AERODYNAMICS 1 (Aero Engr Board Review Lecture) Batch 2014

Lecturer: Engr.
Ian Talag
Feati University Aeronautical Engineering Board Examination Review Program
Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review
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 The science relating to the effects produced by air
or other gases in motion
 The study of the properties of moving air, and

especially of the interaction between the air and
solid bodies moving through it.

Needed for the Design of Airplanes and
Aerospace vehicles. The powerful
indispensable tool to predict airplane
performance
Important in the analysis of flow of air for the efficient design of automobiles
Engineering: "The application of scientific principles to practical ends." From the
Latin word "ingenium," meaning inborn talent and skill, ingenious.
The American Heritage Dictionary

of the English Language, 1969

 Pressure
 Density
 Temperature
 Velocity

 The normal force exerted per unit area due to time
rate of change of momentum of gas molecules impacting
on the surface
 Common units of pressure N/m2, dyn/cm2, lb/ft2, and

atm

 Defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance
 Common units of density kg/m3, g/cm3, slugs/ft3, and lbm/ft3

 The measure of the average kinetic energy
of the particles in a gas
 The measure of the hotness or coldness of
the body
 Common units of temperature are: Kelvin
(K), degree Celsius (C), degree Rankine (R),
and degree Fahrenheit (F)

The distance traveled by some object per unit time.
 Velocity connotes direction as well as speed.(Vector quantity)
 For a flowing gas, we must further recognize that each region
of the gas does not necessarily have the same velocity; that is,
the speed and direction of the gas may vary from point to
point in the flow. Hence flow velocity is a point property.

Streamlines of the flow – the path taken by a moving fluid element

1. Pressure distribution
on the surface
2. Shear stress (friction)

on the surface

Where:
P = pressure in Pa or psf
ρ = density in kg/m 3 or slugs/ft 3
T = temperature in Kelvin or Rankine
R = specific gas constant
R for normal air:

287.08 J/kg . K
or 1716 ft .lb/slug.R or 53.342 ft.lbf/lbm.R
Equation of state for a Perfect Gas

Sometimes gentle, sometimes capricious, sometimes awful, never the same for two
moments together; almost human in its passions, almost spiritual in its tenderness,
almost divine in its infinity.
John Ruskin, The Sky

 The atmosphere is defined as the whole mass of air
extending at a specified height
 The atmosphere is the mechanical mixture of gases
surrounding the earth

Note: The actual composition of the
atmosphere varies with geographical
locations and altitudes. However in
most applications to conventional
aerodynamics, the atmosphere can
be regarded as a homogenous gas of
uniform composition. The air may
therefore be regarded as a gas which
satisfies the perfect gas law.

 The lowest and most turbulent region where clouds,
moisture, and weather are formed.
 This layer contains about 75% of the total mass of

the atmosphere. This is where all plants and animals live
and breathe.
 Characterized by decreasing temperature with

increasing height
 The lowest altitude from 0 – 11 km

 The calm region of the atmosphere
 It extends to about 30 miles above the earth.
 Ozone in this layer stops many of the sun's harmful

ultraviolet rays from reaching the earth.
 This layer plus the troposphere make up 99% of the

total mass of the atmosphere.
 The temperature in this region is constant at

216.7 or 216.5 ⁰ K or 390 or 390.15 ⁰ R or -56.5 ⁰ C

 The third layer is the mesosphere.
 The temperature can drop to -173 °F.
 This is where we see "falling stars," meteors

that fall to the earth and burn up in the
atmosphere.
 At certain times of the year, we can see many

of these "falling stars" when the earth goes
through the pieces of a broken comet

The thermosphere layer has many
temperature changes. Energy from the sun
is absorbed and bounced back.
The top of this layer can get to 441

degrees Fahrenheit.

 The portion of the atmosphere which is
ionized and contains plasma
 The part of the atmosphere that is ionized

by solar radiation
 It has practical importance because among

other functions, it influences radio
propagation to distant places on the Earth.

The highest layer of the atmosphere
It extends to 40,000 miles above the earth's

surface.
The thermosphere and the exosphere

together make up the upper atmosphere.

 The earth's atmosphere is a dynamically changing system, constantly
in a state of flux. The pressure and temperature of the atmosphere depend on
altitude, location on the globe (longitude and latitude), time of day, season, and
even solar sunspot activity. To take all these variations into account when
considering the design and performance of flight vehicles is impractical.
Therefore, a standard atmosphere is defined in order to relate flight tests, wind
tunnel results, and general airplane design and performance to a common
reference. The standard atmosphere gives mean values of pressure,
temperature, density, and other properties as functions of altitude; these values
are obtained from experimental balloon and sounding-rocket measurements
combined with a mathematical model of the atmosphere. The standard
atmosphere reflects average atmospheric conditions.

 It should be mentioned that several different standard
atmospheres exist, compiled by different agencies at different
times, each using slightly different experimental data in the
models. A standard atmosphere in common use is the 1959
ARDC model atmosphere. (ARDC stands for the U.S. Air
Force's previous Air Research and Development Command,
which is now the Air Force Research Laboratory.)

 Pressure
 Temperature
 Density
 Viscosity

 The values of standard air pressures at sea level (Po)
are:
Po = 14.7 lb/in2 = 2116.8 or 2116.2 lb/ft2 = 29.92 in Hg

= 76 cmHg = 760 mmHg = 101325 Pa = 1 atm

The values of standard air temperature at sea level (To) are:
To = 15 C = 59 F
= 288.16 or 288.2 K = 519 or 518.69 or 518.7 R

The values of standard air densities at sea level are:
= 0.002378 or 0.002377 slugs/ft3 = 1.225 or 1.2250 kg/m3

 The ability of the fluid to resist shearing stresses
 It is the sticky or adhesive characteristics of a fluid
 The values of standard air viscosities at sea level are:
= 3.7372 x 10-7 slug/ft.sec

= 1.7894 x 10-5 kg/m-sec

The kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity μ divided by
the density of the fluid ρ. It is usually denoted by the Greek
letter nu (ν).

 Amount of water vapor in air (condition of moisture or dampness)
 Temperature influence the maximum amount of water vapor that the air
can hold
 Higher air temperature  absorb more water vapour
 Density of air varies with humidity
 Density on damp day (hot day) is less than density on dry day (cold day)

Metric Value Imperial Value
Pressure 101325Pa 2116.2lb/ft2
Density 1.225kg/m3 0.002378slug/ft3
Temperature 15oC/288.2K 59oF/518.69R
Speed of Sound 340.2m/s 1116.4ft/s
Viscosity 1.789x10-5 kg/m/s 3.737x10-7 slug/ft/s
Kinematic Viscosity 1.460x10-5 m2/s 1.5723x10-4 ft2/s
Thermal Conductivity 0.02596W/m/K 0.015 BTU/hr/ft/R
Gas Constant 287.1 J/kg/K 1715.7 ft-lbf/slug/R
Specific Heat Cp 1005 J/kg/K 6005 ft-lbf/slug/R
Specific Heat Cv 717.98 J/kg/K 4289 ft-lbf/slug/R
K=Cp/Cv 1.4
Gravitational Acceleration 9.80665m/s2 32.174ft/s2

The Hydrostatic equation is the foundational equation
that will allow us to calculate variations of P, ρ, and T as
functions of altitude.
The hydrostatic equation is nothing more than a force

balance on an element of fluid at rest.

Where:
ρ = the density in kg/m3

g/go = gravitational acceleration in m/s2
dp = change in pressure in Pa
dhG /dh = change in depth in m

Temperature Lapse Rate
for the Gradient Layers

a = -0.0065 or -0.00651 K/m
-6.5 or -6.51 K/km
-0.003566 R/ft

Consider the equation
Dividing by the equation of state

But
Substituting the results....
The General Equation for

Pressure Variation with altitude

Therefore our equation will be.....

Where:
P = pressure at any altitude up to 11 km
Po = standard pressure at sea level
T = temperature at any altitude up to 11 km
To = standard temperature at sea level

Hence the equation becomes.....
The General Equation for Density

Variation with Altitude

Therefore our equation will be.....

Where:
= density at any altitude up to 11 km
= standard density at sea level
= temperature at any altitude up to 11 km

= standard temperature at sea level

Where:
T = temperature at any altitude up to
11 km (troposphere)
To = 288.2 K or 519 R
h = height from sea level up to 11 km
a = lapse rate
Temperature variation with

altitude formula

 Determine the temperature at the following altitudes:
a.) 2,000 ft
b.) 3,500 m

a.)
b.)

1.) Determine the pressure at 15,000 ft altitude
2.) Determine the pressure at 4500 m altitude

1.) Given:
h = 15,000 ft
Solution:

2.) Given:
h = 4500 m
Solution:

Solution:

1.) Determine the density at 15,000 ft altitude
2.) Determine the density at 4500 m altitude

1.) Given:
h = 15,000 ft

2.) Given:
h = 4500 m

Consider the Hydrostatic Equation
Divide this by the equation of state,

Integrating, we have....

Where:
P = pressure at any altitude above 11 km
P1 = pressure at 11 km
g = gravitational constant,
(9,81 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2)
R = gas constant, for air
(287.08 J/kg.K, 53.342 ft.lbf/lbm.R)
T = constant temperature at stratosphere
216.5 K, 390.15 R
h = the given altitude above 11,000 m
h1 = 11,000 m

From the equation of state:

Where: g = gravitational constant,
(9,81 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2)
= density at any altitude above 11 km R = gas constant, for air
(287.08 J/kg.K, 53.342 ft.lbf/lbm.R)
= density at 11 km
T = constant temperature at stratosphere
216.5 K, 390.15 R
h = the given altitude above 11,ooo m
h1 = 11,000 m

Constant from 11 km up to 32 km

 Find the Pressure and Density at 14 km height

Given:
h = 14 km = 14,000 m
T = 216.5 K (constant)
Solution: Solve first for conditions at 11 km

For Density: At 11 km

Find the temperature, pressure, and density of the air on the
following altitudes:
a.) 2,500 m f.) 5,500 ft
b.) 6,000 m g.) 6,500 ft
c.) 7,000 m h.) 60,000 ft
d.) 15,000 m
e.) 20,000 m

 An altimeter is a pressure
gauge which indicates an altitude
in the standard atmosphere
corresponding to the measured
pressure.
 A pressure gauge which translates

the measured pressure into an
altitude reading which
corresponds to that predicted by
the standard atmosphere
 Absolute altitude - ha = hG + r

the local gravitational acceleration g at a given absolute altitude ha

 Geometric altitude - the geometric height above sea level
 Pressure altitude, hp - is the altitude given by altimeter set to

29.92”Hg. The altitude corresponding to a given pressure in the
standard atmosphere.
 Density altitude, hd - is the altitude corresponding to a given density

in the standard atmosphere. Density altitude is used for computing the
performance of an aircraft and its engines.
 Temperature altitude, hT - is the altitude corresponding to a given

temperature in the standard atmosphere.

 In an atmosphere with standard conditions, all
three altitudes are the same on the other hand, in
non standard atmosphere they will be different.

 If an airplane is flying at an altitude where the actual
pressure and temperature are 4.72 x 104 N/m2 and 255.7 K,
respectively, what are the pressure, temperature, and density
altitudes?

Given: Rqd:
P = 4.72 x 104 Pa hp = ? hd = ?
T = 255.7 K hT = ?
Solution: Given are the pressure and temp., we have to find the altitudes which
corresponds to these conditions at standard atmosphere. By reverse engineering of
the formulas...Solving for Pressure Altitude....

or
For Temperature Altitude:

or

For Density Altitude:

 The flight test data for a given airplane refer to a level-flight
maximum-velocity run made at an altitude that simultaneously
corresponded to a pressure altitude of 30,000 ft and density
altitude of 28,500 ft. Calculate the temperature of the air at
the altitude at which the airplane was flying for the test.

Given:
hp = 30,000 ft
hd = 28,500 ft
Rqd:
T = ? actual at the altitude at which the airplane was flying
for the test.

Calculating the pressure at 30,000ft

Calculating the density at 28,500ft

Therefore the actual temperature of the air at the
altitude to which the airplane is flying is...

A standard altimeter indicates 15,000 ft when the ambient
temperature is 35 deg. F. Calculate the density altitude and the
temperature altitude.

Mathematical theories from the happy hunting grounds of pure mathematicians are
found suitable to describe the airflow produced by aircraft with such excellent
accuracy that they can be applied directly to airplane design.
Theodore von Karman, 1954

Physical Principle: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed
as long as the flow is steady (invariant with

time), the mass that flows through the cross
section at point 1 must be the same as the
mass that flows through the cross section at
point 2

Let:
A1, A2 = the cross sectional area of the stream tube at point 1 and 2
V1, V2 = flow velocity at point 1 and 2

Now, at a given instant in time, consider
all the fluid elements that are
momentarily in the plane of A 1. After a
lapse of time dt, these same fluid
elements all move a distance V1 dt,
So, the fluid elements swept a volume And therefore the mass is:
of:
This is the mass of gas that has swept through area A 1 during time interval dt

Definition: The mass flow m through area A is the mass crossing A per unit
time. Therefore,
in Kg/s or slugs/s
Hence, the mass flow through

A2 is:

Since the mass can neither be created nor
destroyed, we have:
The Continuity Equation for steady fluid flow

 Compressible Flow - flow in which the density of the fluid
elements can change from point to point. Indeed, all real-life
flows, strictly speaking, are compressible. However, there are
some circumstances in which the density changes only slightly.
These circumstances lead to the second definition, as follows.

 Incompressible Flow - flow in which the density of the fluid elements is
always constant. For incompressible flow,
 Incompressible flow is a myth. It can never actually occur in nature.

However, for those flows in which the actual variation of p is negligibly
small, it is convenient to make the assumption that p is constant, to
simplify our analysis. The low speed flow of air , where V<100 m/s or
(V<225 mi/h) can also be assumed to be incompressible.

 Consider a convergent duct with an inlet area A1 = 3 ft2 and an
exit area A2 = 2.57 ft2. Air enters this duct with a velocity VI =
700 ft/s and a density ρI = 0.002 slug/ft3, and air leaves with an
exit velocity V2 = 1070 ft/s. Calculate the density of the air ρ2 at
the exit.
V1
P1 V2
T1 ρ2 = ?

Given: Required:
A1 = 3 ft2
A2 = 2.57 ft2
V1 = 700 fps
1 = 0.002 slugs/ft3
V2 = 1070 fps

 Consider the incompressible flow of water through a divergent
duct. The inlet velocity and area are 2 m/s and 1 m2
respectively, if the exit area is 3 times the inlet area, calculate
the water flow velocity at the exit.
V1 A2 = 3A1
A1 V2 = ?

Given:
V1 = 2 m/s
A1 = 1 m2
A2 = 3 A1 = 3(1) = 3 m2
Required:
V2 = ?

 A pipe is gradually tapering in size by 0.01 m2/m, what is the
change in velocity per meter where the pipe is 0.4 m2 in cross
section, if the velocity there is 30 m/s. Is the velocity increasing
or decreasing?

 A circular pipe, 100 ft long gradually tapers from 3 ft in
diameter at one end to 2 ft in diameter at the other. Fluid is
flowing from the bigger toward the smaller end. What is the
rate of increase in velocity at the entrance if the velocity there
is 80 fps?

 The momentum equation states the relation between
pressure and velocity in a flow which is not considered in the
continuity equation

From Newton’s Law of Physics: F = ma
To apply this principle to a flowing gas, consider an infinitesimally small
fluid element moving along a streamline with velocity V
The Forces acting on the element are:

1. Pressure acting in a normal direction on all six faces of the element
2. Frictional shear acting tangentially on all six faces of the element
3. Gravity acting on the mass inside the element

The Force on
the left face is:
P(dydz)
The Force on the right face is:
[ p + (dp/dx)dx ](dydz)

The net force in the x direction F is the sum of the two:

The Euler’s
Equation/Momentum
Equation

 It relates the rate of change of momentum to the force
 The momentum equation for inviscid (frictionless) flow
 It relates pressure and velocity (change in pressure to change in
velocity)
 The Momentum Equation is the foundational equation for the
Bernoulli’s equation

1. This equations hold only for inviscid (frictionless), incompressible flow.
2. This equations relate properties between different points along a streamline.

A

Given:
P1 = 2116 psf
V1 = 100 mph (88/60) = 146.7 fps
ρ1 = 0.002377 slugs/ft3
PA = 2070 psf
Required:
VA = ?

 Consider a convergent duct . Air enters this duct with a velocity
V1 = 10 m/s and leaves the duct exit with a velocity V2 = 30 m/s.
If the air pressure and temperature at the inlet are P1 = 1.2 x 105
Pa and T1 = 330 K, respectively, calculate the pressure at the
exit.
V1
P1 V2
T1 P2 = ?

Given:
V1 = 10 mps
V2 = 30 mps
P1 = 1.2 x 105 Pa
T1 = 330 K Still assuming incompressible Flow...
Required:
P2 = ?

 Consider an airplane flying with a velocity of 50 m/s at a
standard altitude of 2.5 km. At a point on the wing, the airflow
velocity is 65 m/s. Calculate the pressure at this point.

 Review of the Isentropic Process

The Isentropic Flow equations are relevant to compressible flows only
Given:
SSLC
P1 = 101325 Pa
T1 = 288.2 K
T2 = 250 K
Required:
P2 = ?
The First Law of thermodynamics:
states the change in internal energy is
equal to the sum of the heat added
to and the work done on the system.

Considering an adiabatic flow, where q = 0, hence,
Recalling Euler’s equation,
Combining the two equations,

However, v = 1/ hence,
The energy equation for frictionless,

adiabatic flow
Since h = cpT, hence:
This energy equation relates the temperature and velocity at two different points
along a streamline.

A Given:
∞ P∞ = 2116 psf
V∞ = 500 mph
ρ∞ = 0.002377 slugs/ft3
Required: PA = 1497 psf
VA = ? Cp = 6006 ft . lb/slug R

Since the flow compressible, hence isentropic, we can use
isentropic equation evaluated between the free stream and
point A .

The value of T∞ can be found from the equation of state.
Hence


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Lecturer: Engr.

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

 The study of the properties of moving air, and

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

The American Heritage Dictionary

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

 Common units of pressure N/m2, dyn/cm2, lb/ft2, and

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

2. Shear stress (friction)

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

R for normal air:

Equation of state for a Perfect Gas

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

John Ruskin, The Sky

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

 This layer contains about 75% of the total mass of

 Characterized by decreasing temperature with

 The lowest altitude from 0 – 11 km

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

 It extends to about 30 miles above the earth.

 Ozone in this layer stops many of the sun's harmful

 This layer plus the troposphere make up 99% of the

 The temperature in this region is constant at

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

 The temperature can drop to -173 °F.

 This is where we see "falling stars," meteors

 At certain times of the year, we can see many

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

The top of this layer can get to 441

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

 The part of the atmosphere that is ionized

 It has practical importance because among

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

It extends to 40,000 miles above the earth's

The thermosphere and the exosphere

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Po = 14.7 lb/in2 = 2116.8 or 2116.2 lb/ft2 = 29.92 in Hg

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

= 0.002378 or 0.002377 slugs/ft3 = 1.225 or 1.2250 kg/m3

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

= 3.7372 x 10-7 slug/ft.sec

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review

The hydrostatic equation is nothing more than a force

Aerodynamics 1: Part I Aeronautical Engineering Board Examinations Review