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02 Membrane-Cell Communication-Signal Transduction-Nuclear-Gene Expression 2021
02 Membrane-Cell Communication-Signal Transduction-Nuclear-Gene Expression 2021
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Excellence in Learning Innovation Structure to Molecular Hierarchy
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Eukaryotic Cells
• Organisms composed of eukaryotic cells are called “eukaryotes”
• Have a membrane bound nucleus which contains the cell’s DNA
• Some eukaryotes are one-celled organisms
• All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes
• Have organelles, each of which is surrounded by (or bound in) a
“plasma membrane”
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Immunofluorescence Staining
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Overview: The Cellular Internet
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Plasma membranes
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Cell-cell recognition
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Neurotransmitter
Secreting Secretory diffuses across
cell vesicle synapse
Hormone travels
in bloodstream
to target cells
Local regulator
diffuses through Target
Target cell
extracellular fluid cell
is stimulated
Hormonal signaling
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Some signaling molecules
1. Steroid hormones
This class of molecules diffuse across the plasma membrane and bind to
Receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus. They are all synthesized from cholesterol.
Thyroid hormone, vitamin D3, and retinoic acid have different structure and
function but share the same mechanism of action with the other steroids.
Steroid Receptor Superfamily. They are transcription factors that function either
as activators or repressors of transcription.
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NO, a simple gas, is able to diffuse across the membrane, and alters the
activity of intracellular target enzymes. It’s extremely unstable, so its effects are
local. Ex. It signals the dilation of blood vessels.
3. Neurotransmitters
They signal from neuron to neuron or from neuron to other target cell
(ex. muscle cell ).
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Excellence in Learning Innovation Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones are soluble in the plasma membrane and readily enter the
cytosol where they bind to a mobile receptor.
The hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus and binds to specific genes
where it acts as a transcription factor which turns on the genes.
The specific proteins then carry out functions (if they are enzymes) or produce
structures in the target cell.
Because steroid hormones initiate protein synthesis, their effects are produced
more slowly, but are more long-lasting than those produced by other hormones.
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Excellence in Learning Innovation Three Steps in Cell Signaling
Target organ specificity is the result of specific receptor molecules for the hormone, either on the
plasma membrane surface, or in some cases in the cytoplasm, of cells in the target organ.
1) Reception 2) Transduction 3) Response
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Intracellular Receptors
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Hormone EXTRACELLULAR
(testosterone) FLUID The steroid
Excellence in Learning Innovation hormone testosterone
passes through the
plasma membrane.
Plasma
membrane Testosterone binds
Receptor to a receptor protein
protein in the cytoplasm,
Hormone- activating it.
receptor
complex
The hormone-
receptor complex
enters the nucleus
and binds to specific
genes.
DNA
The mRNA is
translated into a
specific protein.
CYTOPLASM
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Excellence in Learning Innovation Signal-binding site
phosphates to tyrosines
Tyr Tyr
Tyr Tyr Tyr Tyr
Tyr Tyr
Tyr Tyr Tyr Tyr
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Signal Gate
closed Ions
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(ligand)
Cellular
response
Gate closed
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Transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from
Excellence in Learning Innovation receptors to target molecules in the cell
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Signal Transduction Pathways
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Signal molecule
Receptor
Activated relay
molecule
Inactive
protein kinase
1 Active
protein
kinase
1
Inactive
protein kinase ATP
2 ADP Active P
protein
PP kinase
Pi 2
Inactive
protein kinase ATP
ADP Active P
3
protein
PP kinase
Pi 3
Inactive
protein ATP
ADP P
Active Cellular
PP protein response
Pi
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Phosphorylation Cascade
Signal transduction pathways often involve an enzyme
phosphorylation cascade.
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Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers
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Cyclic AMP
• Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is one of the most widely used
second messengers
• Adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme in the plasma membrane,
converts ATP to cAMP in response to an extracellular
signal
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First messenger
(signal molecule
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such as epinephrine)
Adenylyl
G protein cyclase
G-protein-linked GTP
receptor
ATP
Second
cAMP messenger
Protein
kinase A
Cellular responses
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Excellence in Learning Innovation EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID Plasma
membrane
Ca2+
pump
ATP
Mitochondrion
Nucleus
CYTOSOL
Ca2+
pump
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
ATP Ca2+
pump
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EXTRACELLULAR Signal molecule
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FLUID (first messenger)
G protein
DAG
GTP
G-protein-linked PIP2
receptor Phospholipase C
IP3 (second
messenger)
IP3-gated
calcium channel
Various Cellular
Endoplasmic Ca2+ proteins responses
reticulum (ER) activated
Ca2+
(second
CYTOSOL messenger)
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The Central
Excellence Dogma of Molecular Biology~ Biochemistry
in Learning Innovation
Central Dogma
DNA code ➔Transcription ➔
Translation ➔ Protein
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Cytoplasmic and Nuclear Responses
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Reception
Binding of epinephrine to G protein-coupled receptor (1 molecule)
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Transduction
Inactive G protein
Active G protein (102 molecules)
ATP
Cyclic AMP (104)
Response
Glycogen
Glucose 1-phosphate
(108 molecules)
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Signal Amplification
• Enzyme cascades amplify the cell’s response
• At each step, the number of activated products is
much greater than in the preceding step
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Signal
molecule
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Receptor
Relay
molecules
Activation
or inhibition
Response 4 Response 5
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Thank You
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