Fundamentals of Materials: 2.1. The Structure of Metals

Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T.
Duong – HUST
CHAPTER 2.
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIALS
2.1. The Structure of Metals
 Material properties and behaviors depend on their structure.
 Structure: the arrangement of the atoms within metals.
2.1.1. THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS
• Upon solidification, metal atoms arrange themselves into various orderly

configurations, called crystals. It is the crystalline (crystal) structure.
• Unit cell: the smallest group of atoms of crystalline structure of a metal.
• Three most well known types of crystalline structure:
• Body-centered cubic (bcc): α-Fe, Cr, Mo, Ta, W, V.
• Face-centered cubic (fcc): γ-Fe, Al, Cu, Ni, Pb, Ag, Au, Pt.
• Hexagonal close-packed (hcp): Mg, Be, Cd, Co, α-Ti, Zn, Zr.
1
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST
 Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Figure 2.1. The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball
model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells.
2
 Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure and

Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
Figure 2.2. The
face-centered
cubic (fcc)
crystal structure:
(a) hard-ball
model; (b) unit
cell; and (c)
single crystal
with many unit
cells. Figure 2.3 The
hexagonal close-
packed (hcp) crystal
structure: (a) unit cell;
and (b) single crystal
with many unit cells.
3
 Terminology
• Lattice parameter: is the length of edges of unit cells and

angles between them.
• Alloying: adding atoms of some other metal or elements to the
unit cell. It can improve the properties of the metal.
• Basal planes: the top and bottom planes of a hcp structure.
• Crystal structure: the reason is that atoms of metals tend to
minimize the energy required to fit together in a regular pattern.
4
2.1.2 DEFORMATION & STRENGTH OF SINGLE CRYSTALS
• Elastic deformation: a crystal return to its original shape when applied

force is removed (eg. a steel spring)
• Plastic (permanent) deformation: it does not return its original shape
when applied force is removed.
• Two basic mechanisms of plastic deformation: Slip and Twinning
Figure 2.5 Slip Figure 2.6 Twinning
 P
Before deformation
P 
After deformation
5
 Structure sensitive and structure insensitive properties:

• Sensitive: yield, fracture strength, electrical conductivity
• Insensitive: melting point, specific heat, coefficient of thermal
expansion.
6
2.1.3. GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES
• Grains can be
regarded as
randomly
oriented
crystals.
• Solidification
process:
usually metal
changes from
liquid to solid
state with
polycrystals.
Figure 2.10 The stages during solidification of molten metal; (a) Nucleation of
crystals at random sites in the molten metal; (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as
solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal.
7
2.1
TABLE 1.1
ASTM No. Grains/mm2 Grains/mm3
• Grain size: the smaller the –3
–2
1
2
0.7
2
grain size, the stronger, harder, –1 4 5.6
0 8 16
and more ductile the metal. 1 16 45
2 32 128
• Fine grain: referred to sizes 5 3 64 360
4 128 1,020
to 8. 5 256 2,900
6 512 8,200
• Size 7: typically acceptable for 7 1,024 23,000
8 2,048 65,000
making car bodies, appliances, 9 4,096 185,000
10 8,200 520,000
kitchen utensils. 11 16,400 1,500,000
12 32,800 4,200,000
8
2.1.4. PLASTIC DEFOMATION OF POLYCRYSTALLINE METALS

 When tension, the sliding blocks rotate toward the direction of the
pulling force  Slip planes and slip bands tend to align themselves with
the direction of deformation.
 When compression, slip planes tend to align themselves in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the compression force.
Figure 2.11 Plastic

deformation of idealized
(equiaxed) grains in a
specimen subjected to
compression (a) before
deformation; and (b) after
deformation. 9
2.1.5. RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH
 Annealing: Heating the piece in a specific temperature range for a

period time, the properties of the metal can be brought back to their
original levels.
 Recrystallization is the process in which, at a certain temperature
range, new equiaxed and strain free grains are formed, replacing the older
grain. TRecrys = (0.3  0.5) Tm.
 Recovery: - Occurs at a certain temperature range below the
recrystallization temperature of the metal.
- During recovery, the stresses in the highly deformed regions are
relived. Subgrain bounderies begin to form, with no appreciable change
in mechanical properties (Fig. 1.14).
 Grain growth: If we continue to raise the temperature of the metal, the
grains begin to grow, and their size may eventually exceed the original
grain size.
10
2.1.6. COLD, WARM AND HOT WORKING
Temperature Ranges for Various Processes
2.2
TABLE 1.2
Process T/Tm
Cold working < 0.3
Warm working 0.3 to 0.5
Hot working > 0.6
T – Working temperature; Tm – Melting point of the metal.

(Both on the absolute scale)
11
2.2. Mechanical Behavior of Materials

2.2.1. TENSION
1) Stress-strain curve
 Load is applied  Speciment elongates in proportion to the load 
Linear elastic. If load is removed  Speciment turn to its original
length & shape.
Figure 2.16 (a)
Original and final
shape of a standard
tensile-test
specimen. (b)
Outline of a tensile-
test sequence
showing stages in the
elongation of the
specimen.
12
Engineering stress (nominal

stress):
P

A0
P – Load; A0 – Original cross
section area.
Engineering strain:
e
l  l0 
l0
l – Instantaneous length; l0 –
Original lenth.
Modulus of elasticity:

E
e
Figure 2.17 A typical stress- strain curve obtained from Also called Young modulus
a tension test, showing various features. (the above relationship is the
Hooke’s law). 13
2) Ductility
 Poisson’s ratio (ν): the absolute value of the ratio of the lateral
strain to the longitudinal strain.
 Ductility: the extent of plastic deformation before fracture,
expressed in two measures:
1. Elongation  Elongation, %:
2. Reduction of area. l f  l0
El 
   100
l0
l – Original length; lf – Length before fracture
(final length) (see Fig. 2.1).
 Reduction of area, %:
RA 
 A A 
0
 100 f
A0
A0, Af – Original & final cross sectional areas.
14
3) True stress and true strain
 True stress: P

A
P and A: instantaneous load and cross-sectional area,
respectively.
 True strain:
l
  ln 
 l0 
l: instantaneous length
15
2.2.2. COMPRESSION
Barreling In
 Compression test: specimen subjected Compression
to compressive load – compressing
a solid cylindrical specimen
between 2 well lubricated platens
(barrelling).
 Height / Diameter ratio < 3 / 1.
 True stress-strain curves:
- The same in both tension and
compression for ductile materials. Figure 2.23 Barreling in
- Stronger and more ductile in compression of a round solid
compression than in tension for cylindrical specimen (7075-O
brittle materials. aluminum) between flat dies.
16
2.2.3. TORSION
 Torsion-Test Specimens
Figure 2.26 Typical torsion-test
specimen; it is mounted
between the two heads of a
testing machine and twisted.
Note the shear deformation of
an element in the reduced
section of the specimen.
τ: shear stress; T: the torque; r: the average radius of T


the test tube; t: the thickness of the tube at its narrow 2r 2t
section.
r
γ: shear strain; l: the length of tube subjected to  
torsion; : angle of twist in radians. l

G: shear modulus (modulus of rigidity) in the elastic G
range 
17
2.2.4. BENDING
• Bend test (flexture test): especially useful for brittle materials.
• Stress at fracture in bending: the modulus of rupture, flexural
strength, or transverse rupture strength.
Figure 2.27 Two bend-test

methods for brittle materials:
(a) three-point bending; (b)
four-point bending.
18
2.2.5. HARDNESS
1) Hardness tests
• Hardness: the
resistance to
permanent
indentation.
• It gives a
general
indication of the
strength of the
material and its
resistance to
scratching and
to wear.
• It is not a
fundamental
property (shape
of the indenter
and load
applied also
have influence).
Figure 2.28 General characteristics of hardness-testing methods and formulas for
calculating hardness. The quantity P is the load applied.
19
Figure 2.14 Chart

for converting
various hardness
scales. Note the
limited range of
most scales.
Because of the
many factors
involved, these
conversions are
approximate.
20
 Brinell Hardness Test

(c)
Figure 2. 29 Indentation geometry in Brinell testing; (a) annealed metal;

(b) work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of mild steel under a spherical
indenter.
21
2) Hardness vs. strength
 Relation between Brinell

hardness and ultimate tensile
strength (MPa) for steels as
measured for a load of 3000 kg:
UTS = 3.5 (HB)
Figure 2. 30 Relation between Brinell

hardness and yield stress for aluminum and
steels. For comparison, the Brinell hardness
(which is always measured in kg/mm2) is
converted to psi units in the scale on the left.
22
2.2.6. FATIGUE
 Rapidly fluctuating mechanical and thermal loads make tools, dies,
gears, cams,... undergo cyclic stresses.
 Parts therefore may fail at a stress level much lower than its yield
strength, so called the fatigue failure.
 Usually a surface crack initiates the fatigue failure.
 S-N Curves
Figure 2.31
Typical S-N curves
for two metals.
23
2.2.7. CREEP
 Definition: the permanent
Creep Curve
elongation of a component under
a static load maintained for a
period of time.
Creep at elevated temperature:
associated with grain boundary
sliding.
Applications where creep is
important: gas turbine blades,
high pressure steam piping,
forging operation, etc.
 Stress relaxation: the stresses
resulting from loading of a Figure 2.32 Schematic illustration of a typical
structural component decrease in creep curve. The linear segment of the curve
(secondary) is used in designing components
magnitude over a period of time for a specific creep life.
(dimensions remain the same)
24
2.2.8. IMPACT
 Impact test: breaking a
notch specimen with an
impact (impact loading) of a
swinging pendulum at a
specific temperature.
 Charpy test and Izod
test. Application: to
determine the ductile-brittle
transition temperature of the Impact Test Specimens
material.
 The energy dissipated in
breaking the specimen is the
impact toughness of the
material.
High impact toughness (or
resistance) means high
strength and ductility.
 Sensitivity to surface Figure 2.33 Impact test specimens:
defects (notch sensitivity) (a) Charpy; (b) Izod.
lowers impact toughness.
25
2.2.9. FAILURE AND FRACTURE OF MATERIALS IN

MANUFACTURING AND SERVICE
1) Ductile Fracture
 Plastic deformation prior to failure.
 Ductile fracture takes place along maximum shear stress planes.
 Fibrous pattern with dimples.
2) Brittle Fracture
 Brittle fracture occurs with little or no gross plastic deformation.

 bcc, hcp metals.
26
2.2.10. RESIDUAL STRESSES
 Residual stresses are stresses that remain within a part after it has
been formed and all the external forced are removed.
 Elimination of residual stresses by stretching.
 Residual stresses can be also reduced or eliminated by thermal
treatments, such as stress relieving or annealing.
27
2.3. Physical properties of materials

 Selection of materials for various applications depends much on
their physical properties, e.g. density, melting point, specific heat, etc.
2.3
28
Table 2.4
3.1 Physical properties of various materials at room temperature.
COEFFI CIENT
THERMAL OF THERMAL
DENSITY MELTI NG POINT SPE CIFIC HEAT CONDUC TIVIT Y EXPA NSION
3
METAL (kg/m ) ( C) (J/kgK) (W/m K) (µm/ C)
Aluminum 2700 660 900 222 23.6
Aluminum alloys 2630-2820 476-654 880-920 121-239 23.0-23.6
Berylium 1854 1278 1884 146 8.5
Columbium (niobium) 8580 2468 272 52 7.1
Copper 8970 1082 385 393 16.5
Copper alloys 7470-8940 885-1260 337-435 29-234 16.5-20
Gold 19300 1063 129 317 19.3
Iron 7860 1537 460 74 11.5
Steels 6920-9130 1371-1532 448-502 15-52 11.7-17.3
Lead 11350 327 130 35 29.4
Lead alloys 8850-11350 182-326 126-188 24-46 27.1-31.1
Magnesium 1745 650 1025 154 26.0
Magnesium alloys 1770-1780 610-621 1046 75-138 26.0
Molybdenum alloys 10210 2610 276 142 5.1
Nickel 8910 1453 440 92 13.3
Nickel alloys 7750-8850 1110-1454 381-544 12-63 12.7-18.4
Silicon 2330 1423 712 148 7.63
Silver 10500 961 235 429 19.3
Tanta lum alloys 16600 2996 142 54 6.5
Titanium 4510 1668 519 17 8.35
Titanium alloys 4430-4700 1549-1649 502-544 8-12 8.1-9.5
Tungsten 19290 3410 138 166 4.5
NONMETAL LIC
Ceramics 2300-5500 - 750-950 10-17 5.5-13.5
Glasses 2400-2700 580-1540 500-850 0.6-1.7 4.6-70
Graphite 1900-2200 - 840 5-10 7.86
Plastics 900-2000 110-330 1000-2000 0.1-0.4 72-200
Wood 400-700 - 2400-2800 0.1-0.4 2-60
29
2.3.1. DENSITY
 Density: mass per unit volume,

kg/m3 or g/cm3. 2.5
 Specific gravity: expresses a
material’s density in relation to that of
water.
Weight saving in aerospace
applications leads to strength-to-
weight ratio (specific strength) and
stiffness-to-weight ratio (specific
stiffness) considerations.
 Specific strength = UTS / density
 Specific stiffness = E / density
Maximum yield stress to density ratio

makes titanium and aluminium the
best choice for aerospace applications
in the list (Table 2.5).
30
2.3.2. MELTING POINT
 Melting point (or melting range for alloys) affects selection of materials for their
operational temperatures. Plastics: lowest; graphite and refractory metals: highest.
Melting point also affects manufacturing operations (annealing, heat treatment,
recrystallization).
 Melting points (in K) affects selection of equipment for casting operations.
2.3.3. SPECIFIC HEAT
 Definition: the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a

material by one degree, J/kgK.
 Excessive temperature rise in workpiece during manufacturing operations can
lead to decrease in its surface finish quality, dimensional accuracy, and wear of
tools.
31
2.3.4. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Definition: the rate at which heat flows within and through a
material, W/mK.
Metals have high thermal conductivity, while ionically or covalently
bonded materials (ceramics and plastics) have poor conductivity.
Low thermal conductivity can result in high thermal gradients during
manufacturing
operation, leading to unwelcome deformation.
2.3.5. THERMAL EXPANSION

Coefficient of thermal expansion, μm/moC.
Shrink fits: utilization of thermal expansion to fit parts together during assembly.
Thermal stresses: result from temperature gradients and thermal expansion,
thermal conductivity.
To reduce thermal stresses: to combine high thermal conductivity with low thermal
expansion.
32
2.3.6. ELECTRICAL, MAGNETIC AND OPTICAL

PROPERTIES
Dielectric strength: A material’s dielectric strength is its

resistivity to direct electric current.
Conductor: Materials with high electrical conductivity.
Electrical resistivity: The inverse of electrical conductivity.
Semiconductors: The electrical properties of semiconductors
such as single-crystal silicon, germanium, and gallium
arsenide.
Ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism: Ferromagnetism is a
phenomenon characterized by high permeability and
permanent magnetization.
Ferrimagnetism is a permanent and large magnetization.
33
2.4. Metal Alloys: Their Structure and

Strengthening by Heat Treatment
 Important properties (strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, resistance to wear) are
influenced greatly by alloying elements and heat treatment processes.
 Heat streatment modifies microstructures and, thereby, such as improved formability
and machinability.
2.4.1. Structure of alloys
 An alloy is composed of two or more chemical elements, at least one of which is a metal.
 Alloying consists of two basic forms: Solid solutions and intermetallic compounds.
1) Solid solutions
The solute (composed of solute atoms) is the element that is added to the solvent
(composed of host atoms).
 Substitutional solid solutions
If the size of the atom is similar to that of the solvent atom, the solute atoms can replace
solvent atoms and form a substitutional solid solution.
Ex.: Alloy zinc and copper: Zinc (solute atom) in introduced into the lattice of copper.
 Interstitial solid solutions
If the size of the solute atom is much smaller than that of the solvent atom, each solute
atom can occupy an interstitial position; such a process forms an interstitial solid solution.
Ex.: Alloy of iron and carbon: Carbon atoms are present in interstitial positions between
iron atoms. 34
2) Intermetallic compounds
 Intermetalic compounds are complex structures consisting of two metals in which solute
atoms are present among solvent atoms in certain proportion.
 Intermetalic compounds are strong, hard, and brittle. Because of their high melting
points, their strength at elevated temperatures, their good oxidation resistance, and their
relatively low density, they are candidate materials for advanced gas turbine engines.
Ex.: Ti3Al, Ni3Al, Fe3Al
3) Two phase systems

 A phase is defined as a physically distinct and homogeneous portion in a materials; each
phase is a homogeneous part of the total mass and has its own characteristics and
properties.
Sand and water as an example of a two phase system. Ice and water: Two phase system.
 Most alloys consist of two or more solid phases and may be regarded as mechanical
mixtures; such a system with two solid phases is known as a two phase system.
Ex.: Lead is added to copper in the molten state. After the mixture solidifies, the structure
consists of two phases: One having a small amount of lead in solid solution in copper, the
other having lead particles dispersed throughout the structure (Fig. 2.47).
35
Two-Phase System
Figure 2.47 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles
dispersed throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper
alloy. The grains represent lead in solid solution in copper, and the particles are
lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase system
consisting of two sets of grains: dark, and light. The dark and the light grains
have separate compositions and properties.
36
2.4.2. Phase diagrams

 Pure metals have clearly defined
melting or freezing points, and Cooling Curve
solidification takes place at a constant
temperature (Fig. 2.48).
 Unlike pure metals, alloys solidify
over a range of temperatures (Fig.
2.49).
 A phase diagram, also called an
equilibrium or constitutional diagram,
shows the relationships among the
temperature, the composition, and the
phases present in a particular alloy
system under equilibrium conditions.
Figure 2.48 Cooling curve for the

solidification of pure metals. Note that
freezing takes place at a constant
temperature; during freezing the latent
heat of solidification is given off.
37
Solidification begins when the temperature of the molten metal drops below
the liquidus;
It is completed when the temperature reaches the solidus.
Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a mushy or pasty state.
Nickel-Copper Alloy Phase Diagram Figure 2.49 Phase
diagram for nickel-
copper alloy system
obtained at a slow
rate of solidification.
Note that pure nickel
and pure copper each
has one freezing or
melting temperature.
The top circle on the
right depicts the
nucleation of
crystals. The second
circle shows the
formation of
dendrites (see
Section 10.2). The
bottom circle shows
the solidified alloy,
with grain
boundaries.
38
 Another example of a two phase diagram is shown in Fig. 2.50 for the lead-Tin.
Eutectic point : The point at which the liquid
solution decomposes into two phases.
Lead-Tin Phase Diagram
Figure 2.50
The lead-tin
phase diagram.
Note that the
composition of
the eutectic
point for this
alloy is 61.9%
Sn-38.1% Pb.
A composition
either lower or
higher than this
ratio will have a
higher liquidus
temperature.
39
2.4.3. The Iron-Carbon system

 Steels and cast irons are represented by the iron-carbon binary system.
 Commercially pure iron contains up to 0.008% C, steels up to 2.11% C, and cast
irons up to 6.67% C, although most cast irons contain less than 4.5%.
 Iron-Iron Carbide Eutectic: The liquid solution
Phase Diagram decomposes into two phases.
(Fig. 2.51)
Figure 2.51 The iron-
iron carbide phase Eutectic
diagram. Because of
the importance of steel
as an engineering
material, this diagram Acm
is one of the most A3
important of all phase Eutectoid
diagrams. A1
Eutectoid: A single
solid phase
(austenite) is
transformed into
two other solid
phases (ferrite and
cementite). 40
1) Ferrite:
 Alpha ferrite is a solid solution of body centered cubic iron; it has maximum solid
solubility of 0.022% C at a temperature of 727oC.
 Delta ferrite is stable only at very high temperature and is of no practical significance
in engineering.
 Ferrite is relatively soft and ductile; it is magnetic from room temperature to 768oC.
2) Austenite:
 Within a certain temperature range, iron undergoes a polymorphic transformation from
the bcc to an fcc structure, becoming gamma iron or austenite .
 Austenite has a solid solubility of up to 2.11% C at 1148oC. Its single phase fcc
structure is ductile at elevated temperature.
3) Cementite:
 Cementite is 100% iron carbide (Fe3C) having a carbon content of 6.67%.
 Cementite is a very hard and brittle intermetallic compound and has a significant
influence on the properties of steels.
41
2.4.4. The Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram & the

development of microstructures in steels
 The region of the iron-iron carbide diagram
that is up to 2.11% C and signification for
steels is shown in Fig. 2.53.
 At 727oC a reaction takes place in which
austenite is transformed into alpha ferrite
(bcc) and cementite. This reaction is called a
eutectoid reaction.
The structure of eutectoid steel is called
pearlite (Fig. 2.54).
Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and

Below Eutectoid Temperature
Figure 2.53 Schematic illustration of the

microstructures for an iron-carbon alloy of
eutectoid composition (0.77% carbon),
above and below the eutectoid temperature
of 727 °C (1341 °F).
42
Pearlite Microstructure
Figure 2.54 Microstructure of
pearlite in 1080 steel, formed from
austenite of eutectoid composition.
In this lamellar structure, the lighter
regions are ferrite, and the darker
regions are carbide. Magnification:
2500X. Source: Courtesy of USX
Corporation.
43
2.4.5. Cast Iron
 Cast irons are a family of Extended Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

ferrous alloys composed of
iron, carbon (2.11%  4.5%)
and silicon (about 3.5%).
 Cast irons usually are
classified according to their
solidification morphology
from the eutectic
temperature (1154oC) (Fig.
2.55). Thus, cast irons are
completely liquid at
temperature lower than those
required for liquid steels.
Figure 2.55 Phase diagram

for the iron-carbon system
with graphite (instead of
cementite) as the stable
phase. Note that this figure
is an extended version of
Fig. 4.8.
44
1) Gray cast iron

 Graphite exists largely in the form of flakes
(Fig. 2.56a).
 It is called gray cast iron or gray iron, because
when it is broken, the fracture path is along the
graphite flakes and has a gray, sooty appearance.
 Gray iron has negligible ductility and is weak
in tension (although strong in compression), as
are other brittle materials.
 This material has the capacity to dampen
vibrations. This capacity makes gray cast iron a
suitable and commonly used material for
constructing machine tool bases and machinery
structures.
 Three types of gray cast iron are ferritic,
pearlitic, and martensitic. Because of the Figure 2.56 Microstructure for cast
different structures, each has different properties irons. Magnification: 100X. (a)
and applications. Ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes.
Source: ASM International.
45
2) Ductile (nodular) iron

 Graphite is in a nodular or spheroid form (Fig.
2.56b). This shape permits the material to be
somewhat ductile and shock resistant.
 The shape of graphite flakes is changed into
nodules (spheres) by small additions of magnesium
and/or cerium to the molten metal prior to pouring.
Figure 2.56 Microstructure for cast irons.

Magnification: 100X. (b) Ferritic Ductile
iron (nodular iron), with graphite in nodular
form. Source: ASM International.
46
3) White cast iron

 This cast iron is called white iron because of the
white crystalline appearance of the fracture surface.
 It is very hard, wear resistant, and brittle because of
the presence of large amounts of iron carbide.
 It is obtained either by cooling gray iron rapidly or
by adjusting the composition by keeping the carbon
and silicon content low.
Figure 2.56 Microstructure for cast irons.

Magnification: 100X. (c) Ferritic malleable iron;
this cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the
carbon present as cementite, and was heat treated
to graphitize the carbon. Source: ASM
International.
47
4) Malleable iron
 Malleable iron is obtained by annealing white cast iron in an atmosphere of carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide, at 800o  900o C, for up to several hours.
 During this process, the cementite decomposes into iron and graphite.
 This structure is ductile, strength, and shock resistance.
5) Compacted graphite iron

 The graphite in this structure is in the form of short, thick, and interconnected flakes
having undulating surfaces and rounded extremities.
 The mechanical and physical properties of this cast iron are intermediate between those
of flake graphite and nodular graphite cast irons.
48
2.4.6. Heat treatment of ferrous alloys
 The various microstructures described thus far can be modified by heat treatment
techniques – that is, by controlled heating and cooling of the alloys at various rates.
 The treatment induce phase transformations that greatly influence such mechanical
properties as the strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, and wear resistance of the alloys.
 The structures consider in the iron-carbon system are pearlite, spheroidite, bainite,
martensite, and tempered martensite. The heat treatment processes described are
annealing, quenching, and tempering.
1) Pearlite
 If the ferrite and cementite lamellae in the pearlite structure of the eutectoid steel (in Fig.
2.53) are thin and closely packed, the microstructure is called fine pearlite; if they are
thick and widely spaces, it is called coarse pearlite.
 If the rate of cooling is relatively high (as it is in air), fine pearlite is produced; if cooling
is slow (as it is in a furnace), coarse pearlite is produced.
49
2) Spheroidite
 When pearlite is heated just below the eutectoid temperature and then held at that
temperature for period of time such as for a day at 700o C – the cementite lamellae
transform to roughly spherical shapes (Fig. 2.57).
 This structure has higher toughness and lower hardness than the pearlite structure.
Eutectoid Steel Microstructure
Figure 2.57 Microstructure of

eutectoid steel. Spheroidite is formed
by tempering the steel at 700 °C (1292
°F). Magnification: 1000X. Source:
Courtesy of USX Corporation.
50
3) Bainite
 Bainite is a very fine microstructure consisting of ferrite and cementite.
 It can be produced in steels with alloying elements and at cooling rates that higher
than those required for transformation to pearlite.
 Bainitic steel generally is stronger and more ductile than pearlitic steels at the same
hardness level.
4) Martensite
When austenite is cooled at a high rate (quenching it in water), its face-centered cubic
(fcc) structure is transformed into a body-centered tetragonal (bct) structure (Fig.
2.52d).
It is extremely hard and brittle (Fig. 2.15); it lacks toughness; and therefore, it has
limited use.
51
Martensite
(b)
Figure 2.58 (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b)

Micrograph of martensite containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are
martensite; they have the same composition as the original austenite (white regions).
Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
52
5) Tempered martensite
 Martensite is tempered in order to improve its mechanical properties. Tempering is a heating
process (150o  650o C) by which hardness is reduced and toughness is improved.
 The body-centered tetragonal martensite is heated to an intermediate temperature (150o 
650o C), where it decomposes to a two-phase microstructure consisting of body-centered cubic
alpha ferrite and small particles of cementite.
 Increasing tempering time
and temperature, the hardness
of tempered martensite
decreases (Fig. 2.59).
Figure 2.59 Hardness of

tempered martensite, as a
function of tempering time,
for 1080 steel quenched to
65 HRC. Hardness
decreases because the
carbide particles coalesce
and grow in size, thereby
increasing the interparticle
distance of the softer ferrite.
53
2.4.7. Hardenability of ferrous alloys

 The capability of an alloy to be hardened by
heat treatment is called its hardenability. It is a
measure of the depth of hardness that can be
obtained by heating and subsequent quenching.
 Hardenability of ferrous alloys depends on
the carbon content, the grain size of the
austenite, the alloying of elements present in
the material, and the cooling rate.
1) End-quench hardenability test

 A round test bar 100 mm long, made from a
particular alloy, is heated to the proper
temperature to form 100% austenite. It is
quenched directly at one end (Fig. 4.61a) with a
stream of water at 24oC.
Figure 2.61 (a) End-quench test and cooling rate.
(b) Hardenability curves for five different steels, as
obtained from the end-quench test. Small variations
in composition can change the shape of these curves.
Each curve is actually a band, and its exact
determination is important in the heat treatment of
metals, for better control of properties. Source: L.
H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-
Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
54
2) Quenching media
 The fluid used for quenching the heated alloy also has an effect on hardenability.
 Quenching commonly may be carried out in water, brine (saltwater), oils, molten
salts, or air. Caustic solutions, polymer solutions, and gases are also used.
- Water is a common medium for rapid cooling.
- Brine is an effective quenching medium. However, brine can corrode the part.
- Polymer quenchants can be used for ferrous as well as for nonferrous alloy
quenching.
 The cooling rate depends on the surface area to thickness or surface area to volume
ratio of the part. The higher this ratio, the higher is the cooling rate.
55
2.4.8. Heat treatment of nonferrous alloys

and stainless steels
 Nonferrous alloys and some stainless steels generally cannot be heat treated by the techniques used
for ferrous alloys.
 Heat-treatable aluminium alloys, copper alloys, martensitic stainless steels, and some other stainless
steels are hardened and strengthened by a process called precipitation hardening (Fig. 2.62).
This heat treatment is a
technique in which small
particales are dispersed
uniformly in the matrix
of the original phase
Figure 2.62 (a) Phase

diagram for the
aluminum-copper alloy
system. (b) Various
microstructures
obtained during the age-
hardening process.
Source: L. H. Van Vlack;
Materials for
Engineering. Addison-
Wesley Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1982.
56
2.4.9. Case hardening

 In many cases, alteration of only the surface properties of a part (hence, the term
case hardening) is desirable.
 This method is useful particularly for improving resistance to surface indentation,
fatigue, and wear.
 Typical applications for case hardening are gear teeth, cams, shafts, bearings,
fasteners, pins, automotive clutch plates, tools, and dies.
 Basically, they are operations in which the component is heated in an atmosphere
containing elements (such as carbon, nitrogen, or boron) that alter the composition,
microstructure, and properties of surfaces.
57
2.4.10. Annealing
 Anneling is a general term used to describe the restoration of a cold-worked or
heat-treated alloy to its original properties.
 Annealing can be used to increase ductility and reduce hardness and strength or to
modify its microstructure.
 The annealing process also is used to relieve residual stresses in a manufactured
part, as well as to improve machinability and dimensional stability.
 The annealing process consists of the following steps:
- Heating the workpiece to a specific range of temperature in a furnace.
- Holding it at that temperature for a period of time (soaking).
- Cooling in air or in a furnace.
 An annealing temperature may be higher than the material’s recrystallization
temperature, depending on the degree of cold work.
 Full annealing is a term applied to the annealing of ferrous alloys. The steel is
heated to above A1 or A3 (Fig. 2.64), and the cooling takes place slowly in a furnace.
The structure obtained through full annealing is coarse pearlite, which is soft and
ductile and has small, uniform grains.
58
Figure 2.64 Heat-treating temperature ranges for Figure 2.65 Hardness of steels in the quenched and
plain-carbon steels, as indicated on the iron-iron normalized conditions, as a function of carbon content.
carbide phase diagram. Source: ASM International.
 To avoid excessive softness from the annealing of steels, the cooling cycle may be done
completely in still air. This process is called normalizing to indicate that the part is heated
to a temperature above A3 or Acm in order to transform the structure to austenite.
 Normalizing results in somewhat higher strength and hardness and in lower ductility than
does full annealing (Fig. 2.65).
 Normalizing generally is carried out to refine the grain structure, obtain uniform
structure, decrease residual stresses, and improve machinability.
59
 Tempering
 If steels are hardened by heat treatment, then tempering or drawing is used in order to
reduce brittleness, increase ductility and toughness, and reduce residual stresses.
 The steel is heated to a specific temperature and then cooled at a prescribed rate.
 The results of tempering for an oil-quenched AISI 4340 steel are shown in Fig. 2.66.
Properties of Oil-Quenched Steel

Figure 2.66 Mechanical properties of oil-
quenched 4340 steel, as a function of tempering
temperature. Source: Courtesy of LTV Steel
Company
60
2.4.11. Heat-treating furnaces and equipment

Batch furnaces: The parts to be heat treated are loaded into and unloaded from the
furnace in individual batches.
 Continuous furnaces: The parts to be heat treated move continuously through the
furnace on conveyors.
 Salt-bath furnaces: Depending on the electrical conductivity of the salt, heating may be
done externally (for nonconducting salts) or by immersed or submersed electrodes using a
low-voltage alternating. Direct current cannot be used because it subjects the salt to
electrolysis.
 Fluidized beds: Dry, fine, and loose solid particles (usually aluminum oxide) are heated
and suspended in a chamber by upward flow of hot gas at various speeds. The parts to be
heat treated are then placed within the floating particles – hence, the term fluidized bed.
 Furnace atmospheres: The atmospheres in furnaces can be controlled so as to avoid (or
cause) oxidation, tarnishing, and decarburization of ferrous alloys heated to elevated
temperatures.
 Induction heating: The part is heated rapidly by the electromagnetic field generated by
an induction coil carrying an alternating current, which induces eddy currents in the part.
The coil, which can be shapes to fit the contour of the part to be heat treated (Fig. 2.67), is
made of copper or of a copper-base alloy.
61
Induction Heating
Figure 2.67 Types of coils used in induction heating of various surfaces of parts.
62
2.5. Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Production,

General Properties, and Applications
 By virtue of their wide range of mechanical, physical, and chemical properties, ferrous
metals and alloys are among the most useful of all metals.
 Ferrous metals and alloys contain iron as their base metal; the general categories are
carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, tool and die steels, cast irons, and cast steels.
2.5.1 Production of iron and steel

Read the reference book
63
2.5.2. Casting of ingots

Read at home
 Traditionally, the next step in the steel making
process is the shaping of the molten steel into a
solid form (ingot) for such further processing as
rolling it into shapes, casting it into semi-finished
forms, or forging it.
 This process now is replaced largely by
continuous casting, which improves efficiency
by eliminating the need for ingots (see Section
2.71).
 Depending on the amount of gas evolved
during solidification, three types of steel ingots
can be produced: Killed, semi-killed, and
rimmed.
Figure 2.71 The continuous-casting process for

steel. Typically, the solidified metal descends at
a speed of 25 mm/s (1 in./s). Note that the
platform is about 20 m (65 ft) above ground
level. Source: Metalcaster's Reference and
Guide, American Foundrymen's Society.
64
2.5.3. Carbon and alloy steels

 The general mechanical properties of carbon and alloy steels are shown in Table 5.2.
TABLE 5.2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and Alloy Steels in the Hot-Rolled,
Normalized, and Annealed Condition
AISI Condition Ultimate Yield Elongation in Reduction of Hardness
tensile Strength 50 mm (%) area (%) (HB)
strength (MPa)
(MPa)
1020 As-rolled 448 346 36 59 143
Normalized 441 330 35 67 131
Annealed 393 294 36 66 111
1080 As-rolled 1010 586 12 17 293
Normalized 965 524 11 20 293
Annealed 615 375 24 45 174
3140 Normalized 891 599 19 57 262
Annealed 689 422 24 50 197
4340 Normalized 1279 861 12 36 363
Annealed 744 472 22 49 217
8620 Normalized 632 385 26 59 183
Annealed 536 357 31 62 149
65
1) Designations for steels

The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) have designated carbon and alloy steels by using four digits. The first two indicate
the alloying elements and their percentages, and the last two digits indicate the carbon
content by weight.
2) Carbon steels
Carbon steel generally are classified by their proportion (by weight) of carbon content:
 Low-carbon steel: Has less than 0.3% C. It often used for common industrial products
and for machine components that do not require high strength.
 Medium-carbon steel: Has 0.3 to 0.6% C. It generally is used in applications requiring
higher strength than is available in low-carbon steels.
 High-carbon steel: Has more than 0.6% C. It generally is used for parts requiring
strength, hardness, and wear resistance, such as cutting tools, cable, springs, …
 Carbon steels containing sulfur and phosphorus are known resulfurized carbon steels
(11xx series) and rephosphorized and resulfurized carbon steels (12xx series).
Example: 1112 steels is a resulfurized steels with a carbon content of 0.12%.
66
3) Alloy steels
 Steels containing significant amounts of alloying elements are called alloy steels.
 Structural-grade alloy steels are used mainly in the construction and transportation
industries because of their high strength. Other alloy steels are used in applications
where strength, hardness, creep and fatigue resistance, and toughness are required.
4) High-strength low-alloy steels (HSLA)
 HSLA improve the strength-to-weight ratio of steels.
 Designations (Table 5.3): Three categories: Structural quality (S), Low alloys (X)
and Weathering steels (W).
TABLE 5.3 AISI Designation for High-Strength Sheet Steel

Yield Strength Chemical Deoxidation
Composition Practice
3
psi x 10 MPa
35 240 S = structural alloy F = killed plus sulfide inclusion control
40 275
45 310
50 350 X = low alloy
60 415 K = killed
70 485 W = weathering
80 550 O = nonkilled
100 690 D = dual phase
120 830
140 970
67
2.5.4. Stainless steels

 Stainless steels are characterized primarily by their corrosion resistance, high strength
and ductility, and high chromium content. The minimum chromium content should be 10
to 12% by weight.
 In addition to chromium, other alloying elements in stainless steels typically are
Nickel, Molybdenum, Copper, Titanium, Silicon, Manganese, columbium, Aluminium,
Nitrogen, and Sulfur.
 Stainless steels generally are divided into five types: Austenitic, ferritic, martensitic,
precipitation hardening, and duplex structure.
2.5.5. Tool and die steels

 Tool and die steels are specially alloyed steels designed for high strength, impact
toughness, and wear resistance at room and elevated temperatures.
1) High-speed steels (HSS)
 HSS are the most highly alloyed tool and die steels.
 They are two basic types of HSS: The molybdenum type (M-series) and the tungsten
type (T-series).
2) Die steels
 Hot-work steels (H-series) are designed for use at elevates temperatures.
 Cold-work steels (A-, D-, and O-series) are used for cold-working operation.
 Shock-resisting steels (S-series) are designed for impact toughness (header dies,
punches, …) 68
2.6. Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: Production,

General Properties, and Applications
 Although generally nonferrous metals and alloys are more expensive than ferrous
metals, they have major applications because of properties such as corrosion resistance,
high thermal and electrical conductivity, low density, and ease of fabrication .
 Typical examples of the applications:

- Aluminium: For cooking utensils and aircraft bodies;
- Copper: Copper wire for electricity, copper tubing for residential water supply;
- Zinc: For galvanized sheet metal for car bodies;
- Titanium: For jet engine turbine blades and for orthopedic implants;
- Tantalum: For rocket engines.
69
2.6.1. Aluminium and aluminium alloys

 Aluminium and its alloys have high strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to corrosion by
many chemicals, high thermal and electrical conductivity, nontoxicity, reflectivity,
appearance. They are ease of formability and machinability; they are also nonmagnetic.
 There are two types of aluminium alloys: Wrought
aluminium alloys and cast aluminium alloys.
 There are two types of wrought alloys of
aluminium:
- Alloys can be hardened by cold working and not
heat treatable.
- Alloys can be hardened by heat treatment.
 Designation of wrought aluminium alloys: Wrought
aluminium alloys are identified by four digits and by
a temper designation that shows the condition of the
material.
 Designation of cast aluminium alloys: Designations
for cast aluminium alloys also consist of four digits.
 Porous aluminium: Blocks of aluminium have been produced that are 37% lighter than
solid aluminium and have uniform permeability (microporosity). This characteristic allows
their use in applications where a vacuum or differential pressure has to be maintained.
70
2.6.2. Magnesium and magnesium alloys

 Magnesium is the lightest engineering metal available, and it has good vibration
damping characteristics.
 Typical uses: Aircraft and missile components, bicycles, sporting goods, …
 These alloys are available either as casting or as wrought products.
 Because it is not sufficiently strong in its pure form, magnesium is alloyed with various
elements in order to gain certain specific properties, particularly a high strength-to-
weight ratio.
2.6.3. Copper and copper alloys

 Copper alloys often are attractive for applications in which a combination of
electrical, nonmagnetic, corrosion resistant, thermal conductive, and wear resistant
qualities are required.
 The most common copper alloys are brasses and bronzes:
- Brass (which is an alloy of copper and zinc) is one of the earliest alloys developed
and has numerous applications, including decorative objectives.
- Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
71
2.6.4. Nickel and nickel alloys

 Nickel has impact strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance. It is used extensively
in stainless steels and in nickel based alloys (also called superalloys).
 Nickel alloys are used in high temperature applications (jet engine components,
rockets, nuclear power plants, …), in chemical processing equipment, and in marine
applications.
 Because nickel is magnetic, nickel alloys also are used in electromagnetic applications.
 A variety of nickel alloys, having a wide range of strengths at different temperatures,
have been developed.
2.6.5. Superalloys
 Superalloys are important in high temperature applications. They have good
resistance to corrosion, mechanical and thermal fatigue, mechanical and thermal
shock, creep, and erosion at elevated temperatures.
 Applications: Jet engines, gas turbines, rocket engines, tools and dies for hot
working of metals, and the nuclear, chemical, and petrochemical industries.
 Most superalloys have a maximum service temperature of about 1000oC.
 Superalloys are referred to as iron based, cobalt based, or nickel based .
2.6.6. Titanium and titanium alloys

 Although expensive, its high strength to weight ratio and corrosion resistance at
elevated temperatures make it attractive for many applications.
 Titanium alloys have been developed for service at 550oC for long periods of time
and at up to 750oC for shorter periods. 72
2.7. Polymers: Structure, General Properties and

Applications
 The term polymer means many mers (or units), generally repeated hundreds or
thousands of times in a chainlike structure. The word mer (meaning parts)
indicates the smallest repetitive unit (similar to that of the term unit cell in crystal
structures of metals).
 Because of their many unique and diverse properties, polymers increasingly have
replaced metallic components in applications such as automobiles, civilian and
military aircraft, sporting goods, toys, and office equipments.
 The advantages of polymers:
- Corrosion resistance and resistance to chemicals;
- Low electrical and thermal conductivity;
- Low density;
- High strength-to-weight ratio (particularly when reinforced);
- Noise reduction;
- Wide choice of colours and transparencies;
- Ease of manufacturing and complexity of design possibilities;
- Relatively low cost (see Table 6.1);
- Other characteristics: Low strength and stiffness (Table 7.1), high coefficient of
thermal expansion, low useful temperature range – up to about 350oC, and lower
dimensional stability in service over a period of time.
73
2.7.1. The structure of polymers

 The properties of polymers depend on the structures of individual polymer
molecules, molecule shape and size, and how molecules are arranged to form a
polymer structure.
 Molecular weight:
 The sum of the molecular weights of the mers in
a representative chain is known as the molecular
weight of the polymer.
 The spread of the molecular weights in a chain is
referred to as the molecular weight distribution
(MWD).
 A polymer’s molecular weight and its MWD
have a strong influence on its properties .
 Degree of polymerization:
 The degree of polymerization (DP) is the ratio of
the molecular weight of the polymer to the
molecular weight of the repeating unit.
 In term of polymer processing, the higher the
DP, the higher is the polymer’s viscosity or its
resistance to flow (Fig. 2.75). Figure 2.75 Effect of molecular weight
and degree of polymerization on the
strength and viscosity of polymers. 74
 Crystallinity
 Polymers are generally amorphous.
 However, in some polymers, it is possible to impart some crystallinity (Fig. 2.78)
and thereby modify their characteristics.
 Effects of crystallinity: The
mechanical and physical
properties of polymers are
greatly influenced by the degree
of crystallinity; as crystallinity
increases, polymers become
stiffer, harder, less ductile, more
dense, less rubbery, and more
resistant to solvent and heat .
Figure 2.78 Amorphous and

crystalline regions in a polymer.
The crystalline region (crystallite)
has an orderly arrangement of
molecules. The higher the
crystallinity, the harder, stiffer,
and less ductile the polymer.
75
 Glass-transition temperature
 Amorphous polymers do not have a specific
melting point (Tm), they undergo a distinct
change in their mechanical behaviour across a
narrow range of temperature.
 The temperature at which a transition occurs
is called the glass-transition temperature (Tg),
also called the glass point or glass
temperature (Fig. 2.79). The term glass is
used in this description because glasses,
which are amorphous solids, behave in the
same manner.
Figure 2.79 Specific volume of polymers as a function of temperature. Amorphous polymers,

such as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition temperature, Tg, but do not have a
specific melting point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as polyethylene and nylons,
contract sharply while passing through their melting temperatures during cooling.
76
2.7.2. Thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics

 As the temperature is raised above the glass-transition temperature, Tg, or melting
point, Tm, certain polymers become easier to form or mold into desired shapes.
When the polymer is cooled, it return to its original hardness and strength – the
process is reversible. These polymers are known as thermoplastics (Ex.: arcylics,
cellulosis, nylons, polyethylenes, and polyvinyl chloride).
 When the long-chain molecules in a
polymer are cross-linked in a three-
dimensional arrangement, the structure in
effect becomes one giant molecule with
strong covalent bonds. These polymers are
called thermosetting polymers or
thermosets, because during polymerization
the network is completed and the shape of
the part is permanently set.
 Typical stress-strain curves for some
thermoplastics and thermosets at room
temperature are shown in Fig. 2.80.
Figure 2.80 General terminology describing

the behavior of three types of plastics.
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) has Teflon
as its trade name. Source: R. L. E. Brown.
77
2.7.3. Elastomers (Rubbers)
 Elastomers (elastic and mer) have a low glass-

transition temperature, a characteristic ability to
undergo large elastic deformations without rupture,
They stretch, but then return to their original shape
after the load is removed (Fig. 2.81).
Figure 2.81 Typical load-elongation curve for

rubbers. The clockwise lop, indicating the loading
and the unloading paths, displays the hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis gives rubbers the capacity to dissipate
energy, damp vibraion, and absorb shock loading, as
is necessary in automobile tires and in vibration
dampers placed under machinery.
78
2.8. Ceramics, Graphite, and Diamond

2.8.1 The structure of ceramics
 Ceramics are compounds of metallic and nonmetallic elements.
 They have become increasingly important in tool and die materials, heat engines,
and automotive components (Fig. 2.82).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.82 A variety of ceramic components. (a) High-strength alumina for high-temperature
applications. (b) Gas-turbine rotors made of silicon nitride. Source: Wesgo Div., GTE.
79
2.8.2 General properties and applications of ceramics

 Compared to metals, ceramics typically have the following relative
characteristics: Brittleness; high strength and hardness at elevated temperatures;
high elastic modulus; low toughness, density, thermal expansion; and low thermal
and electrical conductivity.
2.8.3 Glasses
 Glass has no distinct melting or freezing point, thus its behaviour is similar to
that of amorphous alloys and amorphous polymers.
2.8.4 Graphite
 Although brittle, graphite has high electrical and thermal conductivity and good
resistance to thermal shock and to high temperature.
 It is an important material for applications such as electrodes, heating elements,
brushes for motors, high-temperature fixtures and furnace parts, mould materials, and
seals.
80
2.8.5 Diamond
 Diamond is a principal form of carbon with covalently structure.
 It is the hardest substance known (7000 to 8000 HK).
 It is brittle and begins to decompose in air at about 700oC, but it resists higher
temperatures in nonoxidizing environments.
 Applications:
- Cutting tool materials;
- Abrasives in grinding wheels
- Dressing of grinding wheels;
- Dies for drawing wire less than 0.06 mm in diameter;
- Coating for cutting tools and dies.
2.9. Composite Materials

 A composite material is a combination of two or more chemically distinct and
insoluble phases with a recognizable interface.
 These combinations are known as metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites.
 Composite materials have found increasingly wider applications in aircraft, space
vehicles, offshore structures, piping, electronics, automobiles, boats, and sporting
goods.
81
2.9.1. The structure of reinforced plastics

 Reinforced plastics, also known as polymer-matrix composite (MPC) and fiber
reinforced plastics (FRP), consist of fibers (the discontinuous phase) in a polymer
matrix (the continuous phase) (Fig. 2.85).
 These fibers are strong and stiff (Table 9.1), and they have high specific strength
(strength-to-weight ratio) and specific stiffness (stiffness-to-weight ratio).
Figure 2.85 Schematic

illustration of methods
of reinforcing plastics
(matrix) with (a)
particles, and (b) short
or long fibers or flakes.
The four layers of
continuous fibers in
illustration (c) are
assembled into a
laminate structure.
82
 Reinforced fibers
 Reinforced fibers for polymer-matrix composites are glass, graphite, aramids,
and boron (Table 9.2).
TABLE 9.2 Typical Properties of Reinforcing Fibers

Tensile Elastic
strength modulus Density
3
Type (MPa) (GPa) ( kg/m ) Relative cost
Boron 3500 380 2600 Highest
Carbon
High strength 3000 275 1900 Low
High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low
Glass
E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest
S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest
Kevlar
29 2800 62 1440 High
49 2800 117 1440 High
Note: These properties vary significantly depending on the material and method of preparation.
2.9.2. Properties of reinforced plastics

 The mechanical and physical properties of reinforced plastics depend on the
type, shape, and orientation of the reinforced material, the length of fibers, and the
volume fraction (percentage) of the reinforced material.
83
 A critical factor in reinforced plastics is the strength of the bond between the fiber
and the polymer matrix, because the load is transmitted through the fiber-matrix
interface.
 The importance of proper bonding can be appreciated by inspecting the fracture
surfaces of reinforced plastics.
 Generally, the highest stiffness and strength in reinforced plastics is obtained when
the fibers are aligned in the direction of the tension force.
 The composite is then highly anisotropic.
2.9.3. Applications of reinforced plastics

 Reinforced plastics typically are used in aircraft, rocket components,
automobiles bodies, pipes, pressure vessels, sporting goods, sailboards, ...
2.9.4. Metal-matrix composites

 The advantages of a metal matrix over a polymer matrix are higher elastic
modulus, toughness, ductility, and higher resistance to elevated temperatures.
 The limitations are higher density and greater difficulty in processing parts.
 Matrix materials in metal-matrix composites (MMC) are usually aluminium,
magnesium, copper, titanium, and superalloys.
84

Fundamentals of Materials: 2.1. The Structure of Metals

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Fundamentals of Materials: 2.1. The Structure of Metals

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Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T.

2.1.1. THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS

• Upon solidification, metal atoms arrange themselves into various orderly

 Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

 Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure and

• Lattice parameter: is the length of edges of unit cells and

2.1.2 DEFORMATION & STRENGTH OF SINGLE CRYSTALS

• Elastic deformation: a crystal return to its original shape when applied

 Structure sensitive and structure insensitive properties:

2.1.3. GRAINS AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES

2.1.4. PLASTIC DEFOMATION OF POLYCRYSTALLINE METALS

Figure 2.11 Plastic

2.1.5. RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH

 Annealing: Heating the piece in a specific temperature range for a

2.1.6. COLD, WARM AND HOT WORKING

Temperature Ranges for Various Processes

T – Working temperature; Tm – Melting point of the metal.

2.2. Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Engineering stress (nominal

3) True stress and true strain

τ: shear stress; T: the torque; r: the average radius of T

Figure 2.27 Two bend-test

Figure 2.14 Chart

 Brinell Hardness Test

Figure 2. 29 Indentation geometry in Brinell testing; (a) annealed metal;

2) Hardness vs. strength

 Relation between Brinell

Figure 2. 30 Relation between Brinell

2.2.9. FAILURE AND FRACTURE OF MATERIALS IN

 Brittle fracture occurs with little or no gross plastic deformation.

2.2.10. RESIDUAL STRESSES

2.3. Physical properties of materials

 Density: mass per unit volume,

Maximum yield stress to density ratio

2.3.2. MELTING POINT

2.3.3. SPECIFIC HEAT

 Definition: the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a

2.3.4. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

2.3.5. THERMAL EXPANSION

2.3.6. ELECTRICAL, MAGNETIC AND OPTICAL

Dielectric strength: A material’s dielectric strength is its

2.4. Metal Alloys: Their Structure and

3) Two phase systems

2.4.2. Phase diagrams

Figure 2.48 Cooling curve for the

2.4.3. The Iron-Carbon system

2.4.4. The Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram & the

Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and

Figure 2.53 Schematic illustration of the

2.4.5. Cast Iron

 Cast irons are a family of Extended Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Figure 2.55 Phase diagram

1) Gray cast iron

2) Ductile (nodular) iron

Figure 2.56 Microstructure for cast irons.

3) White cast iron

Figure 2.56 Microstructure for cast irons.

5) Compacted graphite iron

2.4.6. Heat treatment of ferrous alloys

Eutectoid Steel Microstructure

Figure 2.57 Microstructure of

Figure 2.58 (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b)