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Calipers

A caliper (British spelling also calliper, or in plurale tantum sense a pair of calipers) is a device
used to measure the dimensions of an object.

Calliper detail view

Many types of calipers permit reading out a measurement on a ruled scale, a dial, or a digital
display. Some calipers can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points, but
no scale. The tips of the caliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured and the
dimension read by measuring between the tips with another measuring tool, such as a ruler.

It is used in many fields such as mechanical engineering, metalworking, forestry, woodworking,

science and medicine.

Plural vs. singular

A single tool might be referred to as a "caliper" or as "calipers", like a pair of scissors or glasses
(a "plural only" or plurale tantum form). In colloquial usage, the phrase "pair of verniers" or just
"vernier" might refer to a vernier caliper. Colloquially these phrases can also refer to dial calipers,
although they involve no vernier scale.

In machine-shop usage, the term "caliper" is often used in contradistinction to "micrometer",

even though outside micrometers are technically a form of caliper. In this usage, "caliper"
implies only the form factor of the vernier or dial caliper (or its digital counterpart).

History

The earliest caliper has been found in the Greek Giglio wreck near the Italian coast. The ship's
find dates to the 6th century BC. The wooden piece already featured a fixed and a movable
jaw.[1][2] Although rare finds, calipers remained in use by the Greeks and Romans.[2][3]

A bronze caliper, dating from 9 AD, was used for minute measurements during the Chinese Xin
dynasty. The caliper had an inscription stating that it was "made on the gui-you day,[a] the first
day[b] of the first month of the first year of Shijianguo .[c]" The calipers included a "slot and pin"
and "graduated in inches and tenths of an inch."[4][5]

A bronze sliding pinch scale (collected by the Yangzhou Museum) excavated from the tombs belonging to the Eastern Han
dynasty (Gansenshan tombs in Hanjiang District, Yangzhou City)

Calliper with graduated bow 0–10 mm

The modern vernier caliper was invented by Pierre Vernier, as an improvement of the nonius of
Pedro Nunes.

Types

Inside calliper …

Two inside callipers

The inside callipers are used to measure the internal size of an object.

The upper caliper in the image (on the right) requires manual adjustment prior to fitting. Fine
setting of this caliper type is performed by tapping the caliper legs lightly on a handy surface
until they will almost pass over the object. A light push against the resistance of the central
pivot screw then spreads the legs to the correct dimension and provides the required,
consistent feel that ensures a repeatable measurement.

The lower caliper in the image has an adjusting screw that permits it to be carefully adjusted
without removal of the tool from the workpiece.

Outside caliper
 …

Three outside calipers

Outside callipers are used to measure the external size of an object.

The same observations and technique apply to this type of caliper, as for the inside caliper. With
some understanding of their limitations and usage, these instruments can provide a high degree
of accuracy and repeatability. They are especially useful when measuring over very large
distances; consider if the calipers are used to measure a large diameter pipe. A vernier caliper
does not have the depth capacity to straddle this large diameter and at the same time reach the
outermost points of the pipe's diameter. They are made from high carbon steel.

Divider calliper …
A pair of dividers

In the metalworking field, a divider caliper, popularly called a compass, is used to mark out
locations. The points are sharpened so that they act as scribers; one leg can then be placed in
the dimple created by a center or prick punch and the other leg pivoted so that it scribes a line
on the workpiece's surface, thus forming an arc or circle.

A divider caliper is also used to measure a distance between two points on a map. The two
caliper ends are brought to the two points whose distance is being measured. The caliper's
opening is then either measured on a separate ruler and then converted to the actual distance,
or measured directly on a scale drawn on the map. On a nautical chart the distance is often
measured on the latitude scale appearing on the sides of the map: one minute of arc along any
great circle, e.g. any longitude meridian, is approximately one nautical mile or 1852 meters.

Dividers are also used in the medical profession. An ECG (also EKG) caliper transfers distance
on an electrocardiogram; in conjunction with the appropriate scale, the heart rate can be
determined. A pocket caliper version was invented by cardiologist Robert A. Mackin.[6]

Oddleg caliper …
Oddleg calipers

Oddleg calipers, Hermaphrodite calipers, or Oddleg Jennys, as pictured on the left, are generally
used to scribe a line at a set distance from the edge of a workpiece. The bent leg is used to run
along the workpiece edge while the scriber makes its mark at a predetermined distance, this
ensures a line parallel to the edge.

In the diagram at left, the uppermost caliper has a slight shoulder in the bent leg allowing it to sit
on the edge more securely. The lower caliper lacks this feature but has a renewable scriber that
can be adjusted for wear, as well as being replaced when excessively worn.

Vernier caliper …
Diagram of vernier callipers.

The labelled parts are

1. Outside large jaws: used to measure external diameter of an object (like a hollow cylinder)
or width of an object (like a rod), diameter of an object (like a sphere).

2. Inside small jaws: used to measure the internal diameter of an object (like a hollow cylinder
or pipe).

3. Depth probe/rod: used to measure depths of an object (like a small beaker) or a hole.

4. Main scale (Metric): marked every millimeter and helps to measure length correct up to
1 mm.

5. Main scale (Imperial): marked in inches and fractions.

. Vernier scale (Metric) gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better.

7. Vernier scale (Imperial) gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an inch.

. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of a measurement.
The callipers in the diagram show a primary reading on the metric scale of about 2.475 cm
(2.4 cm read from the main scale plus about 0.075 cm from the vernier scale).

Calipers often have a "zero point error": meaning that the callipers do not read 0.000 cm when
the jaws are closed. The zero point error must always be subtracted from the primary reading.
Let us assume these callipers have a zero-point error of 0.013 cm. This would give us a length
reading of 2.462 cm.

For any measurement, reporting the error on the measurement is also important. Ignoring the
possibility of interpolation by eye, both the primary reading and the zero point reading are
bounded by plus/minus half the length corresponding to the width of the smallest interval on the
vernier scale (0.0025 cm). These are "absolute" errors and absolute errors add, so the length
reading is then bounded by plus/minus the length corresponding to the full width of the smallest
interval on the vernier scale (0.005 cm). Assuming no systematics affect the measurement (the
instrument works perfectly), a complete measurement would then read 2.462 cm ± 0.005 cm.

The vernier, dial, and digital callipers directly read the distance measured with high accuracy and
precision. They are functionally identical, with different ways of reading the result. These
callipers comprise a calibrated scale with a fixed jaw, and another jaw, with a pointer, that slides
along the scale. The distance between the jaws is then read in different ways for the three types.

The simplest method is to read the position of the pointer directly on the scale. When the pointer
is between two markings, the user can mentally interpolate to improve the precision of the
reading. This would be a simply calibrated calliper, but the addition of a vernier scale allows
more accurate interpolation and is the universal practice; this is the vernier calliper.

Vernier, dial, and digital callipers can measure internal dimensions (using the uppermost jaws in
the picture at right), external dimensions using the pictured lower jaws, and in many cases depth
by the use of a probe that is attached to the movable head and slides along the centre of the
body. This probe is slender and can get into deep grooves that may prove difficult for other
measuring tools.
The vernier scales may include metric measurements on the lower part of the scale and inch
measurements on the upper, or vice versa, in countries that use inches. Vernier calipers
commonly used in industry provide a precision to 0.01 mm (10 micrometres), or one thousandth
of an inch. They are available in sizes that can measure up to 1828 mm (72 in).[7]

Dial caliper …

TESA dial caliper

Instead of using a vernier mechanism, which requires some practice to use, the dial caliper
reads the final fraction of a millimeter or inch on a simple dial.

In this instrument, a small, precise rack and pinion drives a pointer on a circular dial, allowing
direct reading without the need to read a vernier scale. Typically, the pointer rotates once every
inch, tenth of an inch, or 1 millimeter. This measurement must be added to the coarse whole
inches or centimeters read from the slide. The dial is usually arranged to be rotatable beneath
the pointer, allowing for "differential" measurements (the measuring of the difference in size
between two objects, or the setting of the dial using a master object and subsequently being
able to read directly the plus-or-minus variance in the size of subsequent objects relative to the
master object).

The slide of a dial caliper can usually be locked at a setting using a small lever or screw; this
allows simple go/no-go checks of part sizes.
Digital caliper …

Digital caliper

A popular refinement replaces the analog dial with an electronic display that shows the reading
as a numeric value. Rather than a rack and pinion, these calipers use a linear encoder. Most
digital calipers can be switched between centimeters or millimeters, and inches. All provide for
zeroing the display at any point along the slide, allowing the same sort of differential
measurements as with the dial caliper. Digital calipers may contain a "reading hold" feature,
allowing the reading of dimensions after use in awkward locations where the display cannot be
seen. Ordinary 6-inch (150 mm) digital calipers are made of stainless steel, have a rated
accuracy of 0.001 in (0.02 mm) and a resolution of 0.0005 in (0.01 mm).[8] The same technology
is used to make longer 8-inch and 12-inch calipers; the accuracy for longer measurements
declines to 0.001 in (0.03 mm) for 100–200 mm and 0.0015 in (0.04 mm) for 200–300 mm.[9]

Increasingly, digital calipers offer a serial data output to allow them to be interfaced with a
dedicated recorder or a personal computer. The digital interface significantly decreases the time
to make and record a series of measurements, and it also improves the reliability of the records.
A suitable device to convert the serial data output to common computer interfaces such as RS-
232, Universal Serial Bus, or wireless can be built or purchased. With such a converter,
measurements can be directly entered into a spreadsheet, a statistical process control program,
or similar software.

The serial digital output varies among manufacturers. Common options are

Mitutoyo's Digimatic interface. This is the dominant name brand interface. Format is 52 bits
arranged as 13 nibbles.[10][11][12]

Sylvac interface. This is the common protocol for inexpensive, non-name brand, calipers.
Format is 24 bit 90 kHz synchronous.[13][14]

Starrett[15]

Brown & Sharpe[15]

Federal

Tesa[15]

Aldi. Format is 7 BCD digits.[14]

Mahr (Digimatic, RS232C, Wireless FM Radio, Infrared and USB)[16]

Like dial calipers, the slide of a digital caliper can usually be locked using a lever or thumb-screw.

Some digital calipers contain a capacitive linear encoder. A pattern of bars is etched directly on
the printed circuit board in the slider. Under the scale of the caliper another printed circuit board
also contains an etched pattern of lines. The combination of these printed circuit boards forms
two variable capacitors. The two capacitances are out of phase. As the slider moves the
capacitance changes in a linear fashion and in a repeating pattern. The circuitry built into the
slider counts the bars as the slider moves and does a linear interpolation based on the
magnitudes of the capacitors to find the precise position of the slider. Other digital calipers
contain an inductive linear encoder, which allows robust performance in the presence of
contamination such as coolants.[17] Magnetic linear encoders are used in yet other digital
calipers.
Micrometer caliper …

A caliper using a calibrated screw for measurement, rather than a slide, is called an external
micrometer caliper gauge, a micrometer caliper or, more often, simply a micrometer. (Sometimes
the term caliper, referring to any other type in this article, is held in contradistinction to
micrometer.)

Comparison

Each of the above types of calipers has its relative merits and faults.

Vernier calipers are rugged and have long-lasting accuracy, are coolant proof, are not affected by
magnetic fields, and are largely shockproof. They may have both centimeter and inch scales.
However, vernier calipers require good eyesight or a magnifying glass to read and can be difficult
to read from a distance or from awkward angles. It is relatively easy to misread the last digit. In
production environments, reading vernier calipers all day long is error-prone and is annoying to
the workers.

Dial calipers are comparatively easy to read, especially when seeking the exact center by rocking
and observing the needle movement. They can be set to 0 at any point for comparisons. They
are usually fairly susceptible to shock damage. They are also very prone to getting dirt in the
gears, which can cause accuracy problems.

Digital calipers switch easily between centimeter and inch systems. They can be set to zero
easily at any point with a full count in either direction and can take measurements even if the
display is completely hidden, either by using a "hold" key, or by zeroing the display and closing
the jaws, showing the correct measurement, but negative. They can be mechanically and
electronically fragile. Most also require batteries and do not resist coolant well. They are also
only moderately shockproof and can be vulnerable to dirt.
Calipers may read to a resolution of 0.01 mm or 0.0005 in, but accuracy may not be better than
about ±0.02 mm or 0.001 in for 150 mm (6 in) calipers, and worse for longer ones.[18]

Use

Using the vernier caliper

A biologist uses calipers to measure the length of a bird's leg

A caliper must be properly applied against the part in order to take the desired measurement.
For example, when measuring the thickness of a plate a vernier caliper must be held at right
angles to the piece. Some practice may be needed to measure round or irregular objects
correctly.

Accuracy of measurement when using a caliper is highly dependent on the skill of the operator.
Regardless of type, a caliper's jaws must be forced into contact with the part being measured.
As both part and caliper are always to some extent elastic, the amount of force used affects the
indication. A consistent, firm touch is correct. Too much force results in an under indication as
part and tool distort; too little force gives insufficient contact and an over indication. This is a
greater problem with a caliper incorporating a wheel, which lends mechanical advantage. This is
especially the case with digital calipers, calipers out of adjustment, or calipers with a poor
quality beam.

Simple calipers are uncalibrated; the measurement taken must be compared against a scale.
Whether the scale is part of the caliper or not, all analog calipers—verniers and dials—require
good eyesight in order to achieve the highest precision. Digital calipers have an advantage in this
area.

Calibrated calipers may be mishandled, leading to loss of zero. When a calipers' jaws are fully
closed, it should, of course, indicate zero. If it does not, it must be recalibrated or repaired. A
vernier caliper does not easily lose its calibration but a sharp impact or accidental damage to
the measuring surface in the caliper jaw can be significant enough to displace zero.[19] Digital
calipers have zero set buttons, for quick recalibration.

Vernier, dial and digital calipers can be used with accessories that extend their usefulness.
Examples are a base that extends their usefulness as a depth gauge and a jaw attachment that
allows measuring the center distance between holes. Since the 1970s a clever modification of
the moveable jaw on the back side of any caliper allows for step or depth measurements in
addition to external caliper measurements, in similar fashion to a universal micrometer (e.g.,
Starrett Mul-T-Anvil or Mitutoyo Uni-Mike).

Zero error

When the jaws are closed and if the reading is 0.10 mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10 mm. The method to use a
vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula "(actual reading) = (main scale) + (vernier scale) − (zero error)",
thus the actual reading is 19.00 + 0.54 − (0.10) = 19.44 mm. The resolution of the measurement, based on the width of the
smallest sub-interval, is ±0.02 mm.

The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula "actual reading
= main scale + vernier scale − (zero error)". Zero error may arise due to knocks that affect the
calibration at 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other. Positive
zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading
is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0.00 mm. If the reading is 0.10 mm, the
zero error is referred to as +0.10 mm. Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of
the vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading
of 0.00 mm. If the reading is −0.08 mm, the zero error is referred to as −0.08 mm.

See also
 7. "Slide Calipers" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100525030431/http://www.starrett.com/download/246_
p108_114.pdf) (PDF). Starrett.com. Archived from the original (http://www.starrett.com/download/246
_p108_114.pdf) (PDF) on 2010-05-25. Retrieved 2010-06-25.

. "Harbor Freight Tools – Quality Tools at Discount Prices Since 1977" (http://www.harborfreight.com/cpi/
ctaf/displayitem.taf?Itemnumber=47257) . www.harborfreight.com.

9. "Digital Caliper" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070726053453/http://www.msi-viking.com/digital_cali

per/) . MSI-Viking.com. Archived from the original (http://www.msi-viking.com/digital_caliper/) on
2007-07-26. Retrieved 2009-06-12.

10. DRO System: Linear Scales & Counters (https://web.archive.org/web/20131103082232/http://www.mitut

oyo.com/pdf/1715.pdf) (PDF), Mitutoyo, n.d., p. 22, Bulletin No. 1715, archived from the original (http://
www.mitutoyo.com/pdf/1715.pdf) (PDF) on 2013-11-03

11. Linear Gage (https://web.archive.org/web/20131103082151/http://www.mitutoyo.com/pdf/E4174-54

2.pdf) (PDF), Mitutoyo, n.d., p. 33, Catalog No. E4174-542/572/575, archived from the original (http://w
ww.mitutoyo.com/pdf/E4174-542.pdf) (PDF) on 2013-11-03

12. Lancaster, Don (February 2000), "Tech Musings" (http://www.tinaja.com/glib/muse145.pdf) (PDF), Tech
Musings, 145

13. "Chinese Scales" (http://www.shumatech.com/support/chinese_scales.htm) . www.shumatech.com.

14. "Protocols of Digital Scales" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131209053512/http://yadro.de/digital-scal

e/protocol.html) . Yadro.de. Archived from the original (http://www.yadro.de/digital-scale/protocol.ht
ml) on 2013-12-09.

15. Lancaster, Don (November 1999), "Tech Musings" (http://www.tinaja.com/glib/muse142.pdf) (PDF),

Tech Musings, 142: 142.3

1 . "New Mahr 2015 Catalogue" (http://www.cutwel.co.uk/new-mahr-2015-catalogue) . www.Cutwel.co.uk.

Cutwel.

17. ABS Coolant Proof Caliper; Coolant Proof Micrometer (https://web.archive.org/web/20131103082314/ht

tp://www.mitutoyo.com/pdf/ABS1813-293.pdf) (PDF), Mitutoyo, January 2005, Bulletin No. 1813-
293/500, archived from the original (http://www.mitutoyo.com/pdf/ABS1813-293.pdf) (PDF) on 2013-
11-03