Professional Documents
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Curs 1 - An III - Arhitectura - LB Engleza
Curs 1 - An III - Arhitectura - LB Engleza
Curs 1 - An III - Arhitectura - LB Engleza
INTRODUCTION
ENVIRONMENT. RESOURCES. ENERGYES.NETWORKS
! to remember:
- buildings depend upon energies exchanges and sometime matter for their
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very existence
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- the main function for building equipment’s is to ensure the viability (proper
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and adapted usage, proper comfort and building and persons security) of the
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built environment where activities are going to be carried out (civil,
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industrial, farming, etc.)
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- the secondary function is to shrink / minimise the impact of human
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settlements on the environment (in combination with urban networks)
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Defining the mains objectives regarding buildings equipment
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The main objective is to ensure a safe and health place / environment for building
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occupants by supplying potable (fresh ‐ cold) water, by ensuring waste (especially
waste‐water) evacuation outside and providing interior electricity power network
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distribution.
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The secondary objective is to ensure interior comfort (mainly hygro‐thermal and
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visual, secondary acoustic and electromagnetic) and create a reliable (satisfactorily)
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telecommunications, heat (and sometime cold) supply networks.
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The water distribution network is necessary to ensure minimum hygiene conditions
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and main source in the fight against fires.
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Electricity and gas are easily transportable forms of energy, the first being
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indispensable for indoor security lighting and for the power‐supply of public utility
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equipment, and the latter with an important utility for heating (as main combustion
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source) and for food preparation, not to mention their contribution to industrial area
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or agriculture.
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Interior and exterior lighting brings to the forefront the assurance of safety in
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circulating areas, on the one hand, and, on the other, improves the nocturnal
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Audio, video and data networking flows requires the provision of reliable wires
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communication networks.
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Finally, interior heating/cooling networks provide part of the inner comfort of the
inhabited areas or ensure the preservation of the space built by maintaining /
preserve guard / minimal conditions during periods of absence of indoor activities.
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Sewer and rainwater networks
The first sanitation systems were built in prehistoric Iran, near Zabol. [12]
The initial objective of waste water treatment was to transport household waste to
the natural environment, usually represented by running water (a river or a sea),
where it would be diluted and dissipated satisfactorily, with unimportant recesses of
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odours. People's early dwellings were often built alongside water sources. The rivers
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were often duged as the primary form used to remove waste (and not only) from
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households.
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In medieval European cities, small‐scale natural waterways were used to transport
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household wastewater and were eventually covered and functioned as the first
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sewerage networks. The system often worked on the streets. The creation of
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channels or drains of waste water took place in the middle of the streets. These
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were known as canvases, and in Paris they were sometimes known as "street
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separators," as the waste waters running along the centre physically divided the
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streets into two halves. The first closed canal built in Paris was designed by Hugues
Aubird in 1370 on Montmartre Street and was 300 meters long. The initial purpose
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of designing and building a closed canal in Paris was made for waste management
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and to prevent odour from wastewater [21].
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The cities expansion during the Industrial Revolution quickly led to highly polluted
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streets, streets that have been a constant source of disease outbreak. [31]
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Sufficiently wealthy people who enjoyed toilets (with separate wash areas) in the
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19th century often had the political power to allow wastewater to be discharged into
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public canals; this practice has become a norm since indoor sanitary facilities have
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become increasingly common, also based on new types of large‐scale drinking water
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supply networks.
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As the expansion of cities became stronger in the 19th century, the first public
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health low also emerged. [32]: As part of a tendency to organize programs and
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municipal sanitation companies at the end of the 19th century, extensive sewage
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systems have been built in many cities to limit the effects of typhoid fever and
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cholera epidemics. [33]
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At the beginning, sewage systems discharged wastewater directly into surface
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waters that crossed the cities without a minimal scrubbing (treatment) scheme. [34]
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Subsequently, attempts were made to treat (mostly involving gross filtration by
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using superficial earth layers as a barrier to wastewater) to prevent pollution of
drinking water sources and to prevent related diseases; these interventions
considered to be in the use of public health have managed to drastically reduce the
incidence of diseases caused by contaminated water with residues from household
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waste among the population and have been a decisive factor in increasing the life
expectancy of the population of those times. [35]
Early waste‐water treatment techniques involved the application of sewage fields to
farming land ‐ this stage still exists today in certain treatment schemes and is called
biological treatment by percolation. [34] The use of filtration treatment systems in
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land plots has continued, but not without generating serious public health concerns
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and negative environmental impacts. [36] However, water supply networks and
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wastewater networks have been developed in parallel with clear separation
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elements to prevent the interaction between the two systems, including the
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development of alternative sources and water treatment schemes prior to delivering
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to consumers, using storage tanks and watertight conveying systems, the relocation
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of remote water inlet to sewage treatment and disposal systems [37].
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Sewage networks have a triple function:
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- they collect the waste water (domestic or industrial) and rainwater (from
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constructed surfaces) in a separated or mixed system;
- they transport the collected wastewater to the natural environment for
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reintegration into the water circuit (if not polluted) or to the treatment plants
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(in the case of polluted water);
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- ensures the treatment of polluted wastewater in the treatment plants so that
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the effluent (emissary) is compatible with the public health and
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environmental requirements.
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The goal of these processes is to obtain a negligible impact of wastewater and
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rainwater on the environment in which they are discharged.
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Water Supply Networks
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Water supply has been a primary logistical challenge since the beginning of
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civilization. If water resources or related infrastructure systems are insufficient for
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the population, people become prey to disease, dehydration and, in extreme cases,
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death may even occur.
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Human shelters were originally developed only where fresh surface water was
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abundant, as in the case of rivers or natural springs. Throughout history, people have
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designed systems for potable water capture and transport in their communities and
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households, and later, homologous systems for treating and removing wastewater
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and returning to the original environment. [1]
Water is indispensable for everyday life, both in the residential area, as well as in the
industrial area or in agriculture.
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References about the existence of drinking water supply networks have existed since
antiquity. Babylonians first introduced clay pots, the earliest examples being found
in the Nippur Bel's Temple and Eshnunna, Babylonia (4000BC). [12]
The water transport could be done exclusively gravitationally, and pipes of clay or
even of wood or metal (especially lead or copper) were used as transport pipes.
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The ancient Greek civilization of Crete, known as the Minoan Civilization, was the
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first to use ground clay pipes for sewerage and water supply. [13] The capital,
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Knossos, had a structured network of clean water headrace and transport, and a
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separated waste water drained through channels that used meteoric water as
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intermediate transport agent with high flow rates from important rains. One of the
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first uses of the toilet bowl, dating back to the 18th century BC, was also marked.
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[14] Minoan civilization had drainage networks cleaned periodically with clean
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(fresh) water. The ancient Greeks of Athens and Asia Minor also used an interior
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system with pressurized waters (using the weight of the column and the reduction of
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diameters). [15] The Greek inventor Heron used pressurized tubes to fight fire in the
city of Alexandria[16].
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An inverted siphon system, along with glass‐coated clay pipes, was first used in the
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palaces of Crete, Greece. It is still in operation even now, after about 3000 years.
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Technical details on the construction of the tunnel of the aqueduct built by Peisistratos
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(ancient Greece)
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In ancient Rome, Cloaca Maxima, considered a miracle of engineering, had a
centralized water supply and sewerage system that used the Tiber River as the
emissary. Public latrines were built over Cloaca Maxima, partly using its channel
system. [17] The Roman Empire had internal sanitary facilities, meaning a system of
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aqueducts and pipes ending in homes and in wells and public fountains for people.
Many of the Roman cities and military garrisons between 46 BC and 400 BC had
complex sewer networks, often constructed as drainage pipes of content elm (wood)
pipelines that have been modelled so that they can be combined into a series system
with the previous duct, thus providing a pipe support for the upstream pipeline.
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The Romans used lead pipes; while it is believed to be the cause of lead poisoning in
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the Roman Empire, the combination of fresh water (which does not stagnate in
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pipelines and implicitly does not remain in contact with the pipeline for a long time)
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and the precipitation (salts, minerals, limestone, etc.) effectively mitigated the risk of
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using lead pipes. [18], [19]
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Cloaca Maxima (water supply and sewerage route, interior gallery view, emissary
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junction)
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Comparison between the structure of the Romanian Empire water supply system
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and that of a modern city
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Industrial development has led to an increase in the demand for water and the
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improvement of its quality, which is required by certain industries as well as to the
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requirements of the population.
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If, in the early part of the 20th century, with the onset of modern water supply
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networks for residential buildings, only the quantity of water delivered was
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important, nowadays, considering that water resources are not inexhaustible, it is
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also important the quality and, moreover, the possibilities for reuse of waste water.
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In Romania, the beginnings of water supply in a centralized system date back to the
end of the 17th century and continue today. There is no concrete data on the
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percentage of access to water networks or individual sources.
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In Europe, countries like the Netherlands reported that more than 90% of the
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inhabitants are connected to a centralized water supply source and the remaining
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10% have their own sources of water.
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Power supply and electrical distribution networks
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Electricity supply and distribution is often carried out by a national or local company
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through its own or independent operators.
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If in residential areas electricity is the certainty of providing additional interior
comfort, in the public or industrial domain, it can be considered as the basic energy
form for general purposes, leading inevitably to an easier adaptation of society's
evolving needs.
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Electricity distribution networks are subject to many technical regulations for
commissioning and operation given the risks to users or maintenance staff in the
event of interventions.
Particular case: lighting network
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Lighting plays a multiple role in the building design projects. It is a special sector for
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the whole building ensemble and considers the following elements: type of activity,
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circulation and working areas, public spaces, buildings facades and monuments,
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areas of interest for practicing sports, and so on.
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By highlighting different objectives, artificial lighting creates a new perception
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(perspective) different from that of the diurnal period.
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Lighting design is prioritized according to its objective in:
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a) ensuring the safety of the persons movements (displacements) through a better
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perception of possible obstacles;
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b) ensuring the security of goods and people through satisfactory ambient lighting;
c) facilitate location for specific places or points of interest: manual call points,
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emergency buttons, fire safety devices, and so on;
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d) the possibility of carrying out sports or cultural activities after the end of daily
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activity at the work places;
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e) making use of the built heritage and loisir spaces;
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f) avoiding discomfort caused by areas too dark or, on the contrary, too bright by
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adapting the receptors (human eyes) to light stimuli
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Fuel gas distribution networks (natural / lpg)
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Gas is one of the least polluting and most economical forms of energy in terms of
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transforming it into other forms of energy.
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The first testimonies on the use of natural gas are those in Iran 2000BC and those in
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China, where sources mention the use of natural gas in 900BC for lighting. Also,
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information about the use of natural gas is found in China, testimonies of natural gas
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leakage from underground accumulations in Se‐Chi‐Wan Province, 150BC, gases that
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were captured by bamboo tubes, led to special places where they burned by boiling
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seawater to precipitate salt [x1].
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Fuel gas responds to extremely diverse requirements both in the residential area
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(primary energy in the production of heat and food preparation), but especially in
the industrial and farming areas.
Fuel gas can be supplied in several ways:
a) using LPG (liquefied petroleum gases) (butane or propane) for urban or rural
isolated residential areas
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b) using distribution networks connected to a centralized public network for
larger areas (neighbourhoods, cities)
Considering the dangerousness of the transported or stored product this network
utility type is subject to strict regulations being among the few (if not the only ones)
for which there is a single surveillance / maintenance / developing entity starting
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from the source to the last consumer connected to the grid.
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Telecommunication networks
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Despite the massive development of mobile telecommunication networks, linking to
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fixed (wired) telecommunication networks is still widespread considering the large
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number of services provided simultaneously (telephony, fax, video conferencing,
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television, internet, etc.) at guaranteed superior speeds to those obtained through
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mobile communications, and not influenced by external weather conditions or
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power supplies of the transmitting equipment. Not to mention emergency systems,
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firefighting alarm, intrusion, video‐surveillance, control‐access, building
management systems, e.s.o.
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As with other utility networks, assessing the telecommunication networks is a must.
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Service providers are urged to ensure that new urban / industrial or village areas are
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covered by the design, both in terms of the extent of coverage of mobile networks,
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as well as in the provision of communications services for institutions engaged with
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public security.
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Central heating / cooling networks
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For residential, administrative or commercial buildings, production, storage heating,
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domestic hot water and cooled‐water supply can be done individually, locally (semi‐
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centralized) or collectively (centralized – district heating / cooling).
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In the case of semi‐centralized heating system, several solutions are possible
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depending on the layout and destination of the buildings, but also the distance
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between them and the supply source and the number of users.
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A central heating system that is part of a centralized system distributes heat (hot
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water) under pressure (water vapours) to substations (thermal points) located at the
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level of each building or serving more consumers.
The distribution of the low‐pressure heating medium for interior heating and for the
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domestic hot water preparation is made through heat exchangers.
The interior heating network is an extension from a larger scale of these principles
(those of central heating.)
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Influences on the design process
The design process may appear to revolve primarily around the needs of a client and
the capabilities of the design team—as exemplified by the establishment of design
intent and criteria. There are several other notable influences, however, that affect
the conduct and outcome of the building design process. Some of these influences
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are historic and affect virtually every building project; others represent emerging
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trends and affect only selected projects. Several of these design‐influencing factors
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are discussed below.
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(a) Codes and Standards
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The design of virtually every building will be influenced by codes and standards.
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Codes are government‐mandated and ‐enforced documents that stipulate minimum
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acceptable building practices. Designers usually interface with codes through an
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entity known as the authority having jurisdiction.
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There may be several such authorities for any given locale or project (fire protection
requirements, for example, may be enforced separately from general building
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construction requirements or energy performance requirements). Codes essentially
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define the minimum response that society deems acceptable for dealing with a
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particular building design issue.
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In no way is code compliance—by itself—likely to be adequate to meet the needs of
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a client. On the other hand, code compliance is indisputably necessary.
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(b) Costs
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Costs are a historic influence on the design process and are just as pervasive as
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codes. Typically, one of the earliest and strictest limits on design flexibility is the
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maximum construction budget imposed by the client. First cost (the cost for an
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owner to acquire the keys to a completed building) is the most commonly used cost
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factor. First cost is usually expressed as a maximum allowable construction cost or as
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a cost per unit area. Life‐cycle cost (the cost for an owner to acquire and use a
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building for some defined period of time) is generally as important as, or more
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important than, first cost, but is often ignored by owners and usually not well
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understood by designers.
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Over the life of a building, operating and maintenance costs can far exceed the cost
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to construct or acquire a building. Thus, whenever feasible, design decisions should
be based upon life‐cycle cost analyses and not simply first cost.
(c) Passive and Active Approaches
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The distinction between passive and active systems may mean little to the average
building owner, but it can be critical to the building designer and occupant.
Development of passive systems must begin early in the design process, and requires
early and continuous attention from the architectural designer. Passive system
operation will often require the earnest cooperation and involvement of building
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occupants and users. The characteristics of passive and active systems approaches
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are conceptually opposite in nature. Individual systems that embody both active and
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passive characteristics are often called hybrid systems. Hybrid systems are
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commonly employed as a means of tapping into the best aspects of both
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approaches.
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The typical building will usually include both passive and active systems. Passive
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systems may be used for climate control, fire protection, lighting, acoustics,
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circulation, and/or sanitation. Active systems may also be used for the same
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purposes and for electrical distribution and signaling.
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(d) Energy Efficiency
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Residential energy efficiency requirements are addressed by
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several model codes and standards. Energy efficiency requirements for residential
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buildings tend to focus upon minimum envelope (walls, floors, roofs, doors,
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windows) and mechanical equipment (heating, cooling, domestic hot
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buildings address virtually every building system (including lighting and electrical
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requirements for individual building elements, with an option for an
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design approach.
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Efficiency is simply the ratio of system output to system input. The greater the
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output for any given input, the higher the efficiency. This concept plays
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a large role in energy efficiency standards through the specification of minimum
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efficiencies for many items of mechanical and electrical equipment
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for buildings. Energy conservation implies saving energy by using less. This is
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conceptually different from efficiency but is an integral part of everyday
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usage of the term.
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The majority of energy efficiency standards deal solely with on‐site energy usage.
Passive design solutions usually employ renewable energy resources. Several active
design solutions, however, also utilize renewable energy forms.
Energy conservation and efficiency concerns are typically focused upon minimizing
depletion of nonrenewable energy resources—even when not explicitly stated. The
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use of renewable energy sources (such as solar radiation and wind) changes the
passive versus active discussion, should change the perspective of the design team,
and may affect the way compliance with energy efficiency codes/standards is
evaluated.
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(e) Passive House Performance
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At the risk of sowing confusion, it is appropriate to discuss Passive House
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performance in conjunction with energy efficiency. Passive House (with caps)
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is a building performance guideline with stringent energy benchmarks for both site
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(specifically space conditioning) and source energy. A Passive House (denoting
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annual energy performance) is not necessarily a house with passive heating/cooling/
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lighting systems—although a Passive House will have a well‐designed enclosure
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system (which is very much a passive approach). To stir potential confusion a bit
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more, a Passive House does not need to be a house; it may be an office, school, or
other building type. Some time on the horizon, the designation
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“Passive House” may change. In any event, a building certified under Passive House
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guidelines will be a highly energy‐efficient building that approaches net‐zero energy
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performance levels.
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(f) Net‐Zero Energy
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Pushing energy efficiency toward its limits will lead to the realm of building
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performance associated with net‐zero energy buildings. High efficiency alone is not
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sufficient to produce a net‐zero building, but it is a practical prerequisite. By
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definition, a net‐zero energy building will—on an annual basis—produce as much
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energy from renewable resources (solar and wind, for example) as it consumes. Such
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a building will, despite aggressive energy‐efficiency efforts, still use energy (for
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things such as domestic water heating, electric lighting, space heating/cooling, and
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appliances). Any such residual energy requirements will, however, be provided by
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renewable energy resources that match the magnitude of fossil‐fuel‐based energy
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consumption. Thus the use of the term “net‐zero energy,” as opposed to “zero‐
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energy” (which would essentially mean an unused building).
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may use energy derived from fossil fuels (such as electricity from a coal‐fired power
plant) to meets its programmatic and occupancy needs. But, every kWh of energy
from a nonrenewable resource must be matched by a kWh of energy from
a renewable resource. A net‐zero energy building is not a no‐energy building, and it
is not a no‐nonrenewable‐energy building. It is, however, a low‐energy building that
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employs at least 50% (annually) renewable energy. This is a big step on the road to
sustainability. Sustainability (on the energy front) may lie in what some designers are
describing as plus‐energy buildings.
(g) Green Building Design Strategies
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Green design goes beyond energy‐efficient design in order to address both the local
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and global impacts of building energy, water, and materials usage. Energy efficiency
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is a key, but not sole, element of green design. The concept that is broadly called
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“green design” arose from concerns about the wide‐ranging environmental impacts
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of design decisions. Although there is no generally accepted concise definition of
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green, the term is typically understood to incorporate concern for the health and
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well‐being of building occupants/users and respect for the larger global
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environment. A green building should maximize beneficial impacts on its direct
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beneficiaries while minimizing negative impacts on the site, local, regional, national,
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and global environments.
The emergence of green building rating systems has greatly rationalized design
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intent and design criteria in this particular realm of architecture.
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(h) Carbon‐Neutral Design
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Design to reduce carbon emissions is becoming an issue on many building projects.
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Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a major greenhouse gas; methane is another. Greenhouse
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gasses trap heat below the Earth’s atmosphere in more or less the same way that
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glass traps heat from solar radiation in a greenhouse (or in a passive solar heating
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system). This trapping of heat increases temperatures and leads to climate change.
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Buildings are important contributors to carbon dioxide emissions and are therefore
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logical targets for mitigation in an attempt to reduce climate change potential.
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Carbon (and other climate‐changing) emissions may be classified in three broad
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categories termed scopes:
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• Scope 1: All direct GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions (such as from a gas‐fired boiler
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or wood‐burning stove)
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• Scope 2: Indirect GHG emissions from consumption of purchased electricity, heat,
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or steam
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• Scope 3: Other indirect emissions, such as from the extraction and production of
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purchased materials and fuels, transport‐related activities in vehicles not owned or
controlled by the reporting entity, electricity‐related activities (e.g., transmission
and distribution) not covered in Scope 2, outsourced activities, waste disposal, etc.
(i) Design Strategies for Sustainability
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Unlike green design, the meaning of “sustainability” in architecture has not yet been
rationalized.
The term sustainable is used freely—and often mistakenly— to describe a broad
range of intents and performances. This is unfortunate, as it tends to make
sustainability a meaningless term—and sustainability is far too important to be
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rendered meaningless by baseless claims. For the purposes of this
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course, sustainability will be defined as follows: Sustainability involves meeting the
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needs of today’s generation without detracting from the ability of future generations
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to meet their needs.
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Sustainability for most is essentially long‐term survival under an assumed standard
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of living. In architectural terms, sustainability involves ensuring the survival of an
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existing quality of life for future generations. From the standpoint of energy,
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water, and materials, it can be argued that sustainability requires zero use of
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nonrenewable resources.
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Any long‐term removal of nonrenewable resources from the environment will surely
impair the ability of future generations to meet their needs (with fewer resources
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being available, as a result of our actions). Because sustainability is so important a
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concept and objective, the term should not be used lightly. It is highly unlikely that
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any single building built in today’s economic environment can be sustainable
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(yielding no net resource depletion). Sustainability at the community scale is more
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probable; examples, however, are rare.
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(j) Regenerative Design Strategies
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Energy efficiency is an attempt to use less energy to accomplish a given design
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objective (such as thermal comfort or adequate lighting). Green design is an attempt
lim ss
to maximize the positive effects of design while minimizing the negative ones—with
is re
respect to energy, water, and material resources. Sustainable design is an attempt to
n dd
tio a
solve today’s problems while reserving adequate resources to permit future
bu is
generations to solve their problems. Energy efficiency is a necessary constituent of
tri nt
green design. Green design is a necessary constituent of sustainable design.
is e
D um
Regenerative design goes beyond sustainability.
c
do
The goal of energy efficiency is to reduce net negative energy impacts. The goal of
is
green design is to reduce net negative environmental impacts. The goal of
Th
sustainability is to produce no net negative environmental impacts. The goal of
regenerative design is to produce a net positive environmental impact—to leave the
world better off with respect to energy, water, and materials. If design for
sustainability is difficult, then regenerative design is even more difficult.
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