MIME 422 Mine Ventilation

Section 7: Mine gases and dust

Agus P Sasmito
Section 7: Gases and dust (McPherson Chapter 11, 12, 19, 20)
• Oxygen requirement
• Methane and explosibility
• Diesel emission
• Other gases: CO2, CO, SO2, NOx, H2S, H2
• Gas detection and monitoring
• Mine dust
• Threshold limit values for gases and dust
• Dust aerodynamics
Learning outcomes in Section 7
• Explain required oxygen level in underground mine
• Describe methane emission and explosibility diagram. Discuss various methane control in underground coal mine. Calculate airflow requirement for methane
dilution with regard to local regulations.
• Describe the effect of diesel emission in underground mine and calculate airflow requirement based on rated diesel power according to local regulations.
• Explain the significance of the presence of mine gases, e.g. CO2, CO, SO2, NOx, H2S, H2.
• Describe method and equipment for gas detection and monitoring.
• Explain the importance of dust control and its effect in health and production.
• Discuss various dust control strategies.
• Recall the threshold limit values for mine gases and dust.
• Solve and calculate dust aerodynamic problem using Stoke’s law 2
Mine gases
• When air enters , typically the volume composition 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen and 1% other gases on a moisture-free basis.
• As air flows through underground opening, the composition changes.
• The mining of subsurface structures allows any gases that exist in the
surrounding strata to escape into the ventilating airstream. Such strata
gases have been produced over geological time and remain trapped within
the pores or fracture networks of the rock. Methane and carbon dioxide
are commonly occurring strata gases. In coal mines, methane is the main
impurity which cause accident.
• a large number of chemical reactions may cause changes in the
composition of mine air. Oxidation processes reduce the percentage of
oxygen and will often cause the evolution of carbon dioxide or sulphur
dioxide. The action of acid mine water on sulphide minerals may produce
the characteristic odour of hydrogen sulphide while the burning of fuels or
the use of explosives produce a range of gaseous pollutants.
• Gases from diesel emission also reduce air composition and thus quality

3
 Mine gases: oxygen
Oxygen content depleted along
the mining:
• Miners to breathe
• For combustion reaction in
diesel engine
• Minerals oxidation, especially in
coal and sulphide ores.

When there is fire, oxygen

content can deplete fast and
cause severe effect to miners
4
Concentration threshold
• Threshold limit values (TL V s) of airborne substances refer to those
concentrations within which personnel may be exposed without
known adverse effects to their health or safety.
• The time weighted average (TWA) is the average concentration to
which nearly all workers may be exposed over an 8 h shift and a 40 h
work week without known adverse effects.
• The short-term exposure limit (STEL) is a time-weighted average
concentration occurring over a period of not more than 15 min.
• The ceiling limit is the concentration that should not be exceeded at
any time.
5
Mine gases: Methane
• It is produced by bacterial and chemical reaction on organic materials
which evolved during the formation of coal and petroleum and one of
the common strata gas.
• It is non-toxic but flammable and explosive when mix with air.
• Methane is commonly found in coal mine; but also often found in
other types of subsurface opening that are underlain or overlain with
carbonaceous or oil-bearing strata.
• Since methane density is lower than air, it can form pools or layers
along the roof of underground opening which may trigger explosion
when there is any ignition.

6
Mine gases: Methane
• Methane combustion in rich air
supply will produce carbondioxide
CH 4 +2O 2 → 2H 2O+CO 2

• Methane combustion in insufficient

oxygen supply will produce
carbonmonoxide which is poisonous

CH 4 +3O 2 → 4H 2 O+2CO

Explosibility diagram of methane

7
 Methane emission from mines
• Methane specific emission is defined as
ratio between methane gas volume
emitted in working place and coal mass
that has been mined
• Low: 0 – 2 m3/ton, e.g. Tineo coalfields
• Medium: 2 – 5 m3/ton, e.g. Siero coalfields
• High: 5 – 10 m3/ton, e.g. Langreo coalfields
• Very high: 10 – 15 m3/ton, e.g. Aller
coalfields

R. Rodríguez, C. Lombardía / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 25 (2010) 456–468

8
Explossibility
• Lower explosion limit of
methane-air mixtures, which
under normal conditions is
4.4% CH4
• US law regulate maximum
methane concentration of 3%
or greater than 20% with
oxygen concentration less
than 10%
• In Germany, max allowable
methane concentration is
1%, UK, Canada 1.25%,
France 2%, Spain 2.5%

K. Noack, International Journal of Coal Geology 35 (1998) 57–82

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Methane control
• Before excavation: Pre-drainage
• During excavation: Fresh air
ventilation, water spray, inert
ventilation, scrubber ventilation
• After excavation: inertisation,
post-drainage
• Lean air-methane mixture can
be collected in the surface and K. Noack, International Journal of Coal Geology 35 (1998) 57–82

utilized for catalytic combustion

to produce energy

10
Typical ventilation
Longwall Room and pillar

Mining rate (shearer) ~ 5000 t/h
Typical length 300 – 1000 m
Typical ventilation: blowing-exhausting,
water spray, air curtain
Mining rate (road header) ~ 1000 t/h
Typical room size: 4 x 6 m to 24 x 18 m
Typical ventilation: stopping, brattice,
blowing, curtain, exhausting,
water spray

http://accessscience.com/content/Coal%20mining/143500 11
http://www.youtube.com/user/miningnova4#p/search/4/bnY2lThC9H4
Continuous miner face ventilation
• Blowing ventilation with additional
fan
• Exhausting ventilation with
additional fan
• Brattice ventilation
• Ventilation with additional scrubber
• Combination of above

12
NIOSH Guidelines for the Control and Monitoring of Methane Gas on Continuous Mining Operations
Mine gases: carbon dioxide, CO2
• CO2 comes from strata
emission, oxidation of
carbocenous materials,
combustion engines, blasting,
fires, explosions and respiration.
• Stagnant mixtures of air in
sealed off areas often hace an
increased concentration of CO2,
and decreased in oxygen, called
blackdamp
• CO2 density is heavier than air,
typically accumulates in mining
floor
13
 Mine gases: carbon monoxide, CO
• The high toxicity of carbon
monoxide coupled with its lack of
smell, taste or colour make this
one of the most dangerous and
insidious of mine gases.
• It has a density very close to that
of air and mixes readily into an
airstream unless it has been
heated by involvement in a fire, in
which case it may layer with smoke
along the roof.
• CO is typically a product from
incomplete combustion
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Mine gases: Sulphur dioxide, SO2
• Toxic gas.
• Fortunately can be detected at very low concentrations both by its
acidic taste and the intense burning sensation it causes to the eyes
and respiratory tracts. The latter are a result of the high solubility of
the gas in water to form sulphurous acid

15
Mine gases: Oxides of Nitrogen, NOx
• Three oxides of nitrogen are Nitric
oxide, NO, nitrous oxide,N20, and
nitrogen dioxide, NO2.
• They are formed in internal
combustion engines and by
blasting.
• Nitrogen dioxide is the most toxic
of these oxides of nitrogen.
• These acids cause irritation and, at • The immediate treatment for
higher concentrations, corrosive nitrogen dioxide poisoning is the
effects on the eyes and respiratory
system administration of oxygen,
immobility and warmth.
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 Mine gases: Hydrogen sulphide, H2S
• The presence of this highly toxic gas is
readily detected by its characteristic smell
of bad eggs.
• Hydrogen sulphide has a narcotic effect
on the nervous system including paralysis
of the olfactory nerves. Hence, after a
short exposure, the sense of smell can no
longer be relied on.
• It is produced by acidic action or the
effects of heating on sulphide ores. It is
formed naturally by the bacterial or
chemical decomposition of organic
compounds and may often be detected
close to stagnant pools of water in
underground mines.

17
Mine gases: Hydrogen, H2
• Although non-toxic, hydrogen is the most explosive of all the mine
gases. It burns with a blue flame and has the wide flammable range of
4% to 74.2% in air.
• Hydrogen can be ignited at a temperature as low as 580°C, and with
an ignition energy about half of that required by methane.
• Dangerous accumulations of hydrogen may occur at locations where
battery charging is in progress.
• Hydrogen has a density only some 0.07 that of air. It will, therefore,
tend to rise to the roof. Battery charging stations should be located in
intake air with a duct at roof level that connects into a return airway
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Mine gases: Radon, Rn
• This chemically inert gas is one of the elements formed during
radioactive disintegration of the uranium series.
• Although its presence is most serious in uranium mines, it may be
found in many other types of underground openings. Indeed,
seepages of radon from the ground into the basements of surface
buildings have been known to create a serious health hazard.
• Radon emanates from the rock matrix or from ground water that has
passed over radioactive minerals. It has a half-life of 3.825 days and
emits alpha radiation.
• It is associated with a high incidence of lung cancer.

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Threshold limits for mine gases

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Mine gases: diesel emissions
• Nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur
dioxide, diesel particulate matter, water vapour.
• The actual magnitude and composition of diesel exhausts are governed by
the engine design, quality of maintenance, exhaust treatment units, rating
for altitude and skill of the operator.
• Catalytic converters cause the exhaust gases to filter through granulated
oxidizing agents. These can successfully convert up to 90% of the carbon
monoxide and 50% of unburned fuel to carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Sulphur dioxide may be partially converted to sulphu
• Water scrubbers give an improved removal of sulphur dioxide and
particulate matter but do little for carbon monoxide. Engine gas
recirculation (EGR) systems help to reduce the oxides of nitrogen.r trioxide
and appear as vapour of sulphuric acid.

21
Mine gases: diesel emissions
• The diesel particulate matter (DPM) is a combination of soot, unburned
fuel and aldehydes, and is regarded as being the component of diesel
exhaust that is most hazardous to health.
• The DPM particles are typically less than 1 micrometer in diameter. They
are inhaled deep into the lungs and have a high probability of being
retained within the walls of the alveoli.
• The porous or fibrous nature of the soot particles enables them to adsorb a
range of polynuclear and aromatic hydrocarbons, giving diesel smoke its
characteristic greasy feel.
• There is increasing evidence that these have carcinogenic properties
• Exhaust filters assist greatly in the removal of particulate matter.
• The operating advantages of diesel equipment are in direct conflict with
the potentially hazardous nature of exhaust emissions.

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Mine gases: fire
• The predominant cause of loss of life associated with underground fires has
been the gaseous products of combustion.
• Coal mine fires that involve burning of the coal itself are likely to produce
an atmosphere that is deficient in oxygen and may contain carbon dioxide,
methane, carbon monoxide, water vapour and smaller amounts of sulphur
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen.
• Metal mine fires arising from the spontaneous combustion of sulphide ores
will emit products of combustion that are rich in sulphur dioxide and,
possibly, sulphuric acid vapour.
• Fires involving diesel equipment will produce gases from burning diesel oil
and also from any plastic or rubber components that may become heated.
The burning oil itself will emit carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.
• Plastic equipments may produce toxic gases when they are burned 23
Mine gases: explosives
• The concentrations of blasting gases depend on the type, quality and
weight of explosive used, the means of detonation and the psychrometric
condition of the air.
• The degree of confinement also affects the concentrations and time
distribution of the gas emission.
• Firing 'on the solid' produces a sharper and higher peak of blasting fumes
than if a free face were available.
• The oxides of nitrogen are formed mainly as nitric oxide during the
detonation. The rate at which this oxidizes to nitrogen dioxide depends on
the degree to which the blasting fumes are diluted by a ventilating air
current.
• Fumes that are purged from a mine during a re-entry period following
blasting may still contain a significant proportion of nitric oxide when the
pulse of fumes exits the mine.

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Mine gases: Welding
• The constituents of welding fumes can vary widely depending on the
metals or alloys involved, the welding process being utilized and any
fluxes that may be used.
• The fumes contain particles of amorphous slags and oxides of the
metals being welded.
• Arc welding in a local inert atmosphere such as argon will inhibit the
formation of welding fumes but can produce ozone.
• Arc welding within the air can produce copious fumes and carbon
monoxide.

25
Mine gases: gas detection and monitoring
• Filament and catalytic oxidation (pellistor) detectors
• Flame safety lamps
• Thermal conductivity and acoustic gas detector
• Optical methods
• Electrochemical methods
• Mass spectrometers
• Paramagnetic analysers
• Gas chromatography
• Semiconductor detectors
• Stain tubes
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Mine gases: method of sampling
• Manual: time and locations are sampled manually by miners
• Automatic and remote monitors:
• Modern control using PLC or DCS
• No need for miners to check regularly
• Can be remotely monitor from surface
• Useful to monitor during, e.g. blasting, accidents etc

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Mine dusts
• Mineral dusts are formed whenever rock is broken by impact,
abrasion, crushing, cutting, grinding or explosives.
• The fragments that are formed are usually irregular in shape. The
large total surface area of dust particles may render them more active
physically, chemically and biologically than the parent material. This
has an important bearing on the ability of certain dusts to produce
lung diseases.
• Respiratory problems caused by dust are among the oldest of
industrial ailments, pneumoconiosis (black lung) were common
disease in coal workers.

28
Mine dusts: size
• Mine dusts vary widely in shape,
dependent largely upon the
prevalent mineral constituents.
• Particle is not visible in the naked
eye, until they are more than 10
micron equivalent diameter.
• Harmful dusts are typically
inviscible and have very low
settling velocity, remain
suspended in the air.

29
Mine dusts: physiological effect
• Toxic dusts: poisonous to body tissue or to specific organs. Some
metalliferous ores fall into this category. The most hazardous include
compounds of arsenic, lead, uranium and other radioactive minerals,
mercury, cadmium, selenium, manganese, tungsten, silver and nickel
• Carcinogenic dusts: The cell mutations that can be caused by alpha,
beta and gamma radiation from decay of the uranium series make
radon daughters the most hazardous of the carcinogenic particulates.
A combination of abrasion of lung tissue and surface chemical action
can result in tumour formation from asbestos fibres and, to a lesser
extent, freshly produced quartz particles. Exposure to arsenic dust
and diesel exhaust particulates can also cause cancers.

30
Mine dusts: physiological effect
• Fibrogenic dusts: The scouring action of many dusts causes microscopic
scarring of lung tissue. If continued over long periods this can produce a
fibrous growth of tissue resulting in loss of lung elasticity and a greatly
reduced area for gas exchange. The silica (quartz, chert) and some silicate
(asbestos, mica, talc) dusts are the most hazardous of the fibrogenic dusts
and may also produce toxic and carcinogenic reactions. Welding fumes and
some metalliferous ores produce fibrogenic dusts. Long and excessive
exposure to coal dusts also gives rise to fibrogenic effects.
• Explosive dusts: These are a concern of safety rather than health. Many
organic materials, including coals other than anthracite, become explosive
when finely divided at high concentrations in air. Sulphide ores and many
metallic dusts are also explosive.
• Nuisance dusts: disturbing the work, irritating to eyes, nose, throat. These
include the evaporative (halite, potash, gypsum) and limestones.

31
Mine dusts: Dust diseases
• Fibrogenic effect: The fibrogenic dusts promote the abnormal
development of fibrous tissue within the alveolar clusters. They may
commence at discrete foci with the fibrous tissue and radiate
outwards to form fibroblasts. These, in turn, can merge into nodules
and conglomerates. The permanent scarring and change in the
alveolar structure can have severe secondary effects. Gas exchange
across the alveolar walls is inhibited and the loss of natural elasticity
can cause a significant reduction in tidal volume. Furthermore, the
production of macrophages is reduced, allowing uncontrolled
accumulations of dust particles to occur in the alveoli.

32
Mine dusts: Dust diseases
• Coal workers' pneumoconiosis: Many dusts, including coal, produce a
low biological response. However, over sufficiently long periods of
exposure a build-up of retained dust occurs in the form of soft
plaques within the lung tissue. These can be observed as small black
spots on chest X-rays. Similar early diagnoses can be made for other
mineral dusts including ores of iron (siderosis), tin (stannosis) and
aluminium (aluminosis). In the case of coal, such indication of coal
workers' pneumoconiosis may not be revealed for some 10 to 15
years after initial employment in coal mines. Furthermore, the
subjects may not be aware of any incapacitance at that time.

33
Mine dusts: Dust diseases
• Silicosis: This is one of the most dangerous of the dust diseases and is
caused by particles of free crystalline silica (quarts, sandstones, flint) but
not by the silicates in clays or fireclay. The hazard is greatest from freshly
produced dust in operations involving mining or comminution of silica-
bearing rocks, or from sandblasting. It is suspected that the more severe
cases of coal workers' pneumoconiosis may be associated with quartz
particles mixed with coal dust.
• Asbestosis: Asbestos is an inorganic mineral fibre composed mainly of
silicate chains. The two common forms of asbestos are chrysotile
containing tough curly fibres, and amphibole with long, straight and brittle
fibres. Asbestos fibres are captured in the respiratory system primarily by
interception and accumulations are most likely to occur at bends and
bifurcations. However, the aerodynamic characteristics of fibres are
determined by their diameter rather than length and long fibres may reach
the alveoli.
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Mine dusts: Threshold limit values

35
Mine dusts: Assessment of airborne dust concentration

• Particle count methods: konimeter, thermal precipitator, computer-

controlled particle analyzer.
• Gravimetric methods:

36
Mine dusts: Assessment of airborne dust concentration
• Photometric (light-scattering) methods: split the beam from a white light
source. Half proceeded through polarizing filters to the eyepiece. The other
half was diverted through a sample chamber where light reflected by the
dust particles was collected and directed to the eyepiece. The filters were
rotated until the two half-beams that were visible simultaneously in the
eyepiece appeared to have the same intensity. The angle of filter rotation
was employed as an indication of the dust concentration
• Personal samplers: lightweight gravimetric devices that attach to the
clothing of individual workers and are powered by the same battery used
for the caplamp. Current personal samplers employ cyclone and filter units.
The pump is switched on before the employee enters the mine and
remains running until the cap lamp is replaced on the charging rack at the
end of the shift. The filter is replaced at that time. The wider employment
of personal samplers not only provides a history of individual exposure to
respirable dust but, coupled with the type of employment of the worker,
also gives a wealth of data for the improvement of dust conditions in
mines.
37
Mine dusts: other forms of dust transport
• Thermophoresis is the migration of particles from a hotter to a cooler
region of gas and is caused by the enhancement of Brownian displacement
at higher temperatures.
• Photophoresis occurs when an intense light beam or laser is employed in a
dusty atmosphere. The absorption of light by the particle causes an uneven
temperature field to exist around that particle. The resulting excitation of
nearby gas molecules causes thermophoresis to occur in a direction that
depends on the induced temperature field around the surface of the
particle.
• Diffusiophoresis: An effect that encourages dust deposition on wet
surfaces.The migration of water vapour molecules away from an
evaporating surface will result in a replacing flux of the more massive air
molecules towards the surface.

38
Mine dusts: Coagulation
• In any concentration of dust particles, collisions between the particles will
occur as a result of Brownian motion, eddy action or differential
sedimentation. Dependent upon the surface properties of any two such
particles, they may adhere together to form a larger single particle. As the
process continues, some particles will grow to the extent that their
terminal velocity becomes significant and they will flocculate out of
suspension.
• This phenomenon of coagulation is influenced by the number and size
distribution of the particles (large particles are more likely to be struck by
other particles), temperature and pressure of the air (governing Brownian
displacements) and electrical charge distributions. The shape of the
particles and the presence of adsorbed vapours on their surfaces will also
affect the probability of their adhering upon collision.

39
Mine dusts: production
• Comminution process: Mineral dusts are formed whenever any rock
is broken by impact, abrasion, crushing, cutting, grinding or
explosives. For any given material, the energy input required to break
the rock is proportional to the new surface area produced. As dust
particles have a large surface area relative to their mass, it follows
that any fragmentation process which produces an excessive amount
of dust involves an inefficient use of energy.
• Mechanized mining: Machines that break rock from the solid have
the potential to be prolific sources of dust. These include long wall
power loaders, continuous miners, roadheaders, tunneling machines,
raise borers and drills.

40
Mine dusts: production
• Support: Crushing of roof and floor strata by roof supports may liberate
significant amounts of dust when the support is moved. This can be a particular
problem on mechanized longwall faces that are equipped with powered hydraulic
supports. As setting and yield loads of the supports increase so, also, does the
amount of dust produced. The repeated lowering and raising of these supports
can give a near-continuous source of dust on longwall faces. Unless roof coal is
left, this may be high in quartz content. The effect can be minimized by using
wide-web roof beams or cushioning materials. Sheets of flexible material linking
adjacent canopies have also been used to mitigateagainst roof dust.
• Blasting: Drill and blast remains the predominant method of mining in metal
(hardrock) mines. The peak concentrations of dust and gases (section 11.3.4) that
are produced by the larger blasts are usually too high to be diluted effectively by
the normal ventilating airflow. This necessitates the mine, or part of the mine,
being evacuated of personnel for a re-entry period during and after the blast. The
length of the re-entry period can vary from half an hour to several hours for
stoping areas, dependent upon the layout of the ventilation network and the
velocities of the air. This is a classical example of isolating personnel from the
dust.
41
Mine dusts: production
• Loading operations: This is another part of some mining cycles that can produce
a great deal of dust whether the loading operations are carried out by slushers,
load-haul-dump (LHD) vehicles or loading machines in headings. The dust arises
from a combination of particles produced previously from the mining process and
held within the muckpile, and those that are generated by further comminution
during loading.
• Transportation and crushing: Dust is produced throughout most mineral
transportation arrangements, including conveyors, transfer points, bunkers, skips,
airlocks and vehicular traffic. Dust on the surfaces of conveyors may be re-
entrained into the air because of vibration of the belt as it passes over rollers.
Spillage returning on the bottom belt, if not cleared, will generate dust as the
material is crushed against rollers. Similarly, an excessive use of water can result
in dust adhering to the belt surface. This may subsequently be deposited under
the conveyor during the return journey of the bottom belt. Belt scraper devices
or brushes at the drive heads should be properly maintained and all
accumulations of debris or dust should regularly be cleaned from under the
conveyor and at return rollers. Conveyor structure should be inspected routinely
and attention paid to damaged idlers and centring devices.
42
Mine dusts: production
• Workshops: Aerosols produced in underground workshops are likely
to occur as oil mists, diesel particulate matter and welding fumes. The
latter may be handled by exhaust hoods extracting air from welding
bays and directing it into a return airway. Indeed, all of the airflows
through workshops should, preferably, pass into return airways.
• Quartz dust in coal mines: roof and floor strata usually have a much
higher quartz content than the coal seam. Hence any fragmentation
of those strata will cause emissions of quartz dust. This can occur by
rock-winning machines cutting into the roof or floor, cross-measures
drilling for roof-bolting or other purposes, development drivages out
of the seam or exceeding the height of the seam, hydraulic roof
supports and fracturing of roof or floor strata.
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Mine dusts: control
• Suppression: the prevention of dust becoming airborne.
• Pick face flushing and jet-assisted cutting, Water infusion, Wetting agent,
foams and roadway consolidation
• Filtration and scrubbing: the removal of dust from the air.
• Water spray, Wet scruber, dry filters and separators, cylicrical cyclone,
electrostatic precipitators; personal respirators
• Dilution by airflow: reducing dust concentration
• Auxiliary fan, brattice etc
• Isolation: separation of personnel from the higher concentrations of
dust.
• Air curtain, barriers

44
45
46
Mine dusts: aerodynamics
• The very large size range of dust particles that exist in the ventilation
system of an active mine results in a variety of differing phenomena
influencing the behaviour of the particles mines.
• The smallest particles act almost as a gas and react to molecular
forces while the larger particles are influenced primarily by inertial
and gravitational effects.
• Forces acts to the dust particles: gravitational settlement, molecular,
diffusion, turbulent or eddy diffusion, coagulation, impingement, re-
entrainment.

47
Mine dusts: aerodynamics
• Gravitational settlement: The rate at which a particle falls through air
under the action of gravity depends not only on the size and density
of the particle but also on its shape. The concept of an equivalent
geometric diameter based on projected area was introduced. The
majority of analyses in this subject assume that each particle is a
homogeneous sphere. Definitions of equivalent diameter
• Stokes' diameter, the diameter of a sphere that has same density as the actual
particle and falls through air at the same rate;
• aerodynamic diameter, the diameter of a sphere of density 1 g/cm3 that falls
through air at the same rate as the actual particle.

48
Mine dusts: aerodynamics
• Stokes' law and terminal velocities: When any body is suspended in a
fluid, at least two forces act upon it. One is the weight of the body
within the prevailing gravitational field
• The sphere diameter is 1 3
d
6

• The particles weight 1

 s d 3 g
6
• The uphtrust force 1
 a d 3 g
6
• The net force 1 3
 d g ( s − a )
6
• The drag force
u2
drag = CD Ab  a
2
49
Mine dusts: aerodynamics
• Stokes' law and terminal velocities: When any body is suspended in a
fluid, at least two forces act upon it. One is the weight of the body
within the prevailing gravitational field
24 24 a
• The drag coefficient D C = =
Re  a ud
• The drag becomes drag = 3a ud
• As particle accelerates downwards, its
velocity increases until the drag equals to
downward forces
1 3
 d g (  s −  a ) = 3a ud
6
• The velocity of fall becomes constant at
point of dynamics equilibrium, terminal
velocity
d 2 g ( s − a )
ut =
18a 50
Mine dusts: aerodynamics
• Stoke’s law has good accuracy for particles size bigger than 5 micron.
• The upper limit of Stokes' law occurs at a Reynolds' number, Re, of
about 0.1 which, for many mineral particles falling at their terminal
velocity through air, is equivalent to geometric diameters of
approximately 20 micron.
• For larger particles at their terminal velocity is calculated by

1 3  d 2 ut
 d g (  s −  a ) = CD a
6 4 2

4 dg (  s −  a )
ut =
3 CD  a

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Mine dusts: aerodynamics
• Stokes' law applies to dust particles that are large in comparison with
the mean free path of the gas molecules ~ 0.0652 micrometer.
• When particle diameters fall below 5 μm, the effect of slippage
becomes significant.
• In order to extend the applicability of Stokes' law, a correction factor,
Cc can be introduced to reduce the calculated value of drag.
3a ud
drag =
Cc
9.56 10−8
Cc = 1.045
+ 0.99
d
d 2 g (  s −  a ) Cc
ut =
18a 52
Mine dusts: aerodynamics - example
• Determine the terminal velocities and time taken for particles of
geometric equivalent diameter 0.1, 1, 10 and 100 microns to fall a
distance of 2 m, through air of density Pa = 1.1 kg/m3 and dynamic
viscosity, μa = 18 X 10- 6 N s/m2 . The density of the dust material is
2000 kg/m3.
Look for Cc value from Table and diameter
d 2 g (  s −  a ) Cc 0.1, 1 and 10 can directly use the
ut =
18a equation
d 2 g (  s −  a ) Cc
ut =
18a
ut = 6.052 107 d 2Cc

53
Mine dusts: aerodynamics - example
• For particle size of 100 μm, which is bigger than 20 μm, the slip
correction is not needed. In addition, the correlation for CD need to
be checked according to Re number. Here, we need to estimate the
terminal velocity, for which we assume to be 0.605 m/s
 a dut
Re = = 3.7
a
Look to the table for corresponding CD correlation
24
CD = 1 + 0.15 Re0.687  = 8.882
Re
4 dg (  s −  a )
ut = = 0.517
3 CD  a
t = l / ut
iterate until it converge
54
Mine dusts: aerodynamics – Brownian motion
• For very small particles, the bombardment by fluid molecules is no
longer balanced on all sides. The result is that the particles undergo
random and jerky displacements known as Brownian motion.
As Brownian movements are random, it is necessary to analyse their
effect statistically on a complete population of particles.
• We can then quantify Brownian motion in terms of mean-square
displacement, x2.
MR Cc
x =2
2
T t
A 3 d
at T = 293K,  = 1.79 10-6
Cc t
x = 6.925 10−9
d 55
Mine dusts: aerodynamics – Brownian diffusivity
• A consequence of random Brownian displacements is that migration
of particles will occur from regions of higher to lower dust
concentrations. We can describe the process as a form of diffusion
and obeying Fick's law
dc
N b = Db x = 2 Dbt =
2 2MRT Cc
t
dx A 3 d x = 2 Dbt
x
N b = c
t 2MRT Cc
x dc Db =
c = Db A 3 d
t dx
For air at 20 C, MR/A=1.38110-23
xdx = Db dt
−17 Cc
Db = 2.398 10
x2 d
= Dbt 56
2
Mine dusts: aerodynamics – Eddy diffusion
• A larger influence is exerted on dust particles by the turbulent nature of
the airflow.
• The total rate of diffusion by both Brownian action and eddies is given by
combining equations
dc
N e =  Db
dx

dc
N = N b + N e = ( Db +  )
dx

u 
y* = y
2f 
57