A-level Chemistry

3.1 Physical Chemistry (Y12)

 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification
Structure of an Atom
Subatomic Particles
Appreciate that knowledge and
understanding of atomic structure has
evolved over time.
3.1.1.1
Protons, neutrons and electrons: relative
charge and relative mass.
Fundamental
Particles
An atom consists of a nucleus containing
protons and neutrons surrounded by
electrons.
Notes
 All matter is composed of atoms, which are the smallest parts of an element that can take place
in chemical reactions
 Atoms are mostly made up of empty space around a very small, dense nucleus that
contains protons and neutrons
 The nucleus has an overall positive charge
o The protons have a positive charge and the neutrons have a neutral charge
 Negatively charged electrons are found in orbitals in the empty space around the nucleus
 Subatomic particles are the particles an element is made up of and
include protons, neutrons and electrons
 These subatomic particles are so small that it is not possible to measure their masses and charges
using conventional units (such as grams and coulombs)
 Instead, their masses and charges are compared to each other
using ‘relative atomic masses’ and ‘relative atomic charges’
 These are not actual charges and masses but they are charges and masses of particles relative to
each other
o Protons and neutrons have a very similar mass so each is assigned a relative mass of 1
whereas electrons are 1836 times smaller than a proton and neutron
o Protons are positively charged, electrons negatively charged and neutrons are neutral
Relative Charge Relative Mass
Subatomic particle
Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron -1 1/1840
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Atoms: Key Terms

 The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and
has symbol Z
o The atomic number is equal to the number of electrons present in a neutral atom of an
element
o Eg. the atomic number of lithium is 3 which indicates that the neutral lithium atom has 3
protons and 3 electrons
 The mass number (or nucleon number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom and has symbol A
 The number of neutrons can be calculated by:

Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number

Appreciate that knowledge and
understanding of atomic structure has o Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons
evolved over time.
3.1.1.1
Protons, neutrons and electrons: relative
charge and relative mass.
Fundamental
Particles An atom consists of a nucleus containing
protons and neutrons surrounded by
electrons.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification
Mass number (A) and atomic (proton)
number (Z).
Students should be able to:
 determine the number of
fundamental particles in atoms
and ions using mass number,
atomic number and charge
 explain the existence of
isotopes.
The principles of a simple time of flight (TOF)
mass spectrometer, limited to ionisation,
acceleration to give all ions constant kinetic
3.1.1.2 energy, ion drift, ion detection, data analysis.
Mass Number The mass spectrometer gives accurate
& Isotopes information about relative isotopic mass and
also about the relative abundance of
isotopes. Mass spectrometry can be used to
identify elements.
Mass spectrometry can be used to determine
relative molecular mass.
Students should be able to:
 interpret simple mass spectra of
elements
 calculate relative atomic mass
from isotopic abundance, limited
to mononuclear ions.
Notes
Subatomic Structure of Atoms & Ions
 The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, because the nucleus contains the heaviest
subatomic particles (the neutrons and protons)
o The mass of the electron is negligible
 The nucleus is also positively charged due to the protons
 Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom, contributing very little to its overall mass, but creating
a ‘cloud’ of negative charge
 The electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and negatively charged
electrons orbiting around it is what holds an atom together
Electrons
 An atom is neutral and therefore has the same number of protons and electrons
 Ions have a different number of electrons to their atomic number depending on their charge
o A positively charged ion has lost electrons and therefore has fewer electrons than protons
o A negatively charged ion has gained electrons and therefore has more electrons than
protons
Neutrons
 The mass and atomic numbers can be used to find the number of neutrons in ions and atoms:
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) - number of protons (Z)
Isotopes
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and electrons
but a different number of neutrons
 The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and then
the mass number
o E.g. carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon containing 6 and 8 neutrons
respectively
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

RAM from Mass Spectra

Mass number (A) and atomic (proton)

number (Z).  Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties

Students should be able to: Chemical properties

 determine the number of  Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics
fundamental particles in atoms
 This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells
and ions using mass number,
 Electrons take part in chemical reactions and therefore determine the chemistry of an atom
atomic number and charge

 explain the existence of Physical properties

isotopes.
 The only difference between isotopes is the number of neutrons
The principles of a simple time of flight (TOF)
 Since these are neutral subatomic particles, they only add mass to the atom
mass spectrometer, limited to ionisation,
 As a result of this, isotopes have different physical properties such as small differences in
acceleration to give all ions constant kinetic
3.1.1.2 their mass and density
energy, ion drift, ion detection, data analysis.

Mass Number The mass spectrometer gives accurate
& Isotopes information about relative isotopic mass and
also about the relative abundance of
isotopes. Mass spectrometry can be used to
identify elements.
Mass spectrometry can be used to determine
relative molecular mass.
 Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and
electrons but a different number of neutrons.
o These are atoms of the same elements but with different mass numbers
 Because of this, the mass of an element is given as relative atomic mass (Ar) by using the
average mass of the isotopes
 The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated by using the relative abundance values
o The relative abundance of an isotope is either given or can be read off the mass spectrum

Students should be able to:

 interpret simple mass spectra of

elements

 calculate relative atomic mass

from isotopic abundance, limited
to mononuclear ions.

Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry

3.1.1.3 Electron configurations of atoms and ions up
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification
to Z = 36 in terms of shells and sub-shells
(orbitals) s, p and d.
Ionisation energies.
Students should be able to:
 define first ionisation
 energy write equations for first
Electron
and successive ionisation
Configuration energies
 explain how first and successive
ionisation energies in Period 3
(Na–Ar) and in Group 2 (Be–Ba)
give evidence for electron
configuration in sub-shells and
in shells.
Electron configurations of atoms and ions up
3.1.1.3
to Z = 36 in terms of shells and sub-shells
(orbitals) s, p and d.
Electron
Configuration
Ionisation energies.
Notes
 Mass Spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique
o It is the most useful instrument for accurate determination of the relative atomic mass of an
element, based on the abundance and mass of each of its isotopes
o It is also used to find the relative molecular mass of molecules
 As a sample passes through the mass spectrometer, a spectrum is produced of mass / charge ratio against
abundance
 The spectrum can be used to find the relative isotopic abundance, atomic and molecular mass and the
structure of a compound
 The peak with the highest mass is the molecular ion peak, M+, and the peak which has the largest
abundance (tallest peak) is called the base peak
 There are several types of mass spectrometer, but all of them are based on an ionised sample being
accelerated through the mass spectrum, and being separated based on the ratio of their charge to their
mass
Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
 This is a common form of mass spectrometry, where all particles of the sample to be analysed are ionised to
form 1+ ions
 These 1+ ions are then accelerated to high speeds, deflected through the spectrometer and then arrive at
the detector
 As they hit the detector, the mass spectrum graph is produced
 The whole of the apparatus is kept under a high vacuum to prevent any ions that are produced from
colliding with molecules in the air
 There are 4 key stages in time of flight mass spectrometry:
o Ionisation
o Acceleration
o Ion drift
o Detection
Stage 1: Ionisation
 There are two key ways in which the sample could be ionised:
o Electron Impact (or electron ionisation)
o Electrospray Ionisation
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification
Students should be able to:
 define first ionisation
 energy write equations for first
and successive ionisation
energies
 explain how first and successive
ionisation energies in Period 3
(Na–Ar) and in Group 2 (Be–Ba)
give evidence for electron
configuration in sub-shells and
in shells.
Electron configurations of atoms and ions up
to Z = 36 in terms of shells and sub-shells
(orbitals) s, p and d.
Ionisation energies.
Students should be able to:
 define first ionisation
3.1.1.3
 energy write equations for first
Electron and successive ionisation
Configuration energies
 explain how first and successive
ionisation energies in Period 3
(Na–Ar) and in Group 2 (Be–Ba)
give evidence for electron
configuration in sub-shells and
in shells.
Notes
Electron Impact Ionisation
 This method of ionisation is used for elements and substances which have a lower molecular mass
 The sample is vaporised and then bombarded with high energy electrons
 The electrons are 'fired' from an electron gun
o The electron gun is a hot wire filament which emits electrons as a current runs through it
 As the sample is bombarded by these electrons, an electron is knocked off each particle, forming a
1+ ion
X (g) → X+ (g) + e-
 The 1+ ions which have been formed are called molecular ions, or M+ ions
 These are then attracted towards a negatively charged plate
 This accelerates them through the mass spectrometer
 The molecular ion can be broken down further, or fragmented
o The fragments are also accelerated through the sample and hit the detector, causing
different peaks to show on the mass spectrum which is produced
Electrospray Ionisation
 This method is used for substances which have a higher molecular mass
 Unlike with electron impact ionisation, fragmentation is unlikely to happen
o This is often called a soft ionisation technique
 For this method, the sample is dissolved in a volatile solvent
 The solvent is injected into the mass spectrometer using a hypodermic needle
o This produces a fine mist or aerosol
 The needle is attached to a high voltage power supply, so as the sample is injected, the particles
are ionised by gaining a proton from the solvent
X (g) + H+ →  XH+ (g)
 The solvent evaporates and the XH+ ions are attracted towards a negatively charged plate
 This accelerates them through the mass spectrometer
Stage 2: Acceleration
 The 1+ ions formed from either ionisation method are accelerated using an electric field
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

 They are all accelerated to have the same kinetic energy

o This is important for you to remember when completing calculations
 Since all 1+ ions will have the same kinetic energy, their velocity will depend on their mass
o Lighter ions will move faster and heavier ions will move slower

Stage 3: Ion Drift (in the flight tube)

 The 1+ ions will pass through a hole in the negatively charged plate and move into a flight tube
o This is where the name 'Time of Flight' comes from
o The time of flight of each 1+ ion in this tube depends on their velocity
o Again, this is important to remember when completing calculations

Electron configurations of atoms and ions up Stage 4: Detection

to Z = 36 in terms of shells and sub-shells
(orbitals) s, p and d.  Once they have pass through the mass spectrometer, the 1+ ions will hit a negatively charged
'detector' plate
Ionisation energies.
 As they hit this electric plate, they gain an electron
Students should be able to:  This gaining of an electron discharges the ion, and causes a current to be produced
o This size of the current is proportional to the abundance of those ions hitting the plate
 define first ionisation and gaining an electron
3.1.1.3
 The detector plate is connected to a computer, which produces the mass spectrum
 energy write equations for first
Electron and successive ionisation
Configuration energies

 explain how first and successive

ionisation energies in Period 3
(Na–Ar) and in Group 2 (Be–Ba)
give evidence for electron
configuration in sub-shells and
in shells.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Shells

 The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the electron configuration

Relative atomic mass and relative molecular  Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in principal energy levels or principal quantum
mass in termsof 12C. shells
 Principal quantum numbers (n) are used to number the energy levels or quantum shells
3.1.2.1 The term relative formula mass will be used o The lower the principal quantum number, the closer the shell is to the nucleus
for ionic compounds.
Relative  So, the first shell which is the closest to the nucleus is n = 1
Atomic Mass & Students should be able to: o The higher the principal quantum number, the greater the energy of the shell and the
Relative further away from the nucleus
Molecular  define relative atomic mass (Ar)  Each principal quantum number has a fixed number of electrons it can hold
Mass o n = 1 : up to 2 electrons
 define relative molecular mass o n = 2 : up to 8 electrons
(Mr). o n = 3 : up to 18 electrons
o n = 4 : up to 32 electrons

Subshells

 The principal quantum shells are split into subshells which are given the letters s, p and d
Relative atomic mass and relative molecular o Elements with more than 57 electrons also have an f shell
mass in termsof 12C. o The energy of the electrons in the subshells increases in the order s < p < d
 The order of subshells appear to overlap for the higher principal quantum shells
3.1.2.1 The term relative formula mass will be used
for ionic compounds. Orbitals
Relative
Atomic Mass & Students should be able to:
Relative  Subshells contain one or more atomic orbitals
Molecular  define relative atomic mass (Ar)  Orbitals exist at specific energy levels and electrons can only be found at these specific
Mass levels, not in between them
 define relative molecular mass o Each atomic orbital can be occupied by a maximum of two electrons
(Mr).  This means that the number of orbitals in each subshell is as follows:
o s : one orbital (1 x 2 = total of 2 electrons)
o p : three orbitals ( 3 x 2 = total of 6 electrons)
o d : five orbitals (5 x 2 = total of 10 electrons)
o f : seven orbitals (7 x 2 = total of 14 electrons)
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

 The orbitals have specific 3-D shapes

s orbital shape

 The s orbitals are spherical in shape

 The size of the s orbitals increases with increasing shell number
o E.g. the s orbital of the third quantum shell (n = 3) is bigger than the s orbital of
the first quantum shell (n = 1)

p orbital shape

 The p orbitals have a dumbbell shape

 Every shell has three p orbitals except for the first one (n = 1)
 The p orbitals occupy the x, y and z axes and point at right angles to each other, so are
oriented perpendicular to one another
 The lobes of the p orbitals become larger and longer with increasing shell number

Ground state

 The ground state is the most stable electronic configuration of an atom which has the lowest
amount of energy
Relative atomic mass and relative molecular  This is achieved by filling the subshells of energy with the lowest energy first (1s)
mass in termsof 12C.  The order of the subshells in terms of increasing energy does not follow a regular pattern at n = 3
3.1.2.1 and higher
The term relative formula mass will be used
for ionic compounds.
Relative Electron Arrangement Summary
Atomic Mass & Students should be able to:
Relative  Each shell can be divided further into subshells, labelled s, p, d and f
Molecular  define relative atomic mass (Ar)
 Each subshell can hold a specific number of orbitals:
Mass o s subshell : 1 orbital
 define relative molecular mass
(Mr). o p subshell : 3 orbitals
o d subshell : 5 orbitals
o f subshell : 7 orbitals
 Each orbital can hold a maximum number of 2 electrons so the maximum number of electrons in
each subshell are as follows:
o s : 1 x 2 = total of 2 electrons
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o p : 3 x 2 = total of 6 electrons
o d : 5 x 2 = total of 10 electrons
o f : 7 x 2 = total of 14 electrons

The Avogadro constant as the number of

particles in a mole.

The mole as applied to electrons, atoms,

molecules, ions, formulas and equations.

The concentration of a substance in solution,

measured in mol dm–3.

Students should be able to carry out

3.1.2.2
calculations:
The Mole &
 using the Avogadro constant
Avagadro
Constant  using mass of substance, Mr,
and amount in moles

 using concentration, volume and

amount of substance in a
solution.

Students will not be expected to recall the

value of the Avogadro constant.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

The ideal gas equation pV = nRT with the

variables in SI units.
3.1.2.3
Students should be able to use the equation
in calculations.
The Ideal Gas
Equation Students will not be expected to recall the
value of the gas constant, R.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Empirical formula is the simplest whole

number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.

Molecular formula is the actual number of

atoms of each element in a compound.

The relationship between empirical formula

3.1.2.4
and molecular formula.
Empirical & Students should be able to:
Molecular
Formula  calculate empirical formula from
data giving composition by mass
or percentage by mass

 calculate molecular formula from

the empirical formula and
relative molecular mass.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Equations (full and ionic).

Percentage atom economy is:

 molecular mass of desired

product x100 /

 sum of molecular masses of all

reactants

Economic, ethical and environmental

advantages for society and for industry of
developing chemical processes with a high
atom economy.

Students should be able to:

3.1.2.5  write balanced equations for

reactions studied
Balanced
Equations &  balance equations for unfamiliar
Associated reactions when reactants and
Calculations products are specified.

Students should be able to use balanced

equations to calculate:

 masses

 volumes of gases

 percentage yields

 percentage atom economies

 concentrations and volumes for

reactions in solutions.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

3.1.2.5
Required practical 1:
Balanced
Make up a volumetric solution and carry
Equations &
out a simple
Associated
Calculations
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Ionic bonding involves electrostatic attraction

between oppositely charged ions in a lattice.

The formulas of compound ions eg sulfate,

hydroxide, nitrate, carbonate and ammonium.

3.1.3.1 Students should be able to:

Ionic Bonding  predict the charge on a simple

ion using the position of the
element in the Periodic Table

 construct formulas for ionic

compounds.

A single covalent bond contains a shared pair

of electrons.

Multiple bonds contain multiple pairs of

electrons.
3.1.3.2
A co-ordinate (dative covalent) bond contains
Nature of a shared pair of electrons with both electrons
Covalent & supplied by one atom.
Dative
Covalent Students should be able to represent:
Bonds
 covalent bond using a line

 a co-ordinate bond using an

arrow.

3.1.3.3 Metallic bonding involves attraction between

delocalised electrons and positive ions
Metallic arranged in a lattice.
Bonding

3.1.3.4 The four types of crystal structure:

 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

 ionic

 metallic

 macromolecular (giant covalent)

 molecular.

The structures of the following crystals as

examples of these four types of crystal
structure:

 diamond

 graphite

 ice

Bonding &  iodine

Physical
Properties  magnesium

 sodium chloride.

Students should be able to:

 relate the melting point and

conductivity of materials to the
type of structure and the
bonding present

 explain the energy changes

associated with changes of state

 draw diagrams to represent

these structures involving
specified numbers of particles.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Bonding pairs and lone (non-bonding) pairs

of electrons as charge clouds that repel each
other.

Pairs of electrons in the outer shell of atoms

arrange themselves as far apart as possible
to minimise repulsion.
3.1.3.5
Lone pair–lone pair repulsion is greater than
lone pair–bond pair repulsion, which is
Shapes of
greater than bond pair–bond pair repulsion.
Simple
Molecules & The effect of electron pair repulsion on bond
Ions angles.

Students should be able to explain the

shapes of, and bond angles in, simple
molecules and ions with up to six electron
pairs (including lone pairs of electrons)
surrounding the central atom.

3.1.3.6 Electronegativity as the power of an atom to

attract the pair of electrons in a covalent
Bond Polarity bond.

The electron distribution in a covalent bond

between elements with different
electronegativities will be unsymmetrical.
This produces a polar covalent bond, and
may cause a molecule to have a permanent
dipole.

Students should be able to:

 use partial charges to show that

a bond is polar

 explain why some molecules

 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

with polar bonds do not have a

permanent dipole.

Forces between molecules:

 permanent dipole–dipole forces

 induced dipole–dipole (van der

Waals, dispersion, London)
forces

hydrogen bonding.

The melting and boiling points of molecular

substances are influenced by the strength of
3.1.3.7
these intermolecular forces.
Forces The importance of hydrogen bonding in the
Between low density of ice and the anomalous boiling
Molecules points of compounds.

Students should be able to:

 explain the existence of these

forces between familiar and
unfamiliar molecules

 explain how melting and boiling

points are influenced by these
intermolecular forces.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Reactions can be endothermic or exothermic.

Enthalpy change (ΔH) is the heat energy

change measured under conditions of
constant pressure.

Standard enthalpy changes refer to standard

3.1.4.1 conditions ie 100 kPa and a stated
temperature (eg ΔH298 Ɵ).
Enthalpy
Change Students should be able to:

 define standard enthalpy of

combustion (ΔcHƟ)

 define standard enthalpy of

formation (ΔfHƟ).

The heat change, q, in a reaction is given by

the equation q = mcΔT where m is the mass
of the substance that has a temperature
change ΔT and a specific heat capacity c.

Students should be able to:

 use this equation to calculate

3.1.4.2
the molar enthalpy change for a
reaction
Calorimetry
 use this equation in related
calculations.

Students will not be expected to recall the

value of the specific heat capacity, c, of a
substance.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

3.1.4.2 Required practical 2 Measurement of an

enthalpy change.
Calorimetry

Hess’s law.

Students should be able to:

3.1.4.3
 use Hess’s law to perform
calculations, including
Applications of
calculation of enthalpy changes
Hess’s Law
for reactions from enthalpies of
combustion or from enthalpies of
formation.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Mean bond enthalpy.

Students should be able to:

 define the term mean bond

enthalpy
3.1.4.4
 use mean bond enthalpies to
calculate an approximate value
Bond
of ΔH for reactions in the
Enthalpies
gaseous phase

 explain why values from mean

bond enthalpy calculations differ
from those determined using
Hess’s law.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Reactions can only occur when collisions

take place between particles having sufficient
energy.

3.1.5.1 This energy is called the activation energy.

Students should be able to:

Collision
Theory  define the term activation energy

 explain why most collisions do

not lead to a reaction

Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of molecular

energies in gases.
3.1.5.2
Students should be able to:
Maxwell –
Boltzmann  draw and interpret distribution
Distribution curves for different
temperatures.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Meaning of the term rate of reaction.

The qualitative effect of temperature changes

3.1.5.3 on the rate of reaction.

Effect of Students should be able to:

temperature
on reaction  use the Maxwell–Boltzmann
rate distribution to explain why a
small temperature increase can
lead to a large increase in rate.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

3.1.5.3
Required practical 3
Effect of
Investigation of how the rate of a reaction
temperature
changes with temperature.
on reaction
rate

The qualitative effect of changes in

concentration on collision frequency.

The qualitative effect of a change in the

3.1.5.4 pressure of a gas on collision frequency.

Effect of Students should be able to:

Concentration
& Pressure  explain how a change in
concentration or a change in
pressure influences the rate of a
reaction.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

A catalyst is a substance that increases the

rate of a chemical reaction without being
changed in chemical composition or amount.

Catalysts work by providing an alternative

3.1.5.5 reaction route of lower activation energy.

Students should be able to:

Catalysts
 use a Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution to help explain how a
catalyst increases the rate of a
reaction involving a gas.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Many chemical reactions are reversible.

In a reversible reaction at equilibrium:

 forward and reverse reactions

proceed at equal rates

 the concentrations of reactants

and products remain constant.

Le Chatelier’s principle.

Le Chatelier's principle can be used to

predict the effects of changes in temperature,
3.1.6.1 pressure and concentration on the position of
equilibrium in homogeneous reactions.
Chemical
equilibria and A catalyst does not affect the position of
Le Chatelier's equilibrium.
principle
Students should be able to:

 use Le Chatelier’s principle to

predict qualitatively the effect of
changes in temperature,
pressure and concentration on
the position of equilibrium

 explain why, for a reversible

reaction used in an industrial
process, a compromise
temperature and pressure may
be used.
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

The equilibrium constant Kc is deduced from

the equation for a reversible reaction.

The concentration, in mol dm–3, of a species

X involved in the expression for Kc is
represented by [X]

The value of the equilibrium constant is not

affected either by changes in concentration
or addition of a catalyst.
3.1.6.2
Students should be able to:
Equilibrium  construct an expression for Kc
Constant Kc for a homogeneous system in
for equilibrium
Homogenous
Systems  calculate a value for Kc from the
equilibrium concentrations for a
homogeneous system at
constant temperature

 perform calculations involving Kc

 predict the qualitative effects of

changes of temperature on the
value of Kc
 Topic Learning Outcomes From Specification Notes

Oxidation is the process of electron loss and

oxidising agents are electron acceptors.

Reduction is the process of electron gain and

reducing agents are electron donors.

The rules for assigning oxidation states.

3.1.7
Students should be able to:
Oxidation,  work out the oxidation state of
Reduction & an element in a compound or
Redox ion from the formula
Equations
 write half-equations identifying
the oxidation and reduction
processes in redox reactions

 combine half-equations to give

an overall redox equation.