2.

1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to
volume ratio, thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Organisms require a supply of chemical substances e.g. glucose and oxygen for cellular respiration.
These are usually transported from outside of a cell into a cell.
While respiration supplies energy for other other reactions of life, it also produces waste products
(e.g. carbon dioxide) that need to be removed from the cells or else they may cause damage to the
living organism.

To undergo aerobic respiration, living organisms need oxygen and produce waste carbon dioxide.

amoeba is a eukaryotic (complex) organism that is microscopic in size and moves via retracting
arm- like pseudopods.
Single-celled organisms and microscopic multicellular organisms do not need a specialized
system for gas exchange.

Surface area to volume ratio:

Surface area and volume are both very important factors in the exchange of materials in organisms
• Surface area refers to the total area of the
organism that is exposed to the external
environment
• Volume refers to the total internal volume of the
organism (total amount of space inside the organism)
Conclusion: As the overall ‘size’ of the organism increases, the surface area to volume ratio
decreases. This is because volume increases much more rapidly than surface area as size
increases.

Surface area to volume ratio is the key factor that determines whether or not the organism has a
specialized gas exchange system or any other specialized transport systems (e.g. circulatory
system).

Single-celled organisms and small microscopic multicellular organisms have a large surface area to
volume ratio

• Substances diffuse into or out of a cell through the cell membrane (the “surface”)
• Their surface area in contact with the outside environment is very large when compared to the
volume of the inside of the organism (i.e. large surface area to volume ratio SA:Vol)

Single-celled organisms and small microscopic multicellular organisms have a large surface area to
volume ratio
• They have less parts and less demand for nutrients and energy
• They do not regulate their own temperature and the cells do not use much oxygen/nutrient or
produce much carbon dioxide
The SA:Vol ratio of this tiny jellyfish larva is relatively large, so simple diffusion is enough to supply
all its needs and remove waste products.

Single-celled organisms and microscopic multicellular organisms can achieve all their needs/
removal of wastes by diffusion so they do not need specialized transport systems.

Why do larger sophisticated animals like mammals require transport systems?

• Larger organisms require specialised mass transport systems for a number of reasons:
(1) Increasing transport distances
• In larger and more complexed organisms (both plants and animals), the important exchange sites
tend to be far away from the other cells within the organism
• This large transport distance makes simple diffusion a non-viable and inefficient method for
transporting substances all the way from the exchange site to the rest of the organism
– Diffusion wouldn’t be fast enough to meet the metabolic requirements of cells

(2) Surface area: volume ratio decreases (3) Increasing levels of activity
. There is less surface area for the absorption of nutrients and gases and excretion of waste
products.
• In addition, the greater volume results in
a longer diffusion distance to the cells and tissues of the organism.

(3) Increasing levels of activity

• Larger organisms are not only more physically active but they also contain more cells than smaller
organisms
• More cells results in a higher level of metabolic activity
– As a result, the demand for oxygen and nutrients is greater and more waste is produced
• The increased demand for oxygen and nutrients along with the greater need for the disposal of
waste means that diffusion is not an efficient transport mechanism for larger organisms

Once SA:VOL is too small, we have to think about many ways to supply all of our cells and remove
waste products in more efficient way. .
Imagine trucks delivering to different areas at different times. One way would not work.

Complex organisms have evolved to have specialized gas exchange systems which take in oxygen
and remove carbon dioxide

Humans and many large land animals use lungs

Fish use gills
Insects use the tracheal system
2.1 (ii) understand how the rate of diffusion is dependent on these properties and can be
calculated using Fick’s Law of Diffusion

Gases are exchanged by simple diffusion

Faster diffusion across a membrane can be achieved by:
• Larger surface area to volume ratio
• Steeper concentration gradient of the particles diffusing - Large concentration gradient means
more particles on one side of a membrane compared with the other; this allows faster diffusion.
• Thinner exchange surfaces (the shorter diffusion distance).

In addition to the above, an effective gas exchange system also has:

• rich blood supply to the respiratory surfaces to maintain a steep
concentration gradient
• moist surfaces to dissolve gases for diffusion
• permeable surfaces that allow free passage of respiratory gases
Fick's Law of Diffusion
Fick's Law relates the rate of diffusion to the concentration gradient, the diffusion distance and the
surface area.

The rate of diffusion will double if:

1. surface area or concentration difference is doubled or
2. thickness of the exchange membrane is halved.

2.1 (iii) understand how the structure of the mammalian lung is adapted for rapid gaseous
exchange
The human gas exchange system

Nasal cavity
• main route for air to enter the system
• has relatively large surface area but no gas exchange takes place here
• has good blood supply to to warm the air
• the lining secretes mucus and is covered with hair
• the hairs and mucus filter out and remove dust, small particles and pathogens such as bacteria in
inhaled air. This protects the lungs from damage and infection
• moist surfaces increase the level of water vapor in the air

Mouth
air enter the gas exchange system, but misses out on the cleaning, warming and moistening effects
of the nasal route

Epiglottis
A flap of tissue that closes over the glottis in a reflex action when food is swallowed, preventing
food from entering the gas exchange system

Larynx
The voice box, which uses the flow of air across it to produce sounds.

Trachea
The major airway to the bronchi, lined with cells including mucus-secreting goblet cells. Cilia on the
surface of the trachea move mucus and any trapped microorganisms and dust away from the lungs

Incomplete rings of cartilage

Prevent the trachea and bronchi from collapsing but allow food to be swallowed down the
esophagus

Left and right bronchi

Tubes that lead to the lungs and are similar in structure to the trachea but narrower. They divide to
form bronchioles

Bronchioles
Small tubes that spread through the lungs and end in alveoli. Their main function is still as an
airway, but some gas exchange may occur.

Alveoli
The main site of gas exchange in the lungs

Ribs:
Protective bony cage

Intercostal muscles:
Found between the ribs and it is important in breathing. They allow air to move into and out of the
lungs to maintain a steep concentration gradient for rapid gas exchange.
Control movement of the rib cage

Pleural membrane:
Surround the lungs and line the chest cavity forming a sterile, sealed unit

Pleural cavity:
Space between the pleural membranes, usually filled with a thin layer of lubricating fluid that allows
the membranes to slide easily with breathing movements

Diaphragm:
Broad sheet of tissue made of tendon and muscle that forms the floor of the chest cavity, also
important in breathing

Alveoli (singular: alveolus) are tiny air sacs responsible for most of the gas exchange in human
lungs.
Each alveolus:
- is made of a single layer of flatten epithelial cells
- has dense network of blood capillaries that surround it
- held to the blood capillary’s wall by a layer of elastic connective tissue, which plays a role in
exhalation
- is coated by a layer of lung surfactant (a special phospholipid) that prevents the alveoli from
collapsing

Wet surface: gases are dissolved, make diffusion easier.

Between the alveolar wall and capillary wall is a layer of elastic connective tissue, which holds them
together. This tissue stretches during inhalation and then helps to force air out of the lungs – known
as elastic recoil of the lungs.
Both the alveolar walls and the capillaries walls are very thin (p.s. one-cell thick), providing a very
short distance for diffusion (about 0.5-1.5 micrometers).
Alveolar air has a relatively high oxygen content and a relatively low carbon dioxide content.
Blood has a relatively low oxygen content and a relatively high carbon dioxide content.

The alveoli provide an enormous surface area for gas exchange (about 10-18 table tennis tables).
The air within the alveoli is constantly being refreshed with air by inhalation. The continuous blood
flow in capillaries maintains a steep concentration gradient on the capillary side.
Movement of gases into and out of the alveoli is mainly by diffusion, but the movement of air into
and out of the lungs is by a mass transport system.
Presence of phagocytic white blood cells to keep alveoli free of most pathogen (disease-causing
microorganisms).
The liquid lung surfactant on the inner surface of alveoli is a special phospholipid that helps lower
surface tension, which keeps the alveoli from collapsing after exhalation and makes breathing easy.
Summary
Why do we need a ventilation system?
1)We are large organisms.
• Oxygen cannot diffuse into all our cells directly from the air, nor can waste products be directly
ejected from the body.
• We have specialized organ systems, which are efficient, but need delivery of nutrients and removal
of waste. The ventilation system ensures the blood can be the medium for this.
2)We are land-borne.
• Gases need moist surfaces (membranes) in order
to diffuse. Our lungs are moist membranes, allowing oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon
dioxide to diffuse out.

The ventilation system maintains a large concentration gradient between the alveoli and the blood.
• The constant flow of past the alveoli brings
blood with a high CO2 concentration and low
O2 concentration.
• Breathing out keeps the CO2 concentration in
the alveoli low, so it diffuses out of the blood.
• Breathing in keeps O2 concentration in the
alveoli high, so it diffuses into the blood.
Force exhalation examples: singing long notes, cough (force mucus out from respiratory system)

Protecting the lungs

• Presence of phagocytic white blood cells in alveoli
• Runny mucus along the airway that traps tiny particles (e.g. dust, pollen grains and smoke
particles) and pathogens (i.e. microorganisms that cause disease such as
bacteria and virus)
• Cilia sweeps mucus upwards to the throat for removal by spitting out or swallowing to stomach
• Stomach acids and digestive enzymes digest the mucus and everything in it, including pathogens.

1.6 understand why many animals have a heart and circulation (mass transport to overcome the
limitations of diffusion in meeting the requirements of organisms)

1. Describe why mammals need a mass transport system

Organisms require a supply of chemical substances e.g. glucose and oxygen for cellular respiration.
These are usually transported from outside of a cell.
While respiration supplies energy for other other reactions of life, it also produces toxic waste
products that need to be removed from the cells or else they cause damage to the living organism.
As the overall ‘size’ of the organism increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases. This is
because volume increases much more rapidly than surface area as size increases.

2. List the features of a mass transport system

3. Contrast single and double circulatory systems

For single-celled organisms and microscopic multicellular organisms

Nutrients and oxygen that they need can diffuse directly into the cells from the external
environment and waste substances can diffuse directly out.

Features of single-celled organisms and microscopic multicellular organisms that allow them to
survive through diffusion of substances:
• Short diffusion distance between the external environment and the innermost areas of the cells.
• Large surface area to volume ratio.
• Low metabolic demand (the organisms do not regulate their own temperature and the cells do not
use much oxygen and food or produce much metabolic waste e.g. carbon dioxide).

(1) Increasing transport distances

• In larger, more complex organisms (both plants and animals) the important exchange sites tend to
be far away from the other cells within the organism
• This large transport distance makes simple diffusion a non-viable nor efficient method for
transporting substances all the way from the exchange site to the rest of the organism
• Diffusion wouldn’t be fast enough to meet the metabolic requirements of cells

(2) Surface area to volume ratio decreases

• There is less surface area for the absorption of nutrients and gases and secretion of waste
products.
• In addition, the greater volume results in a longer diffusion distance to the cells and tissues of the
organism.

(3) Increasing levels of activity

• Larger organisms are not only more physically active but they also contain more cells than smaller
organisms
• More cells results in a higher level of metabolic activity • As a result, the demand for oxygen and
nutrients is greater
and more waste is produced
• The increased demand for oxygen and nutrients along with the greater need for the disposal of
waste means that diffusion is not an efficient transport mechanism for larger organisms

2. List the features of a mass transport system

Large multicellular organisms (e.g. human) use a mass transport system.

Such a system transports substances in the flow of a fluid with a mechanism for moving it around
the body.

Mass Transport Systems ...

! have exchange surfaces which allows materials to enter and exit
the transport system
! have a system of vessels that carry substances
! make sure that substances move in the correct direction
! have methods for fast transport of substances to supply the needs
of the organism
! have a suitable transport medium
! adapt to the rate of transport to the needs of the
organism
 3. Contrast single and double circulatory systems

Types of circulatory systems

- Open circulatory system
- Closed circulatory system
- Single circulatory/circulation system
- Double circulatory/circulation system

Open circulatory systems

• blood is not contained within blood vessels but is pumped directly into body cavities
• Organisms such as arthropods and molluscs have open circulatory systems.
• For insects, blood is pumped into a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to the circulatory
system between cells.

Closed circulatory systems

• blood is pumped around the body and is always contained within a network of blood vessels
• All vertebrates (animals with a backbone or spinal column e.g. mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians and fish) and many invertebrates have closed circulatory systems

Types of closed circulatory system

• Single double circulatory system e.g. for fish
• Double circulatory system e.g. for human: in one complete circuit of the body blood passes
through the heart (the pump) twice.

Before we learn single/double circulatory systems...

Some definitions:
- Oxygenated blood (oxygen-rich blood; blood that carries a lot of oxygen)
- Deoxygenated blood (blood that carries less oxygen as the blood has given up its oxygen to the
body cells)

A single circulatory system is a transport system whereby the heart pumps the blood to the organs
of gas exchange and the blood then travels around the body before returning to the heart.

Single circulatory system (for fish)

1) Deoxygenated blood is transported to the gills by the artery. The gills are the gas exchange site
where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged with the atmosphere and the blood. Deoxygenated
blood in the capillaries takes in oxygen (becomes oxygenated) and gives up carbon dioxide at the
same time.
2) The oxygenated blood flows from the gills to the rest of the body.
3) The oxygenated blood travels through the capillaries, delivering oxygen and nutrients to body
cells while receiving carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Thus, this oxygenated blood eventually
becomes deoxygenated as it passes through capillaries.
4) Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart by the vein. The heart only has one atrium and one
ventricle.

A double circulatory system is a transport system that involves two separate circulation systems:
1. Pulmonary circulation
Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the gas exchange organs for blood to become
oxygenated and then carries the oxygenated blood back to the heart.

2. Systemic circulation
carries oxygenated blood from the
heart to body cells where oxygen and nutrients are received while carbon dioxide and metabolic
wastes are removed. Then, deoxygenated blood is carried back to the heart.
The separate circuits of a double circulatory system ensure that the
(1) oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood cannot mix, so the tissues receive as much oxygen
as possible for respiration
(2) Fully oxygenated blood can be delivered quickly to the body tissues under high pressure.
How does double circulation ensure the transport of blood under high pressure to body tissues?
• Blood pressure and speed drops significantly when blood enters capillaries.
This is to prevent the blood vessels from damage and allow the exchange of
gases/nutrients/metabolic wastes to take place.
• In a single circulatory system, the blood has to pass through two capillary
networks before returning to the heart.
• In a double circulatory system, the blood only passes through one capillary
network (e.g. in the lungs of human) before returning to the heart.
• Then, the heart pumps blood under much higher pressure and speed to
body tissues.
• This increased pressure and speed helps blood to reach the capillaries
quickly and maintain a steeper concentration gradient. These allow for the more efficient exchange
of nutrients/waste between the body cells and blood capillaries.

1.7 structures of blood vessels and functions

Artery
Blood vessel that transports blood away from the heart
Carry blood away from the heart to body organs.
The arteries are adapted to carry blood under high pressure.

Almost all arteries carry oxygenated blood, except for:

● Pulmonary artery – carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
● Umbilical artery – during pregnancy, this carries deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the
placenta

The arterial system

● The system of arteries in the body.
● The arteries leaving the heart branch off in every direction.
● The diameter of the lumen (the central space inside the blood vessel) gets smaller the further
away it is from the heart.
● Arteries further away from heart are known as the peripheral arteries.
● The smallest branches of the arterial system, furthest from the heart, are the arterioles.

Cross-section of an artery
Importance of elastic fibers in the wall of arteries
• Each heartbeat increases the pressure of blood flow into the arteries. Therefore, major arteries
close to the heart must withstand such pressure surge.
• Elastic fibres are highly abundant in the walls of major arteries.
• Elastic fibres allow the arteries to withstand high blood pressure because they stretch to
accommodate large volume of blood without being damaged.
• These elastic fibres would recoil (return its original length) to maintain blood pressure and
squeeze the blood to move along the arteries in a continuous flow. Note that this elastic recoil is not
trying to ‘pump blood’ along the arteries.

Importance of muscles in the wall of arterioles

The muscles in the wall of arterioles may contract to reduce the size of the lumen of arterioles to
increase resistance (reduce blood flow to certain areas and allow more flow of oxygenated blood to
other tissues). Such muscles may conversely relax to increase the size of the
arterioles’ lumen.

Relative proportions of different tissues in different arteries.

 ● Collagen gives general strength and flexibility to both arteries and veins.

Vein
Blood vessel that transports blood to the heart.
Capillaries
● Forms networks that link the arterioles and the venules.
● Are very small vessels that spread throughout the tissues of the body. No cell body cell is far
away from a capillary.
● Carries blood with nutrients and oxygen to body cells and take away blood with waste materials
from body cells.

Structural adaptations of capillaries

Diffusion between blood in capillaries and nearby body cells

Oxygen and other molecules e.g. digested food molecules and hormones diffuse out of the blood in
the capillaries into the nearby body cells.
• At the same time, dioxide and other waste molecules diffuse into the capillaries.
• Therefore, blood entering the capillary network from the arteries is oxygenated. When the blood
leaves, it carries less oxygen and more carbon dioxide.
Structural adaptations of capillaries