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 ME8097-NON
DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING AND
EVALUATION
Department : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Batch/Year : 2018 – 2022
Created by : Mr.K.SENGOTTAIYAN

Date : 13/09/2021
 Table of Contents

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 Course Objectives 6

2 Pre Requisites 7

3 Syllabus 8

4 Course outcomes 9

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 10

6 Lecture Plan 11

7 Activity based learning 12

8 Lecture Notes 14

9 Assignments 38

10 Part A Q & A 39

11 Part B Qs 41

12 Supportive online Certification courses 42

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 43

14 Content Beyond Syllabus 44

15 Assessment Schedule 45

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 46

17 Mini Project suggestions 47

 1.COURSE OBJECTIVES

To Understand the fundamental concepts of NDT

To study about the process of Surface Testing Methods(LPT & MPT)

To study about the process of Thermography and Eddy Current Testing

To study about the process of Ultrasonic Testing and Acoustic Emission Testing

To study the concept of Radiography

6
 2.PRE – REQUISITE

Non Destructive Testing and Evaluation

(VII Sem)

Materials Science Engineering Physics-I

(II Sem) (II Sem)

7
 3.SYLLABUS

ME8097 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING LT P C

3 003
UNIT–I OVERVIEW OF NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 9

NDT Versus Mechanical testing, Overview of the Non Destructive Testing Methods for
the detection of manufacturing defects as well as material characterization. Relative
merits and limitations, Various physical characteristics of materials and their
applications in NDT., Visual inspection –Unaided and aided.
UNIT – II SURFACE NDE METHODS 9
Liquid Penetrant Testing - Principles, types and properties of liquid penetrants,
developers, advantages and limitations of various methods, Testing Procedure,
Interpretation of results. Magnetic Particle Testing- Theory of magnetism, inspection
materials Magnetization methods, Interpretation and evaluation of test indications,
Principles and methods of demagnetization, Residual magnetism.
UNIT – III THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ET) 9

Thermography- Principles, Contact and non contact inspection methods, Techniques for
applying liquid crystals, Advantages and limitation - infrared radiation and infrared
detectors, Instrumentations and methods, applications. Eddy Current Testing-
Generation of eddy currents, Properties of eddy currents, Eddy current sensing
elements, Probes, Instrumentation, Types of arrangement, Applications, advantages,
Limitations, Interpretation/Evaluation.

UNIT–IV ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT) AND ACOUSTIC EMISSION (AE)

9
Ultrasonic Testing-Principle, Transducers, transmission and pulse-echo method, straight
beam and angle beam, instrumentation, data representation, A/Scan, B-scan, C-scan.
Phased Array Ultrasound, Time of Flight Diffraction. Acoustic Emission Technique –
Principle, AE parameters, Applications

UNIT – V RADIOGRAPHY (RT) 9

Principle, interaction of X-Ray with matter, imaging, film and film less techniques, types
and use of filters and screens, geometric factors, Inverse square, law, characteristics of
films -graininess, density, speed, contrast, characteristic curves, Penetrometers,
Exposure charts, Radiographic equivalence. Fluoroscopy- Xero-Radiography, Computed
Radiography, Computed Tomography
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

8
 4.COURSE OUTCOME

After successful completion of the course, the students should

be able to

Highest
CO No. Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level
C407.1 Explain the fundamental concepts of NDT K2

C407.2 Discuss the different surface NDE methods K2

Discuss the concepts of Thermography and
C407.3 K2
Eddy current Testing
Explain the concept of Ultrasonic Testing and
C407.4 K2
Acoustic Emission
C407.5 Explain the concept of Radiography K2
Apply various NDE techniques which enables to
C407.6 carry out various inspection in accordance with K3 & A2
the established procedures.

9
 5.CO- PO/PSO Mapping

Program Specific
Program Outcomes
Outcomes
Course Level
K3,
Out of
K3 K4 K4 K5 K5, A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K4 K4 K4
Comes CO K6
PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PO- PSO- PSO- PSO-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
C406.1: K2 2 2 1
C406.2: K2 2 2 2 1
C406.3: K2 2 2 2 1
C406.4: K2 2 2 2 1
C406.5: K2 2 2 2 1
K3 &
C406.6: 3 3 2 1
A3
406 2 2 2 1

10
 6.LECTURE PLAN

UNIT – III THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Highe
Mode Delive
Proposed Actual Pertai st
of ry
S.No Lecture Topic Lectur ning Cognit
Delive Resou
Date e Date CO(s) ive
ry rces
Level
27-9-21 Thermography-
Principles, Contact and
1 CO3 K2 MD1 PPT
non contact inspection
methods
27-9-21 Techniques for applying PPT
2 CO3 K2 MD1
liquid crystals
28-9-21 Infrared radiation and PPT
3 CO3 K2 MD1
infrared detectors
30-9-21 Instrumentations and
4 CO3 K2 MD2
methods, applications.
PPT
1-10-21 Eddy Current Testing-
5 Generation of eddy CO3 K2 MD1
currents
4-10-21 Properties of eddy PPT
6 CO3 K2 MD1
currents
5-10-21 Eddy current sensing PPT
7 CO3 K2 MD2
elements
7-10-21 Types of probes and its PPT
8 CO3 K2 MD1
application
8-10-21 Applications, advantages,
Limitations, PPT
9 CO3 K2 MD2
Interpretation

11
 7.ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
QUIZ
1. At 1000 C wavelength of radiation will be
a) Less than 1000um
b) Less than 10um
c) Less than 100um
d) Less than 10nm
2.Wavelength of peak radiation is represented by
a) 2891/T

b) 28.91*T
c) 189*T
3. IR thermography is useful in medical field
a) False
b) True
4.Energy of emitted radiation from a body increases with
a) Increase in temperature
b) Decrease in temperature
c) Net energy cannot be changed
d) No relation with temperature
5.Radiation thermometers are pyrometers
a) True
b) False
6.In active approach an external stimulus is needed to produce a thermal contrast.
a) True
b) False
7.Currents that flow in circles inside a disc are known as
a) Eddy currents
b) Circular currents
c) Air currents
d) Alternating currents

12
 7. ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
QUIZ
8. Decrease in strength of signal is known as
a) Tuning
b) Modulation
c) Attenuation
d) Amplification
9. Generation of eddy currents depends on the principle of:
a) wave guide theory.
b) electromagnetic induction.
c) magneto-restrictive forces.
d) all of the above.
10. A secondary field is generated by the test object and is:
a) equal and opposite to the primary field.
b) opposite to the primary field, but much smaller.
c) in the same plane as the coil is wound.
d) in phase with the primary field.
11. The discovery of electromagnetic induction is credited to:
a) Arago.
b) Oersted.
c) Maxwell.
d) Faraday.
12. Differential coils are usually used in:
a) bobbin coils.
b) probe coils.
c) OD coils.
d) any of the above.
13. The unit of inductance is the:
a) henry.
b) maxwell.
c) ohm.
d) farad.

13
 8.LECTURE NOTES
UNIT III-THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT TESTING

HEAT: Energy that is transferred from one body to another as the result of a
difference in temperature.

CONDUCTION: A type of heat transfer mainly through a solid object.

CONVECTION: A type of heat transfer where the heat is transferred by the heated
part of gas or liquid moving upward.

TEMPERATURE: Temperature is the measure of hotness expressed in several scales

(Farenheit,celcius or Kelvin)

EMMISIVITY:Emissivity is a term representing material ability to emit thermal

radiation.

INFRARED: Infrared is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than those

of visible light. It is therefore generally invisible to the human eye.

WAVELENGTH: Wavelength is the distance between successive crest of a wave,

especially in an electromagnetic wave.

FREQUENCY: Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit

time or simply number of oscillations per second

14
THERMOGRAPHY
Thermography testing, also known as infrared inspection, is a contact-free
predictive maintenance method used to detect connections defects, system
overloads, deteriorated insulation, and other potential problems in electrical
components.

Thermography inspection refers to the nondestructive testing of parts,

materials or systems through the imaging of the thermal patterns at the
object's surface.

Infrared thermography is used to find areas of excess heat so that problems

can be corrected before they lead to excess power usage, increased
maintenance costs, service interruptions, catastrophic equipment failure,
and/or equipment damage.

Thermal measurement methods have a wide range of uses. They are used by
the police and military for night vision, surveillance, and navigation aid; by
firemen and emergency rescue personnel for fire assessment, and for search
and rescue; by the medical profession as a diagnostic tool; and by industry for
energy audits, preventative maintenance, processes control and nondestructive
testing.

Thermographic images can also be obtained by coating the specimen surface

with heat-sensitive (cholesteric) liquid crystals before applying the heat source
to the opposite side.

15
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VISUAL IMAGE AND THERMAL
IMAGE

TOTAL INFRARED SYSTEM

16
 USES OF THERMOGRAPHY

Preventive Maintenance
Predictive Maintenance
Condition Monitoring
Forensic Investigations
Research and Development
Quality Assurance

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Preventive maintenance (or preventative maintenance) is maintenance that is regularly

performed on a piece of equipment to lessen the likelihood of it failing. It is performed
while the equipment is still working so that it does not break down unexpectedly.

PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE

Predictive maintenance techniques are designed to help determine the condition of in-
service equipment in order to estimate when maintenance should be performed. This
approach promises cost savings over routine or time-based preventive maintenance

CONDITION MONITORING

Condition monitoring (colloquially, CM) is the process of monitoring a parameter

of condition in machinery (vibration, temperature etc.), in order to identify a significant
change which is indicative of a developing fault. It is a major component of predictive
maintenance.

FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS

Thermography plays a very vital role in forensic departments.

QUALITY ASSURANCE

Quality assurance is a way of preventing mistakes and defects in manufactured

products and avoiding problems when delivering products or services to customers
APPLICATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY

Thermography in Automotive Industry

• Deconstructing parts of the car can be cumbersome, and thermography offers a

non-invasive and non-destructive approach testing which saves time and effort.
Tight competition and the chase for better performing, fuel-saving, and lighter
automobiles inspires thermography to provide the needed efficiency through doing
quality checks on every electrical system, motor assemblies and window heating
elements.

• It provides detection of defects and deficiencies of multiple products for the

automotive industry only detected through temperature changes and allows
reconciliation of thermal behavior of components with their standard behavior

Thermography in Aerospace Industry

• Aerospace sets the greatest demands on Infrared camera systems due to the high
safety and material requirements presented. Often, high thermal resolutions of 20
mk and/or high frame rate of 100 Hz and more are necessary.

• Aerospace firms can use thermography to test active heat flows on new composite
materials to ensure the next generation of lighter, more fuel-efficient aircraft remain
as safe as today's models.
APPLICATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY
Thermography in Chemical Industry
• Industries dealing with hazardous and non-hazardous chemical materials can benefit
from infrared cameras helping to detect the resulting heat flow from chemical
processes.

• Thermal imaging makes it easier to capture and measure the temperature

distribution with greater accuracy, and also enable the analysis of chemical reactions
through the entire process chain.

• Best of all, the non-invasive and contactless nature of thermal imaging means people
are kept at a safe distance while thermal imaging cameras do all the legwork to
collect relevant data.

Thermography in Electronics and Electrical Industry

• Electrical systems and electrical distribution equipment can benefit from the
application of infrared cameras and thermography technology.

• Not only does it prevent humans from having direct contact with these systems and
circuits, testing and detection can be conducted without interrupting the flow of
power.

• Common problems include: Loose connections, overheated bushings, poor contacts

etc

• Heat dissipation in a microchip

APPLICATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY
Inspections of Mechanical Components

• Infrared cameras can safely inspect mechanical systems from various industries to
detect issues before they become major problems

• Detecting blocked air coolers and radiator tubes in internal combustion engines

• Finding air leaks and clogged condenser tubes in refrigeration systems

• Locate and identify overheating bearings, increased discharge temperatures, and

excessive oil temperatures in pumps, compressors, fans, and blowers

Thermography in Medicine

• Thermal imaging applications abound in the field of healthcare, both for humans and
animals.

• Infrared thermography in thermography is being used to help detect cancer earlier,

locate the source of arthritis, and even catch circulation issues before they become
too problematic.

• Doctors and veterinarians alike can use infrared cameras to discover muscular and
skeletal problems early on
How does thermography testing work?
Thermography measures surface temperatures of electrical components by using
highly specialized infrared visual scanning technology.

During a scan, a thermal ‘camera’ is used to pick up traces of heat allowing

inspectors to easily identify heat anomalies by their color in the thermal image

CLASSIFICATION OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING

On the basis of approaches

PASSIVE APPROACH

ACTIVE APPROACH

PASSIVE APPROACH

Principle

• In passive approach of thermography testing, materials and structures are naturally

at different temperature than the background.

• For example, the human body is normally at a temperature higher than the ambient
temperature hence it is detected by an IR camera without any additional stimulation
or source.

• An object at elevated temperature with respect to environment can be monitored

using an IR camera without an aid of additional external source of energy.

• A computer system is used to display and process images.

PASSIVE APPROACH

Advantages

• Helpful while inspecting larger areas.

• It does not require any additional thermal equipment's.

Limitations

• An experienced thermographer is needed to interrupt thermo graphic results.

• Effective results depending upon temperature difference(defect specimen and
surroundings)

Applications

• Monitoring electrical and electronic components

• Detection of insulation problems in buildings

ACTIVE APPROACH

In active approach ,an external stimulus is needed to produce a thermal contrast in

the object surface.

When external source of heat is applied the thermal state of the object to be
inspected is destabilized.

• In this technique the sample is heated by an external source.

• Controlled heat source and its surface temperature is monitored as a function of
time through changes of emitted infrared radiation.

• IR camera acquires data on thermal emissions and is displayed in the computer.

 ELEMENTS OF INFRARED DETECTION SYSTEM
A typical system for detecting infrared radiation is given in the following block
diagram :

INFRARED SOURCE
All objects above 0 K radiate infrared energy and hence are infrared sources.
Infrared sources also include tungsten lamps, silicon carbide, and various others.
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
• Three main types of transmission medium used for Infrared transmission are
vacuum, the atmosphere, and optical fibers.
• The transmission of IR – radiation is affected by presence of CO2, water vapour
and other elements in the atmosphere.

• Due to absorption by molecules of water carbon dioxide, ozone, etc. the

atmosphere highly attenuates most IR wavelengths leaving some important IR
windows in the electromagnetic spectrum

• These are primarily utilized by thermal imaging/ remote sensing applications

OPTICAL COMPONENTS

Often optical components are required to converge or focus infrared radiations, to

limit spectral response, etc.

To converge/focus radiations, optical lenses made of quartz, CaF2, Ge and Si,

polyethylene Fresnel lenses, and mirrors made of Al, Au or a similar material are
used.

For limiting spectral responses, band pass filters are used. Choppers are used to
pass/ interrupt the IR beams.
INFRARED DETECTORS

Various types of detectors are used in IR sensors. Important specifications of

detectors are

Photosensitivity or Responsivity

• Responsivity is the extreme sensitivity from light source.

• Output Voltage/Current per watt of incident energy. Higher the better.

Noise Equivalent Power (NEP)

• Noise-equivalent power is a measure of the sensitivity of a photo detector or
detector system.

SIGNAL PROCESSING

Since detector outputs are typically very small, preamplifiers with associated circuitry
are used to further process the received signals

VARIOUS THERMOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES

PULSED THERMOGRAPHY(FLASH THERMOGRAPHY)

In this technique energy sources xenon flash tubes are used to pulse heat the
specimen surface.

The duration and energy source depends on the thermo physical properties of both,
the specimen and the flaw

MODES OF THERMOGRAPHY
Reflection Mode: In this mode inspecting defects closer to the heated surface
TRANSMISSION MODE
In this mode inspecting defects are not closer to the heated surface

• Defective zones will appear at higher or lower temperature with respect to non
defective zones on the surface.
• The temperature evolution on the surface is then monitored using an infrared
camera

• When observing the thermal wave on the surface of the material the defects
explore themselves and can be compared with the defect free products.

• The thermo physical differences create surface interferences in the thermal waves
and recorded by thermal camera
• Multiple hundred of thermal images are sequenced and analyzed by special
software and the results are recorded.

DATA PROCESSING and ANALYZING TECHNIQUES

The specimen surface is submitted to heat pulse by using external heat source.

The heat pulse generated will have a periodic wave with different frequencies and
amplitudes.

The thermal camera is kept in front of specimen and it travels from surface
through the specimen.

As time elapses, the surface temperature decreases uniformly for a specimen

which is defect free.
On the other hand cracks or discontinuities act as resistance to heat flow that
produce temperature patterns at the surface.
LOCK IN THERMOGRAPHY
Also called as modulated thermography

In this technique, the specimen surface is periodically illuminated by heating

source like halogen lamps, to inject thermal waves in to the specimen.

Heat is produced and propagates through the material by radiation.

Internal defects will act as barrier and changes its amplitude.

VIBRO THERMOGRAPHY TESTING

Also known as Ultrasound Thermography

It utilizes mechanical waves to directly simulate internal defects without heating

the surface.

In Vibro-thermography cracks or damage in an object are made visible through

frictional heating caused by high frequency ultrasound.

The heat is generated through the dissipation of mechanical energy at the crack
surfaces by vibration.
VIBRO THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
APPLICATIONS

In case of aircraft testing, field measurements have been performed on a wing and
fuselage sections in order to assess the structural integrity

Advantages

• Real time data acquisition is possible.

• Thermal imaging products provide fast and accurate measurements of objects

which are difficult to touch/to reach such as high altitude power lines.

• It can help in identifying air leakages, documenting irregular heat dispersion and
identifying possible irregularities in insulation.

Disadvantages

• Thermal imaging products require high initial investment cost.

• Thermal imaging cameras can not see through glass as thermal energy can be
reflected off shiny surfaces.

• Thermal imaging cameras are not used for study of under water objects.

• Surface thickness of the object influence on the data output

EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Basic terms to know
Electricity: Movement of electrons in a particular direction through a conductor.

Permeability: Material’s ability to be magnetized.

Ampere: It is the measure of flow of current

Volt: Electrostatic difference between two nodes. It is a measure of electromotive

force.

Electromotive Force: It is a force which directs the electrons to move in a

prescribed format.
HISTORY OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING
• Eddy current testing began largely as a result of the English scientist Michael
Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831.

• Faraday discovered that when a magnetic field passes through a conductor (a

material in which electrons move easily)-or when a conductor passes through a
magnetic field-an electric current will flow through the conductor if there is a
closed path through which the current can circulate.

• In 1879, another breakthrough was made when another English scientist, David
Hughes, demonstrated how the properties of a coil change when placed in contact
with metals of different conductivity and permeability.

• However, it was not until the Second World War that these developments in the
transmitting and receiving of electromagnetic waves were put to practical use for
materials testing.

• Beginning in 1933, in Germany, while working for the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institute,

Professor Friedrich Forster adapted eddy current technology to industrial use,
developing instruments for measuring conductivity and for sorting mixed-up
ferrous components.

• In 1948, Forster founded his own company in Reutlingen, a business based on

eddy current testing that continues to this day.
 FARADAYS LAW AND EDDY CURRENT
Faraday’s law states that a current will be induced in a conductor which is exposed to a
changing magnetic field.

Faraday’s law is a basic law of electromagnetism

EDDY CURRENTS

Eddy Current are defined as oscillating electrical currents induced in a conductive

material by an alternating magnetic field, due to electromagnetic induction

APPLICATIONS
Crack detection is one of the primary uses of eddy current inspection.
Cracks cause a disruption in the circular flow patterns of the eddy currents and
weaken their strength.
This change in strength at the crack location can be detected.
Eddy current inspection is exceptionally well suited for the detection of cracks, with
an especially high sensitivity to detection of surface breaking cracks.
APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING

CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT

In 2001, Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of

evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques

Tube and wire testing

Automated eddy current test systems have been developed for inspecting tube, bar
and wire at speeds up to 3 m/s.

Once the operator has calibrated the instrument using a tube or wire with known
flaws, the test installation runs automatically, ejecting defective pieces from the

production line or marking them with paint.

Coating thickness measurement

The high near surface resolution of eddy current testing makes it useful for accurately
measuring coatings, both metallic and paint, on metal substrates.

Weld testing

Simple high frequency eddy current testers have been used for some time to detect
toe cracks in ferrous welds. The method has the advantage of being able to detect
cracks through paint layers.
 PRINCIPLE OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING
If another electrical conductor is brought into the proximity of this changing magnetic
field, eddy current will be induced in the second conductor.

When a flaw is introduced in the conductive material to be tested, the eddy currents
are disrupted and is sensed by suitable instruments.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.

When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic
field develops in and around the conductor.

This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and
collapses as the current is reduced to zero.

EDDY CURRENT TEST SERIES

 EQUIPMENTS OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING
PROBE
Probe serves as the main link between the test instrument and test object

It establishes a varying electromagnetic field, which induces the eddy current in the
test object and increases magnetic effect.

It also senses the current flow and magnetic effect and feeds the information to the
processing system.

TYPES OF EDDY CURRENT PROBES

ABSOLUTE PROBES

Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used to generate the eddy
currents and sense changes in the eddy current field.

DIFFERENTIAL PROBES

• It consists of two active coils and are arranged in pairs

• When one coil is over a defect and the other is over good material, a differential signal
is produced.
REFLECTION PROBE

Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but one coil is used
to excite the eddy currents and the other is used to sense changes in the test
material

CLASSIFICATION OF PROBES BASED ON APPLICATION

SURFACE PROBES

• Surface probes can be very small in size to allow accessibility to confined areas.

• Some specifically probes designed for crack detection of fastener holes.

• These include sliding probe , ring probes and hole probes.

 TYPES OF PROBES
ROTATING PROBES

This type is used along with mechanical device for automatically rotating the probe in the
hole

BOBBIN PROBES

ID probes, which are also referred to as Bobbin probes or feed-through probes, are
inserted into hollow products, such as pipes, to inspect from the inside out

SLIDING PROBES and DOUGHNUT PROBES

Sliding probes are designed to inspect aircraft fastener holes.

Doughnut probes are designed to fit above the rivet or bolt hole and inspect for any
defect
 TYPES OF PROBES
ENCIRCLING COILS OR OD PROBES
OD probes are often called encircling coils.

They are similar to ID probes except that the coil(s) encircle the material to inspect
from the outside in.

OD probes are commonly used to inspect solid products such as rods, pipes, bars

PENCIL PROBES
Pencil probes are highly portable like pencil to conduct inspection
They are available with straight or bent type.
 FACTORS EFFECTING EDDY CURRENTS
Material Conductivity
The conductivity of a material has a very direct effect on the eddy current flow

The greater the conductivity of a material the greater the flow of eddy currents on
the surface.

The value of the electrical conductivity of a metal depends on several factors, such as
its chemical composition and the stress state of Its crystalline structure

Magnetic Permeability

This variable applies only to Ferro magnetic materials.

Permeability can be defined as the ease with which a material can be magnetized.

Magnetic permeability helps us measure a material's resistance to the magnetic field

or measure of the degree to which magnetic field can penetrate through a material.

As material permeability increases it will mask eddy current signal variations.

Permeability thus limits effective penetration of eddy current.

FREQUENCY

Eddy current response was greatly affected by the test frequency selected.

The frequency of the alternating current passing through the eddy current test coil
affects the depth of penetration of the eddy current field in the test material. This is
also known as the skin effect.

The intensity of the eddy current flow will decrease exponentially with increasing
depth into the material.

LIFT-OFF

This factor can have a big influence on test accuracy.

In order to get an accurate test, the probe needs to be in contact with the test area.
FACTORS EFFECTING EDDY CURRENT
If the probe is not against the test material surface, then an effect known as lift-off
occurs.

Any air between the probe and material affects the eddy currents in much the same
way that defects would.

This can give a false indication of a flaw.

Other factors that can affect lift-off are surface irregularities, debris, and flaking
paint/thick paint.

So it is important to keep the probe in close contact with the surface during testing.

SURFACE GEOMETRY

Different geometrical features such as curves, edges, and grooves affect test
accuracy.

Curves and grooves can result in a lift-off effect.

In addition, whenever the test coil approaches an edge of the material being tested,
the eddy currents are distorted because they cannot flow beyond the edge of the
part.

This distortion results in an indication known as edge effect.

Edge effect limits testing near the edges of parts.

ALIGNMENT OF FLAWS

When testing for flaws such as cracks, it is essential that the flow of eddy currents
be as nearly perpendicular to the flaw as possible in order to obtain maximum
response from the flaw.

If the flaw is parallel to the eddy current flow, then there will be little or no distortion
of the currents and the flaw can be hidden.

It can be helpful to rotate the probe 90 degrees during the inspection process. This
will increase the chance of detecting flaws that are not perpendicular to the eddy
currents.
 9.ASSIGNMENT

UNIT III-THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT TESTING

K
Q. No Assignment Questions CO
Level
1. Illustrate with suitable sketch about types of
K3 CO3
thermography.

2. Explain with neat sketch about the types of eddy

current instrument based on probes in eddy current non
K2 CO3
destructive testing.

3 Illustrate with suitable sketch about working principle of

Eddy current non destructive testing.
K3 CO3

38
 10.PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

UNIT III:THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT TESTING

SL. K CO
Question and Answers
NO LEVEL

1 Define Thermography. K2 CO3

It is a method of inspecting Electrical and Mechanical

equipment by obtaining heat distribution pictures.

2 Describe pulse thermography. K2 CO3

In pulse thermography the material to be inspected is

heated up equally using a very short heat pulse.
Defects, bonding faults and corrosion can be observed
using a thermographic camera on the surface.

3 List the advantage of thermography K1 CO3

• It is a non contact type technique.

• Fast , reliable and accurate output.
• A large surface area can be scanned in less time.

4 Describe liquid crystal K2 CO3

Thermographic Liquid Crystals (TLC) are materials that

change their reflected color as a function of temperature
when illuminated by white light

5 Describe the application of thermography K2 CO3

• Inspection of Electrical equipment's.
• Inspection of Mechanical equipment's.
• Inspection of Refractory lined structures.

6. Define Infrared thermography K1 CO3

Infrared Thermography is equipment or method which
detects infrared energy emitted from object, converts it
into temperatures and displays images of temperature
distributions.

39
 10.PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT III:THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT TESTING

SL. K CO
Question and Answers
NO LVEL

7 Describe the principle of eddy current method K2 CO3

• An electric current is made to flow in a coil produces
an alternating magnetic field around it.
• This coil when brought close to the electrically
conducting surface of a metallic material to be tested
induces an eddy current flow in the material due to
electromagnetic induction.
• The presence of any defect or discontinuity in the
material disturbs the eddy current flow which will be
detected.
8 Classify the types of probe used in eddy current K2 CO3
inspection

Focused Pencil type, Spring loaded absolute probe,

Deflection type, Encircling probe, Bobbin type
9 List the applications of Eddy current testing K1 CO3
• To scan the open surface cracks on welds and heat
affected zones.
• To detect and quantify corrosion on the inside of thin
metal such as aluminium air craft skin.
• To check the discontinuities

10 Classify the advantages of eddy current testing K2 CO3

• Sensitivity to surface defects.
• Can detect defects in multilayer structures upto 14
layers.
• Accurate conductivity measurements.
What are the disadvantage of eddy current
11 K1 CO3
inspection method
• Only electrically conductive materials can be
inspected.
• It will not detect, defects parallel to surfaces.
• Signal interpretation is required.
 11.PART B QUESTIONS

SL. K CO
Question and Answers
NO LVEL

1 Illustrate with suitable sketch about types of K3 CO3

thermography.

2 Explain the principle of thermography testing by passive K2 CO3

approach and active approach in detail.

3. Explain the method of pulsed thermography with K2 CO3

suitable sketches.

4. Explain the principle of lock in thermography and briefly K2 CO3

describe with suitable diagrams.

5. Explain with suitable sketches the working of vibro K2 CO3

thermography
Explain the principle of eddy current with suitable
6. K2 CO3
sketches.

Explain the different types of eddy current probes on the

7 K2 CO3
basis of mode of operation

Explain the different types of eddy current probes on the

8. K2 CO3
basis of applications.

Explain the procedure of detection of surface breaking

9 K2 CO3
cracks by eddy current testing

Explain the procedure involved in fatigue crack detection

10. K2 CO3
and corrosion detection using eddy current testing.

41
12. SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

SL.
COURSE NAME Agency LINK
NO

https://www.lavender-
Lavender ndt.com/courses-

1. Eddy Current Level 2 training Internati services/courses/eddy-

onal current-testing-welds-
level-2/

https://www.udemy.com
Ultrasonic Testing level 1
2. UDEMY /course/ultrasonic-
Training
testing-level-1-training/

https://www.udemy.com
/course/non-
Non-Destructive Hard Surface
3. UDEMY destructive-hard-
Modeling in Blender
surface-modeling-in-
blender/

https://www.asnt.org/M
ajorSiteSections/Certific
4. Non Destructive Testing Level II ASNT
ation/AppStart?pt=n2&s
t=new

TRINITY https://www.trinityndt.c
5. NDT Online certification course
NDT om/training_lpt.php

https://swayam.gov.in/n
Theory and Practice of Non SWAYAM
6. d1_noc20_mm07/previe
Destructive Testing NPTEL
w

42
 13. REAL TIME APPLICATION IN INDUSTRY
• Surface inspection is used extensively in the aerospace
industry in the detection of paint coating thickness,
conductivity measurements

Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw detector
and a calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the direction of the lift-off
signal is established. The location of the signal is marked on the screen as the probe
is placed on the calibration specimen in areas of decreasing coating thickness. When
the probe is placed on the test surface, the position of the signal will move from the
air null position to a point that can be correlated to the calibration markings.

• Petrochemical industry in detection of pipe thickness.

Assessing the condition of pipework and pressure vessels beneath insulation can be
advantageous to plant operators. We apply Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) technology to
penetrate insulation and coating layers that are not magnetic and do not conduct
electricity. We also use PEC technology to inspect and examine the low alloyed carbon
steel substrate underneath metallic weather proofing sheeting and corrosion
products. This approach allows our experts to easily and precisely test, inspect,
measure and monitor the actual condition of your assets.

• Automobile industry

The eddy current technology is usually used to detect aero-engine blade cracks, bolts,
cracks in the screw holes, multi-layer structure of the aircraft, landing gear, wheels
and aluminum skin as the main NDT non destructive testing methods.

43
 14.CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
This geophysical NDT method sends radar pulses through the surface of a material or
subsurface structure, such as rock, ice, water or soil. The waves are reflected or
refracted when they encounter a buried object or material boundary with different
electromagnetic properties.

GPR operates by transmitting short pulses of electromagnetic energy into the

ground. The reflected images of these pulses are analyzed using one-dimensional
electromagnetic wave propagation theory. These pulses are reflected back to the
antenna with amplitudes and arrival times that are related to the dielectric constants of
the material layers. Across the interfaces, part of the energy is reflected and part is
absorbed, depending on the dielectric contrast of the materials.

GPR is a nondestructive field test that can provide a continuous profile of

existing road conditions. GPR can utilize high-speed data collection at speeds up to 50
mph, thus requiring less traffic control and resulting in greater safety. GPR has the
potential to be used for a variety of pavement applications, including:

• measuring the thickness of asphalt pavement, base and sub-grade

• assisting in the analysis of rutting mechanisms

• calculating and verifying material properties

• locating subsurface objects

• detecting stripping and/or layer separation

• detecting subsurface moisture

• determining depth to near-surface bedrock and peat deposits

Link

https://youtu.be/aP9z2fuiW88

https://youtu.be/EX5Ncqd7ni4
 15.ASSESMENT SCHEDULE

S.No ASSESMENT PROPOSEDDATE ACTUAL DATE

1 FIAT 1 25-9-2021 25-9-2021

2 SIAT 2 30-10-21 30-10-21

 16.Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

S.NO TITLE OF BOOKS AUTHOR PUBLICATION

1 Practical Non Destructive Testing Baldev Raj Narosa Publishing

T.Jaykumar House
M.Thavasimuthu
2. Non Destructive Testing Ravi Prakash New Age Science
Techniques Publication
3. NDT Hand BookVol.1&3 ASNT Committee American Society
of Non Destructive
Test.
4 ASME Sec-II,V,VIII,X ASME Committee American Society
of Mechanical
Engineers
5 Handbook of Nondestructive Charles, J. Hellier McGraw Hill
evaluation

Reference links

https://www.slideshare.net/markkerry974/applications-of-eddy-current-testing-44337254
https://www.zetec.com/products/eddy-current/
https://www.bluestarindia.com/e-e/ndt-products/products/flaw-detectors/eddy-current-
flaw-detectors
https://www.nde-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Other%20Methods/IRT/IR_Intro.php
https://www.bindt.org/What-is-NDT/Thermography/
https://www.opgal.com/thermography-ndt-testing/
https://www.radicalindia.com/thermographic-non-destructive-testing.php
https://www.intechopen.com/books/advances-in-structural-health-
monitoring/applications-of-infrared-thermography
https://www.olympus-ims.com/en/eddycurrenttesting/
https://www.mme-group.com/non-destructive-testing/eddy-current-testing/

You Tube Links:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mumf8VchVJw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DTTn98ZLAzc&t=116s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oriFJByl6Hs&t=478s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g0EUCkKlDb0
 17.MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS
1. Inspecting of surface cracks/discontinuities in ferrite materials.
2. Determination of pipe thickness and coating measurements
3. Contactless Eddy Braking System
4.Eddy current experiment with magnet thread spinner
5.Conductivity measurent in bronze material using eddy current.
 Thank you

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