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Outdoor comfort research issues

Article  in  Energy and Buildings · January 2003

DOI: 10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00082-8

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 Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86

Outdoor comfort research issues

Baruch Givonia,*, Mikiko Noguchib, Hadas Saaronic, Oded Pochterc,
Yaron Yaacovc, Noa Fellerc, Stefan Beckerd
a
Department of Architecture, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
b
Fujita Corporation, Tokyo, Japan
c
Department of Geography, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
d
Department of Geography, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany

Abstract

The paper discusses methodological issues and carrying out problems in outdoor comfort research. It also deals with the relative effects of
air temperature, solar radiation and wind speed, as well as with the relationship between thermal sensation and overall comfort sensation, as
was found in the outdoor comfort research in Japan. The paper also summarizes several studies going on presently at Tel Aviv University in
Israel and presents some of the actual experimental results from these studies.
# 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Thermal comfort; Outdoor comfort; Comfort research methodology

1. Introduction Thus, minimizing outdoor discomfort may enhance the

Thermal comfort of persons staying outdoors is one of the
factors influencing outdoor activities in streets, plazas, play-
grounds, urban parks, etc. The amount and intensity of such
activities is affected by the level of the discomfort experi-
enced by the inhabitants when they are exposed to the
climatic conditions in these outdoor spaces.
Thus, for example, on a hot summer day the thermal
discomfort of people staying outdoors exposed to the sun
may discourage them from utilizing available urban parks,
depending on the particular combination of the air tempera-
ture, the surface temperature of the surrounding areas, the
wind speed and the humidity level. The availability of
shaded outdoor areas may result in greater utilization of
the open space by the public.
In a similar way, in a cold region, a given combination of
wind speed and air temperature, or the obstruction of the sun
in shaded areas, may discourage people from staying out-
doors while the provision of sunny areas protected from the
prevailing winds may encourage public activities in that
outdoor space.
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: bgivoni@ucla.edu (B. Givoni), mnoguchi@fujita.co.jp
(M. Noguchi), saaroni@post.tau.ac.il (H. Saaroni), potchter@post.tau.ac.il
(O. Pochter), yaronws@post.tau.ac.il (Y. Yaacov), yfellr@netvision.net.il
(N. Feller), stefan.becker@geogr.uni-giessen.de (S. Becker).
vitality of the location during periods of extreme tempera-
tures (low in winter and/or high in summer).
The actual levels of the ambient air temperature, solar
radiation and wind, in a particular location, can be modified
by the design details of the outdoor spaces. Such details may
include the provision of shading elements, materials and
colors of the surrounding hard surfaces, provision and
details of planted surfaces, wind ‘breaks’ or ‘openness’ to
the wind, etc. Thus, the exposure to, or protection from, solar
radiation, the temperatures of the surrounding surfaces, and
the local wind speed, can be modified to a large extent by the
choice of different design details. Even the local air tem-
perature can be affected to some degree by the outdoor space
design details.
In order to evaluate the importance of modifying the
outdoor climate in a particular direction by specific design
details it would be helpful if the designer would have some
means for ‘predicting’ the effect of a particular change in a
climatic element on the comfort of persons staying outdoor.
Almost all of the research done to date on human thermal
comfort was conducted under indoor conditions. Specific
procedures enabled comparison of results obtained in
different studies. For example, the clothing worn by the
subjects in different seasons was often the same, regardless
of the climatic conditions prevailing outdoor in that loca-
tion during the testing season. An inherent (although
questionable) assumption involved in this procedure is that
when a person is staying indoors his subjective reactions to

0378-7788/03/$ – see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 7 7 8 8 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 8 2 - 8
78 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86
temperature, air speed, etc. are independent of the condi-
tions prevailing outdoors.
Research on outdoor comfort involves different conditions
and issues, not encountered in studies on indoor comfort.
When staying outdoors, people expect variability in the
exposure conditions: variation of sun and shade, changes in
wind speed, and so on. Pedestrians may be exposed to intense
solar radiation and to the winds, factors that modify greatly
their response to the temperature and humidity conditions.
Furthermore, people staying outdoors usually wear dif-
ferent clothing in different seasons, clothing that are suitable
to the prevailing climate. Therefore, fixed standard clothing
is not applicable in outdoor research. In each particular
season the subjects should wear clothes which are com-
monly used in that particular location and season. Thus, in an
outdoor comfort study conducted in Japan [2], the subjects
wore, in each season, clothes commonly worn by local
persons when staying outdoors.
By comparing outdoor comfort studies conducted in
different seasons, and/or in regions with different climates,
it would be possible to evaluate the effect of changes in the
prevailing climatic conditions on the temperature range
within which people feel comfortable outdoors, when the
subjects are wearing clothing common for outdoor exposure
in the given location and season.
The effect of direct exposure to solar radiation is not
limited to the thermal sensation. In winter it may produce
specific pleasure. On a hot summer day it may produce
specific discomfort, beyond the heat sensation. In un-shaded
areas pedestrians may also be exposed to surface tempera-
tures much higher in summer and lower in winter than the
ambient air temperature.
Outdoors, wind speeds are much higher than the air speeds
common indoor. Wind in summer, up to a certain speed, may
be specifically pleasant, while in winter it may be specifically
annoying. These factors have to be included in evaluating the
overall subjective responses to the outdoor environment.
The following section of the paper is a review of an
experimental study conducted in Japan in 1994–1995 and of
several studies presently conducted in Israel, dealing with
outdoor comfort. It describes the research procedures of the
studies, presents some selected experimental results and
discusses some of the problems encountered in the conduc-
tion of the research and in the analysis of the data.
2. The study in Japan—by Noguchi and Givoni
The Fujita Corporation conducted research, monitoring
the thermal sensation and overall comfort of subjects staying
outdoors in Japan in 1994–1995 [1,2]. The objective of this
research was to determine the quantitative effect on the
comfort of Japanese persons dressed according to the com-
mon practice in the different seasons, of various design
features of plazas which can modify the sun and wind
exposure conditions during different seasons.
2.1. Research procedure
The research utilized a questionnaire surveys on the
subjects’ sensory responses and included physical measure-
ment of outdoor climate data.
The subjects’ group consisted of six persons, males and
females, ranging from the twenties to the fifties. They
worked in three pairs, each pair staying in one area for
20 min and moved to a different one. It meant that after 1 h a
pair would finish staying in all the three areas: exposed to the
sun and undisturbed wind, exposed but with reduced wind
and in the shade and undisturbed wind. This procedure was
repeated seven times a day. In each ‘test’ the subjects were
asked to sit still in their chairs for 15 min to get used to the
condition, and filled in a questionnaire in the remaining
5 min.
The common outdoor clothing in Japan for a given season
was selected for each season:
(i) Spring and autumn: long-sleeve shirt, jacket and
trousers (CLO value ¼ 1:1).
(ii) Summer: short-sleeve T-shirt and trousers (CLO
value ¼ 0:65).
(iii) Winter: long-sleeve shirt, knitted jumper, thick jacket
and trousers (CLO value ¼ 1:67).
The questionnaire was mainly concerned with thermal
sensation and overall comfort. Thermal sensation is the
perception of heat or cold, on a scale of one (very cold)
to seven (very hot). The scale of the overall comfort level is
from one (very uncomfortable) to seven (very comfortable).
Level four is neutral, when one does not feel any thermal
discomfort, to correspond with level four of the thermal
sensation. The comfort level above five (super comfort) were
included so that effects which produce ‘pleasure’ beyond
just comfort, such as the wind in the hot humid summer and
the sun in winter, could be identified. This point is further
discussed later in the paper.
The experiments were conducted under controlled solar
insolation and wind speed in order to understand how these
physical factors influence the thermal sensation and the
comfort level of Japanese persons staying in outdoor spaces.
A grassed open space and an asphalt parking area in a park in
Yokohama city were chosen as the sites for the experiments.
The subjects were divided into three groups with different
exposure conditions at very small distances between them.
The first group was sitting under a large shade tree (TREE).
The second group was sitting in a nearby open area exposed
to the sun (SUN). The third group was also in the open area
but behind a vertical wind break made of transparent poly-
ethylene sheets supported on wood frames (WIND
BREAK). The groups were rotated between the three expo-
sure sites so that, on the average, every subject was exposed
to the same conditions. The groups were rotated between the
three exposure sites every 20 min so that, on the average,
every subject was exposed to about the same conditions.
 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86
Because of the very small distances between the exposure
sites it can be assumed that the air temperatures and the
humidity, at a given time, are the same for the three groups.
The only differences are in the solar radiation (between the
TREE on the one hand and the SUN and WIND-BREAK on
the other) and in the wind speeds (between the TREE and
SUN groups on one hand and the WIND-BREAK group on
the other).
The study was carried out in different seasons, from the
summer of 1994 to the summer of 1995. In each season,
experiments were conducted during 2 days, for a total 9
experimental days. Each experimental day started at 9 a.m.
and finished at 5 p.m.
The measured environmental physical factors were air
temperature in the shade (Ta, 8C), horizontal solar radiation
(SR, W/sqm), wind speed (WS, m/s), relative humidity (RH,
%) and the surrounding ground surface temperature (ST,
8C). The climatic measurements were carried out every hour
in each test area.
By comparing rapid consequent measurements of the
horizontal solar radiation intensity ‘in the sun’ and under
the shade tree the shading effectiveness of the trees was
evaluated. The radiation intensity under the tree was about
10% of the radiation at the exposed sites in the summer and
fall seasons. In the winter and spring seasons, when the trees’
foliage was less dense, the radiation under the tree was about
20% of the radiation in the open area.
The wind speed behind the wind break was about 50% of
the speed at the exposed site.
Analysis of the data enabled the development of a formula
predicting the thermal sensation of subject staying outdoors,
as affected by acclimatization to the changing climate and
Fig. 1. Measured and calculated thermal sensations in the different seasons.
79
the different common clothing in the different seasons. The
data also enabled to demonstrate the relationship between
thermal sensation and overall comfort.
2.2. Selected experimental results
This paper presents the details of the experimental program,
the methodology of the data analysis, and the formula that was
developed on the basis of the experimental data. The detailed
results of the experimental study were presented in [2].
A multi-factor regression formula, expressing thermal sen-
sation (TS) as a function of the five variables was generated:
TS ¼ 1:7 þ 0:1118  Ta þ 0:0019  SR  0:322  WS
 0:0073  RH þ 0:0054  ST
with an R2 value of 0.8792.
Note in the formula the negative sign for the effect of
relative humidity (indicating lowering of the thermal sensa-
tion with higher humidity). This is in contrast with the
accepted notion that higher humidity increases the sensation
of warmth. This point is further discussed below.
It should be stressed that the above formula is based on a
very small number of subjects. Therefore, it should be
considered only as an indication that it is possible to develop
a predictive model for the thermal sensations of persons in
outdoor spaces, taking into account the effect of the expo-
sure conditions, including that of solar radiation, and the
subject’s seasonally adjusted clothing and acclimatization.
Fig. 1 shows the correspondence between the measured
and the calculated thermal sensations, with different mark-
ings for the different seasons. Fig. 2 shows the same data but
80 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86
Fig. 2. Measured and calculated thermal sensations under different exposure conditions.
with different markings for the different exposure conditions
(shade, sun and wind screen).
2.3. Comments on the effect of relative humidity
The analysis of the effects of combination of various
climatic elements may be more complex in outdoors com-
fort studies than in indoor conditions, because of peculiar
interactions between the climatic elements in specific loca-
tions and seasons. This factor may present specific problems
in developing mathematical models by multiple factor
regression.
For instance, in the study in Japan, the humidity was much
lower and the temperature higher during sunny days of a
given season than in cloudy days. The subjects feel warmer
during the sunny days mainly because of the solar radiation.
During the same days the humidity is lower.
The cooling effect of higher humidity, shown by the
regression formula described above, may have been just
an ‘error’ resulting from the very small number of human
subjects, and may not represent the real independent effect
of the humidity. On the other hand, it may have resulted from
the particular combinations of solar radiation and humidity
described above.
2.4. Relative effects of air temperature, solar radiation
and wind speed on thermal sensation
The effects of solar radiation and wind speed can be
related to the effect of air temperature by calculating the
changes in these factors which will produce the same effect
as that of a unit change in air temperature (1 8C).
To sharpen the relative effects of air temperature, solar
radiation and wind speed on thermal comfort in the above
study, a predictive formula for the thermal sensation has
been developed which takes into account only the effects of
air temperature, solar radiation and wind speed. The result-
ing formula is:
TS ¼ 1:2 þ 0:1115  Ta þ 0:0019  SR  0:3185  WS
with an R-square value of 0.8711.
Thus, the experimental results of this study suggest that a
change of 59 W/sqm in solar radiation, and a change of
0.35 m/s in wind speed, had similar effect to a change of
1 8C in air temperature.
Again, it should be stated that the number of human
subjects and testing days were very small. Therefore, the
above results should be considered only as very rough
approximations.
2.5. Comfort and thermal sensation
Thermal comfort level is related to the thermal sensation.
However, one may feel uncomfortable either when it is too
warm, or when it is too cold. Fig. 3 shows the relationship
between the thermal sensations and the comfort level, as
observed in the comfort study in Japan.
In retrospect it seems that the inclusion of the ‘super
comfort’ levels in a study covering a wide range of thermal
discomfort has reduced the clarity of the relationship
between thermal sensation and comfort. Thermal comfort
may be a required condition, but it is not sufficient, for
environmental ‘positive’ pleasantness.
As far as just the absence of discomfort is concerned,
comfort levels five, six, and seven (a little comfortable, more
comfortable, very comfortable) could have been combined
into one category of ‘‘comfortable’’.
 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86
Fig. 3. Relationship between thermal sensations and comfort level.
As an alternative way to deal with thermal comfort
beyond the sensation of the level of heat or cold, thermal
comfort could better be defined just as the absence of any
sense of discomfort. Wording of the ‘super comfort’ levels
could be in terms of levels of pleasantness, or stimulation,
rather than thermal comfort, and constitute a separate
response, to enable clearer analysis.
The effects on pleasantness of such factors, for example,
as wind speed or of the exposure to the sun, in winter and in
summer, could then be investigated, with higher sensitivity,
under a range limited to environmental conditions producing
a comfortable thermal sensation.
1
3. Studies at Tel Aviv University in Israel
A number of experimental studies are being conducted at
the Department of Geography of Tel Aviv University in
Israel, dealing with the impact of green area on the micro-
climate. These studies involve measurements of the air
and surface temperatures, humidity, wind speed, and solar
radiation.
Several of these investigations include also the monitoring
of comfort sensations of the students engaged in the
research. In this way, the correlation between the comfort
sensations and the climatic condition measured at the same
time can be analyzed.
A description of the issues investigated, the experimental
set-up, selected experimental results and discussion of the
problems encountered in these studies is presented in the
following sections.
1
Unpublished studies.
81
3.1. Research conducted by Hadas Saaroni
An experimental research, monitoring the climatic con-
ditions, thermal sensation and overall comfort, of subjects
staying outdoors, is being conducted in an urban park in Tel
Aviv, Israel. The objectives of this research were to study
the climatic effect of a small lake, during different warm
weather systems, as well as its effect on human comfort.
3.1.1. Research procedure
The research involved climatic measurements in the park
and a questionnaire surveys on the subjects’ sensory
responses. The park consists mainly from open grass areas
with several areas of trees. A lake (4 ha) is located at the
south edge of the park surrounded by open area with
minimal vegetation, i.e. several isolated trees. Two experi-
mental days were chosen under two different weather con-
ditions: 17 May and 1 June, 2000. Measurements were taken
during daytime, from 07:30 to 18:30 local solar time.
Four stations were located surrounding the lake (at a
distance of 3–5 m from the waterside) on open grass surface.
Two more stations were located 300 m on the upwind of the
lake, one on open grass surface and the second under a tree
with large canopy. All surfaces were not irrigated during the
measurement day and the day previous to the day of
measurement.
Shade was provided near the four stations in the open
areas by umbrellas.
The measured environmental factors included air tem-
perature (8C), horizontal solar radiation (W/sqm), wind
speed (m/s), relative humidity and the surrounding ground
surface temperature. Solar radiation was measured on exp-
osed surface and under a three, whereas the other parameters
82 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86
were measured in six fixed stations in Stevenson screens that
were set in the park.
Comparison of rapid consequent measurements of the
horizontal solar radiation intensity ‘in the sun’ and under the
shade tree have demonstrated that the radiation intensity
under the tree was about 10% of the radiation at the exposed
sites. The radiation under the umbrellas was estimated to be
30% of the radiation in the open area. The wind speed at the
stations surrounding the lake was up to four times stronger
than at the location far from the lake.
The research also utilized a questionnaire surveys on the
subjects’ sensory responses. The subjects’ group consisted
of 10 persons, males and females, in their twenties. The
subjects wore light T-shirts, the common outdoor clothing in
Tel Aviv.
The subjects worked in pairs. Each person of a pair stayed
15 min in the sun and 15 min under a shade. They filled the
questionnaire every 30 min. In each ‘test’ the subjects were
asked to sit still in their chairs for 10 min to get used to the
condition, and to fill in the questionnaire in the remaining
5 min. Every 2 h the pairs of subjects changed their location.
The questionnaire was mainly concerned with thermal
sensation and overall comfort. Thermal sensation was
marked on a scale of zero (very cold) to nine (unbearable
heat) when a level four is neutral, when one does not feel any
thermal discomfort, he feels well. The scale of the sensible
perspiration is from zero (very dry) to seven (all cloth are
wet).
3.1.2. Selected results concerning comfort
The differences in air temperature and solar radiation
between the five un-shaded stations were relatively small (up
Fig. 4. Comfort votes of subjects ‘in the sun’ and under a shade, with measured solar radiation.
to 2.6 8C between the stations on the upwind and the stations
at the downwind of the lake).
In the first stage of the data analysis the comfort votes of
the subjects from the five unshaded stations were averaged,
so that each vote represented an average of a group of about
10 persons. The comfort votes from the shaded station
represents also an average of 10 persons.
Fig. 4 shows the pattern of the average comfort votes of
the subjects exposed to the sun and those in the shade. The
figure shows also the pattern of the solar radiation during the
experimental period. The range of the air temperature during
the 2 days of the measurements was rather small, from 23 to
27 8C.
Analysis of the data enabled the development of an
experimental formula expressing the average comfort vote
(CV) as a function of solar radiation (SR), wind speed
(WS) and air temperature (DBT). The obtained formula
was:
CV ¼ 0:0033  SR þ 0:22  DBT  0:05  WS  2:3
Fig. 5 shows the measured and the computed comfort
votes for the subjects in the sun and in the shade.
It is of interest that such a simple formula, taking into
account only air tempeature and solar radiation, can provide
reasonable sensation of the recorded thermal sensations.
3.2. Research of Noa Feller
This study took place in Kibbutz Mash’abei-Sadeh and
its immediate surroundings. The Kibbutz is located in the
Negev desert. The measurements were taken during 4
 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86
Fig. 5. Measured and computed comfort votes for subjects in the sun and in the shade.
consecutive days between 30th July and 2nd August 2000.
During the first day, maximum temperature was 41 8C.
The conditions had become more moderate during the
second day (maximum temperature of 38 8C). During the
third and fourth days, the maximum temperature was
34 8C.
Six fixed stations were set in the Kibbutz area measuring
solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity and wind
speed and direction. The stations were located in order to
check the condition in the desert compared with those in
the Kibbutz (which forms an oasis in the desert). One or
two people sat near each station and completed a ques-
tionnaire about their thermal and perspiration sensations
once an hour.
The two first stations were set up in the middle of the
Kibbutz. One was in the middle of a big lawn, exposed to the
sun; the other was close by but located under a big canopy of
a tree, which provided total shade.
The third and fourth stations were set up along the
opposite outskirts of the Kibbutz. One station upwind and
the other station downwind. Both locations were exposed to
the sun during the day. No vegetation was present on the
ground. An umbrella of 2 m diameter near the station
provided shade.
The fifth station was set up outside the Kibbutz, about
1 km from the Kibbutz’s edge, upwind, exposed to the sun,
with no vegetation. Shading was provided by a nearby
umbrella. Thermal sensations were taken in the sun and
under the umbrella.
The sixth station was established in a high pine grove
inside the Kibbutz, upwind. The station was shaded during
the day. The soil was bare, with no vegetative cover. Thermal
sensations were taken in the shade near the station and in sun
outside the grove.
83
The climatic effect of the vegetation in the Kibbutz will be
discussed in another paper. It is of interest to note, however,
that the largest difference in measured air temperature
between any two stations was 2.3 8C and most of the time
it was lower than 1.5 8C.
Fourteen different people participated in the experiment.
They worked in two groups of seven and were rotated in
shifts between the stations every 4–5 h. The participants
spent 50 min sitting in the shade and recording their thermal
sensation. Then they moved to the sun for 10 min and wrote
down their sensations in sun. Several times during the
experiment, all 14 participants were assembled in one place
to record their thermal sensation.
3.2.1. Selected results concerning comfort
Fig. 6 shows the relationship between the thermal sensa-
tion recorded with subjects staying in the sun and in the
shade, as a function of the air temperature (DBT), with
corresponding regression lines.
The average slope of the thermal responses with changes
in the air temperature (DBT) was 0.18 (units/8C) The
difference between the average thermal responses in the
‘‘sun’’ and in the shade conditions was 1.3 units. It means
that the effect of the exposure to the average solar radiation
was equivalent to about 7 8C (1.3/0.18).
The average solar radiation intensity during the experi-
mental period was 536 (W/sqm). The radiation level in the
shaded positions was measured and was found to be about
10% of the radiation level ‘in the sun’.
It should be noted that patterns of the air temperature and
solar radiation during the daytime hours in a desert envir-
onment are highly correlated.
As the air temperature was highly correlated with the solar
radiation, the apparent response of the shaded subjects to
84 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86

Fig. 6. Relationship between thermal sensation and air temperature for subjects in the sun or shaded.

solar radiation reflects mainly their response to the changes
in the correlated air temperature.
Fig. 7 Shows the relationship between the thermal sensa-
tion recorded with subjects staying in the sun and in the
shade, as a function of the solar radiation, with correspond-
ing regression lines.
The slopes of the changes in the thermal sensation with
increased radiation level were 0.0028 for the ‘sun’ posi-
tions and 0.0024 for the shaded subjects. A slope of 0.0028
means that with a maximal solar radiation (about 1000 W/
sqm) the effect on the thermal sensation (without changes
in the air temperature) would be about 2.8 thermal sensa-
tion units, equivalent to a change of about 14 8C in the air
temperature.
3.2.2. Encountered methodological issues
The sensations were first recorded in the shade and then in
the sun. It was not established whether it would make a
difference if it had been recorded in the shade and thereafter
in the sun.
It was not checked out whether a 10 min period of exposure
to the sun is sufficient time to stabilize the sensation.
3.3. Research by Oded Pochter, Yaron Yaacov and
Stefan Becker
This study was conducted in the Kibbutz Yotvata, as part
of an applied desert climatology project that examined the
oasis effect in extremely hot, arid zones and its impact on

Fig. 7. Relationship between thermal sensation and solar radiation, for subjects in the sun and in the shade.
 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86
human activities. Yotvata is located in the southern part of
the Arava Valley, 30 km north of Eilat and the Red Sea.
The climate of the Arava Valley is characterized during
the summer by high solar radiation, extremely hot tem-
peratures and very low humidity during the daytime;
while during the night the temperatures and relative
humidity are moderate. This creates high daily tempera-
ture amplitude.
During the experiment four meteorological stations were
set up in different locations measuring temperature, relative
humidity, wind speed and direction. Station no.1 (hill) was
located on a bare hill at the edge of the Kibbutz which is
representative of the climatic conditions in the desert. The
second station (trees) was located at the center of the
Kibbutz near the central dining room, on green grass and
under high and dense trees representing the oasis effect. The
third station (grass) was located in a green area containing
grass and tall trees in the residential neighborhood of the
Kibbutz, but the subjects in that station were exposed to the
sun. The fourth station was located on exposed, dry grass at
the other edge of the Kibbutz.
A group of 36 male and female students in their twenties
and thirties participated in the experiment. The subjects
were all residents of the area, and thus acclimatized to
the hot climate.
The experiment started on the 10 July 2000 at 12:00 noon
(midday) and continued until 12:00 noon the next day. The
participants were divided into three groups. Each group
contained 12 students and worked an 8 h shift, the first
between 12:00 noon and 8:00 p.m., the second between 8:00
Fig. 8. Average thermal responses at the different locations as a function of the local DBT.
85
p.m. and 04:00 a.m. and the third between 04:00 a.m. and
12:00 noon.
During each shift the participants were divided among the
stations. They sat in the proximity of a station and were
exposed to the climatic conditions for 30 min. After the
30 min had elapsed they filled in a questionnaire in which
they answered questions on comfort levels During the day
time, after the 30 min of exposure, the participants were
moved from the station to air-conditioned rooms. They then
returned to the station and sat for another 30 min and filled in
a second questionnaire. The 30 min gaps were necessary
because of the extremely hot temperature they were being
exposed to.
During the night the participants did not require the half-
hour rest periods in air-conditioned rooms and were able to go
from one station to another while remaining outdoor.
Throughout the experiment the participants were moved from
one station to the next every 2 h, so that by the end of the shift
they had experienced all the different stations twice.
During the last 2 h of the experiment 10 of the participants
were gathered together at the station in the Kibbutz center.
Seven of them stayed under the shade and three were
exposed to the sun.
The questionnaire was mainly concerned with thermal
sensation and overall comfort. The thermal sensation had
eight levels: 3 very cold, 2 cold, 1 cool, 0 comfortable,
1 warm, 2 hot, 3 very hot and 4 unbearably hot. During
daytime the participants wore light clothing: white cotton T-
shirts and long light colored trousers. At night during the
cold hours they added a pullover.
86 B. Givoni et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 77–86
3.4. Selected results concerning comfort
Fig. 8 shows the average thermal responses of the sub-
jects, at the different locations, as a function of the ambient
air temperature (DBT) at the specific locations.
Further analysis of the data will evaluate the relative
effects of the various climatic factors: solar radiation, air
temperature, wind speed and humidity.
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References
[1] B. Givoni, M. Noguchi, Issues and problems in outdoor comfort
research, in: Proceedings of the PLEA’2000 Conference, Cambridge,
UK, July 2000.
[2] M. Noguchi, B. Givoni, Outdoor comfort as a factor in sustainable
towns, in: Proceedings of the Second International Conference
for Teachers in Architecture, Paper 3.01, Florence, Italy, October
1997.