for many chemical
reactions in the
cytoplasm.
 CELL STRUCTURES
FOR GENETIC CONTROL

Nucleus Ribosomes
Cell Structure for Genetic Control:

NUCLEUS
• storehouse of genetic information in
the form of DNA
• protects the DNA at all times from
damage and its instructions must be
made available for use at proper times
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a
long chain of molecule
- GENES, the small portions of DNA
that contain instructions for making
proteins
- HISTONES, special group of proteins
that package the DNA
- CHROMATIN, DNA’s complex
structures
- CHROMOSOMES, tightly coiled
structures from a condensed
chromatin
Cell Structure for Genetic Control:

NUCLEUS
• Since many proteins are
involved in turning the gene on
and off, it has to access DNA at
all times
• Structures of NUCLEUS
- Nuclear envelope: special
membrane that encloses the
DNA
- Nuclear pores: holes in the
nuclear envelope that allow
large molecules to pass
between the nucleus and
cytoplasm
- Nucleolus: a dense region
where small organelles essential
for making proteins are
assembled, called RIBOSOMES
Cell Structure for Genetic Control:

NUCLEUS
Cell Structure for Genetic Control:

RIBOSOMES
• formed in the nucleolus
• Site of protein synthesis
MANUFACTURING,
STORAGE,
DISTRIBUTION,
AND BREAKDOWN
ORGANELLES Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi body

Vesicles Vacuole Lysosome Peroxisome

• Much of cells activities
are devoted to making
proteins, which should
be done correctly at all
times.

• Several organelles are

involved in
manufacturing,
storing, and
distributing these
proteins.

• These organelles are

part of a connected
system, the
ENDOMEMBRANE
system.
 Manufacturing, Storage, Distribution, and Breakdown Organelle:

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• an interconnected network of thin and folded membranes
• fills much of the large portion of the cytoplasm
• composition of ER is same with cell membrane
• arranged like a maze of enclosed spaces with many creases, folds
• LUMEN – interior of the maze; sites of production of proteins and
lipids
 ROUGH SMOOTH
ENDOPLASMIC ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM RETICULUM
It is dotted with Not studded with
ribosomes, looks ribosomes
bumpy under the
microscope
Proteins made by Responsible for
ribosomes enter the breaking down drugs
lumen to undergo and alcohol
further modification
Site of protein Site of lipid
synthesis synthesis
 Manufacturing, Storage, Distribution, and Breakdown Organelle:

GOLGI APPARATUS
• aka Golgi body or Golgi complex
• layered stacks of
membrane-enclosed spaces, with
folds known as CISTERNAE
• proteins from ER are processed,
sorted, and delivered
• its membranes have enzymes that
further modify proteins
• Finished products are packaged in
this organelle.
• Some proteins are stored
temporarily, some are transported
within the cell and others are
carried to the membrane where
they will eventually be secreted
out of the cell.
 Manufacturing, Storage, Distribution, and Breakdown Organelle:

VESICLES
• Organelles work with one another. They are interconnected
to one another by means of membranes or by the transfer
of materials through vesicles.
• part of the ER pinches off to form small, membrane-bound
sacs called VESICLES, that encloses the protein
• Protein goes to Golgi apparatus, for storage, transport, and
secretion
• Can be categorized as STORAGE, TRANSPORT, and
SECRETORY vesicles
• Generally short-lived and are formed and recycled as
needed by the cell.
• Some vesicles develop into lysosome or vacuole.
 Manufacturing, Storage, Distribution, and Breakdown Organelle:

VACUOLES
• fluid-sac storage of water, food molecules inorganic ions
and enzymes
• Animals have small vacuole, while plants have a large,
single vacuole that is unique to them
• Central vacuole takes up most space, filled with water
• It strengthens the cell, and support the entire plant to make
it erect.
• may also contain other substances:
- toxins, that can harm predators and protect the plant
- waste products, that may harm the cell itself
- pigments, that give colors to the petals of the flower
 Manufacturing, Storage, Distribution, and Breakdown Organelle:

LYSOSOMES
• round-shaped,
membrane-bound
structures
• contain chemicals that can
break down materials in a
cell
• LYSOZYME – powerful
enzymes that can defend
the cell from invading
bacteria and viruses
• they break down damaged
or worn-out cell parts
• numerous in animal cells,
than plant cells
LYSOSOMES are the SUICIDE BAGS of the cell.
When cell gets damaged, lysosome may burst and
the enzymes digest their own cell.
Manufacturing, Storage, Distribution, and Breakdown Organelle:

PEROXISOMES
• exist as small vesicles around the cell
• has a single membrane that contains digestive enzymes for
breaking down toxic materials
• carry oxidative enzymes that require oxygen
• absorb nutrients that had been acquired by cells; its
enzymes break down complex molecules into smaller ones
• Example: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is broken down into
water (H2O) and oxygen (O2)
- In this condition, water is safe to the cell, while oxygen is
needed for the digestive reaction that follows.
• Peroxisomes break down alcohol in the body, so our liver
cells have more of these structures.
ENERGY – PROCESSING
ORGANELLES

Mitochondria Chloroplast
Energy-Processing Organelle:

MITOCHONDRIA
• Round, oval-shaped organelle that supply energy to the cell
• Have two membranes:
- Inner Membrane: may folds that increases its surface area
- Outer membrane: external part
• CRISTAE – inner folds and compartments
• MATRIX – interior part
• Within these, are series of chemical reactions converting
molecules from the food you eat into usable energy
• Have their own ribosomes and DNA, suggesting that they
were free-living prokaryotes taken up by larger cells
Energy-Processing Organelle:

CHLOROPLAST
• helps plants to convert solar energy to chemical energy
• carry out photosynthesis
• highly-compartmentalized, with inner and outer membranes
• Structures include the following:
- THYLAKOIDS: sacs in the chloroplast membrane
- GRANUM: stack of thylakoids
- CHLOROPHYLL: contained by thylakoids, a light-absorbing
pigment that gives plants their green color; photosynthesis
- STROMA: liquid portion of chloroplast
• Have their own ribosomes and DNA
• Found in plant cells, and some algae.
 ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL
SUPPORT, MOVEMENT, AND
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CELLS

Cytoskeleton
Centrioles and Centrosome

Cytoskeleton Cell Surfaces and Junctions

 Organelles for Structural Support, Movement,
and Communication Between Cells
CENTROSOME AND
CENTRIOLES
• CENTROSOME – small region of cytoplasm
that serves as the main microtubule
organizing center (MTOC) where
microtubules are organized and developed.
• For animal cells, centrosomes contain
centrioles, which are microtubules arranged
in a ring.
• Participate in animal’s cell division
• Centrioles organize microtubules to form cilia
and flagella.
Organelles for Structural Support, Movement, and
Communication Between Cells
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
• locomotory projections; allow cells to move like an oar or a whip
• Same structural composition
• CILIA: little hairs, with shorter length
• FLAGELLA: whip, tail-like
Organelles for Structural Support, Movement, and
Communication Between Cells
CYTOSKELETON
• made up of a small protein
subunit, forms long thread and
fibers
• provides sturdy mechanical
support
• helps the cell organize its
contents
• directs cell movements in
response to the cell’s changing
needs
• Three flexible networks:
- MICROTUBULES
- INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
- MICROFILAMENTS
 MICROTUBULES INTERMEDIATE MICROFILAMENTS
FILAMENTS
Lengthy and thickest; stiff Smaller than microtubules Thinnest
and hollow and has a ropelike
appearance
Give cells its shape and Give tensile strength to the Also known as actin
provides anchorage for cell filaments
membrane-bound
organelles
Act as tracks for Present in skin cells Tiny, flexible membrane
movement of vesicles that provide protective
meshwork under the
plasma membrane
Form spindle fibers during Important in ensuring the Allow muscles to
cell division strength of claws, hairs, and contract and relax
feathers in animals
Form permanent
structures like flagella
Organelles for Structural Support, Movement, and
Communication Between Cells
CELL SURFACES OR JUNCTIONS
• Cells do not live solitarily, individual cells must
interact with neighboring cells
• JUNCTIONS – structures that join cells

• PLASMODESMATA – communication channels in

plants; plays an important role in the sharing of
water, nutrients, and chemical messages among
plant cells
Organelles for Structural Support, Movement, and
Communication Between Cells
CELL SURFACES OR JUNCTIONS
• Animals have complex cell surface.

• Functions of adjacent animal cells:

- Tight junctions join two cells tightly to form a
leakproof sheet.
- Adhesion junctions act like screws together with
cytoskeletal fibers to form strong sheets.
- Gap junctions play a similar role to that of
plasmodesmata in plants, as both allow small
molecules to flow between neighboring cells.
Organelles for Structural Support, Movement, and
Communication Between Cells
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
• A layer mix of proteins and polysaccharides (glycoproteins)
secreted by tissues
• Act as a glue to bind the cells together in tissues and
provide mechanical strength
• Varies in composition:
- Tough or flexible in the inner layer of skin
- Dense and hard like bones
- Spongy for shock-absorbing capability of cartilage
• Allows cell communication, i.e., signal development,
movement, and coordination within the tissue sheet.