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1.1 Introduction to Cells 

Wednesday, September 14, 2022  12:07 PM 

Cell Theory 
The cell theory states that: 
1. All Living organisms are composed of cells (or cell products) 
2. The cell is the smallest unit of life 
3. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells 
 
 
1.  All Living organisms are composed of cells (or cell products) 
 
• Specialized structures within the cells (Organelles) carry out the variable functions. These
organelles cannot survive alone. 
 
2. The cell is the smallest unit of life 
• Cells are the smallest unit of life. They are the smallest structures capable of surviving on
their own. 
•  
3. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells 
• Cells multiply through division 
• All life evolved from simpler 
ancestors  
• Mitosis results in genetically identical 
diploid daughter cells 
• Meiosis generates haploid gametes 
(sex cells) 
Cells come from pre-existing cells and cannot be created from non-living material. For example,
new cells arise from cell division and a zygote (the very first cell formed when an organism is
produced) arises from the fusion of an egg cell and a sperm cell.  
 
Exceptions for Cell Theory 
Straited muscles cells: 
• Challenges the idea that a cell has one nucleus. 
• Muscle  e cells have more than one nucleus per cell 
• Muscle Cells called fibers can be very long (300mm) 
• They are surrounded by a single plasma membrane but they are multi-nucleated (many nuclei). 
• This does not conform to the standard view of a small single nuclei within a cell. 
  

 
 
Aseptate Fungal Hyphae 
• Challenges the idea that a cell is a single unit. 
• Fungal hyphae are again very large with many nuclei and a continuous cytoplasm. 
• The tubular system of hyphae form dense networks called mycelium. 
• Like muscle cells they are multi-nucleated . 
• They have cell walls composed of chitin.  
• The cytoplasm is continuous along the hyphae with no end cell wall or membrane. 
 
Magnification & Scale 
Magnification is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object: 

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The instrument used for magnification is a microscope. There are two different kinds of microscopes,
Light microscope and Electron microscope. 
  

 
 
Difference between Light and Electron Microscopy  

Surface Area to Volume Ratio 

• For cells to survive, metabolic reactions must be occurring, these reactions depend on: 
• Materials constantly being exchanged across the plasma membrane 
• The volume/mass of cytoplasm (as this is where the reactions take place) 
• As organisms increase in size their SA:V ratio decreases 
• There is less surface area for the absorption of nutrients and gases and secretion of
waste products 
• The greater volume results in a longer diffusion distance to the cells and tissues of
the organism 
• Thus the rate at which substances (e.g. oxygen and heat) are exchanged across the plasma
membrane is dependent on the surface area (the larger the surface area the more
substances are exchanged) 
• The rate at which a cell metabolizes is dependent on the mass/volume of the cytoplasm
(the larger the mass/volume the longer it takes for metabolic reactions to occur) 
Limitations to cell size 
• Single-celled organisms have a high SA:V ratio which allows for the exchange of substances to
occur via simple diffusion 
• The large surface area allows for maximum absorption of nutrients and gases and
secretion of waste products 
• The small volume means the diffusion distance to all organelles is short 
• A consequence of the SA:V ratio is that cells cannot grow bigger indefinitely. Once the ratio
becomes too small, growth must stop and the cells must divide 
• To overcome this, large multicellular animals and plants have evolved adaptations to facilitate
the exchange of substances between their environment 
• They have a large variety of specialized cells, tissues, organs and systems 
• E.g. gas exchange system, circulatory system, lymphatic system, urinary system, xylem
and phloem 

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Stem Cells 
• There are four main types of stem cells present at various stages of human
development: 
Totipotent – Can form any cell type, as well as extra-embryonic (placental) tissue (e.g.
zygote) 
Pluripotent – Can form any cell type (e.g. embryonic stem cells) 
Multipotent – Can differentiate into a number of closely related cell types (e.g.
hematopoietic adult stem cells) 
Unipotent – Cannot differentiate, but are capable of self-renewal (e.g. progenitor cells,
muscle stem cells) 

Uses of stem Cell 

• Stem cells are necessary for embryonic development as they are an undifferentiated
cell source from which all other cell types may be derived. 
• Cell types that are not capable of self-renewal (e.g. amitotic nerve tissues) are
considered to be non-stem cells. 
• As these tissues cannot be regenerated or replaced, stem cells have become a viable
therapeutic option when these tissues become damaged. 
Stem Cell Therapy   
Stem cells can be used to replace damaged or diseased cells with healthy, functioning
ones 
This process requires: 
▪ The use of biochemical solutions to trigger the differentiation of stem cells into the
desired cell type 
▪ Surgical implantation of cells into the patient’s own tissue 
▪ Suppression of host immune system to prevent rejection of cells (if stem cells are
from foreign source) 
▪ Careful monitoring of new cells to ensure they do not become cancerous 
 

 
Examples of Stem Cell Therapy 
1.  Stargardt’s Disease 
▪ An inherited form of juvenile macular degeneration that causes progressive vision
loss to the point of blindness 
▪ Caused by a gene mutation that impairs energy transport in retinal photoreceptor
cells, causing them to degenerate 
▪ Treated by replacing dead cells in the retina with functioning ones derived from
stem cells 

 
2.  Parkinson’s Disease 
▪ A degenerative disorder of the central nervous system caused by the death of
dopamine-secreting cells in the midbrain 
▪ Dopamine is a neurotransmitter responsible for transmitting signals involved in the
production of smooth, purposeful movements 
▪ Consequently, individuals with Parkinson’s disease typically exhibit tremors,
rigidity, slowness of movement and postural instability 
▪ Treated by replacing dead nerve cells with living, dopamine-producing ones 

 
3.  Other Therapeutic Examples 
▪ Leukemia:  Bone marrow transplants for cancer patients who are
immunocompromised as a result of chemotherapy 
▪ Paraplegia:  Repair damage caused by spinal injuries to enable paralysed victims
to regain movement 
▪ Diabetes:  Replace non-functioning islet cells with those capable of producing
insulin in type I diabetics 
▪ Burn victims:  Graft new skin cells to replace damaged tissue 
 

 
Examples of Therapeutic Stem Cell Use 

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Stem cells can be derived from one of three sources: 
▪ Embryos (may be specially created by therapeutic cloning) 
▪ Umbilical cord blood or placenta of a new-born baby 
▪ Certain adult tissues like the bone marrow (cells are not pluripotent)  
 

 
The ethical considerations associated with the therapeutic use of stem cells will depend
on the source 
▪ Using multipotent adult tissue may be effective for certain conditions, but is limited
in its scope of application 
▪ Stem cells derived from umbilical cord blood need to be stored and preserved at
cost, raising issues of availability and access 
▪ The greatest yield of pluripotent stem cells comes from embryos, but requires the
destruction of a potential living organism 
 

 
Artificial Stem Cell Techniques 
Stem cells can be artificially generated via nuclear transfer or nuclear reprogramming,
with distinct benefits and disadvantages 
▪ Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT):  
▪ Involves the creation of embryonic clones by fusing a diploid nucleus with an
enucleated egg cell (therapeutic cloning) 
▪ More embryos are created by this process than needed, raising ethical
concerns about the exigency of excess embryos 
 

 
▪ Nuclear reprogramming: 
▪ Induce a change in the gene expression profile of a cell in order to transform
it into a different cell type (trans differentiation)  
▪ Involves the use of oncogenic retroviruses and transgenes, increasing the risk
of health consequences (i.e. cancer) 
 

 
 
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Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell. 
• Metabolism: the web of all the enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a cell or organism, e.g.
respiration. 
• Response: Living things can respond to and interact in their environment. . 
• Homeostasis: The maintenance and regulation of internal cell conditions, e.g. water and pH. 
• Growth: Living things can grow or change size shape. 
• Excretion: the removal of metabolic waste. 
• Reproduction: Living things produce offspring either sexually or asexually. 
• Nutrition – feeding by either the synthesis of organic molecules (e.g. photosynthesis) or the
absorption of organic matter. 
MR H GREN 

How Unicellular organism shows the characteristics of living organism. 

 

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