BIMA Solva

Bima Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 3(1) July, 2019.
ISSN: 2536-6041
Vol. 3. No. 1 ISSN: 2536-6041 July/August, 2019
Grand Patron
Prof. Ibrahim Musa Umar OON
Vice Chancellor, Gombe State University P.M.B. 127 Tudun Wada Street Gombe
Editor-In-Chief
Dr. Elisha Karu: Department of Chemistry
email: elishakaru@yahoo.com or ekaru@gsu.edu.ng
Phone No. +234 8023620311 or +234 8096652270
Editorial Secretary
Dr. Aliyu Babale: Department of Biological Sciences
email: aliyubabale@gsu.edu.ng or aliyubabale64@gmail.com
Phone No. +234 7035695931
EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr. E. Karu Department of Chemistry, Gombe State University
Prof. E. C. Ashano Department of Geology, University of Jos.
Prof. M. D. Muhktar Depart of Microbiology, Bayero University Kano.
Prof. S. Ibrahim Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Dr. G. Sa’idu Department of Chemistry, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna.
Dr. Yakubu Dan Department of Geography, Gombe State University, Gombe.
Dr. Danladi M. Umar Department of Biological Sciences, Gombe State University, Gombe.
Dr. Adamu Wakili Department of Mathematical Sciences, Federal University Lokoja
Dr. Seydou Hankaraou Department of Physics, Gombe State University, Gombe.
Dr. Aliyu Babale Department of Biological Sciences, Gombe State University
Correspondence Address: Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, P.M.B. 127, Tudun wada
Street Gombe, Gombe State, Nigeria. bimajonscigsu@gsu.edu.ng or aliyubabale64@gmail.com
i
Bima Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 3(1) July, 2019. ISSN: 2536-6041
Associate Editors
Prof. M. D. Mukhtar, Department of Microbiology, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria
Prof. F. Tahir, Department of of Microbiology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Bauchi,
Nigeria
Prof. H. M. Chapman, School of Biological Science, University of Canterbury, New Zealand
Prof. J. Harden, School of Biological Science, University of Canterbury, New Zealand
Prof. Y. Y. Deeni, School of Science, Engineering and Technology Abertay University, Bell Sheet,
Dundee DDI IHG, Scotland.
Prof. T. I. Oyeyi, Department of Biological Sciences, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria
Dr. M. B. Yerima, Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Federal University Dutse,
Nigeria
Prof. J. M. Mawak, Department of Microbiology, University of Jos, Nigeria
Prof. J. B. Kaltho, Department of Urban and Regional planning, Faculty of Environmental
Technology, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria
Dr. E. S. Amadi, Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria
Prof. J. O. Olayetan, Department of Biological Sciences, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria
Prof. J. T. Barminas, Dept of Chemistry, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola,
Nigeria
Prof. N. Rabiu, Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
Prof. I. O. C. Ekejiuba, Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University,
Awka, Nigeria.
Prof. M. A. Abduazeez, Department of Physics, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Bauchi,
Nigeria.
ii
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Bima Journal of Science and Technology is produced at Gombe State University, Nigeria
and contains papers documenting research in natural and applied Sciences. Financial and
Technical support from the Vice Chancellor is gratefully appreciated.
iii
Editorial
Science and Technology have progressed significantly since the establishment of universities and
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building on the work of all those involved in creating Bima Journal of Science and Technology
and guiding its development.
Dr. Aliyu Babale Dr. Elisha Karu

Editorial Secretary Editor-In-Chief
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Table of Content
S/N Article Title Page
1 A Survey on the Solvability and Simplicity Status of Permutation Groups 1-8
2 Planktonic Composition of Dadin-Kowa Dam, Gombe State Nigeria 9-16
3 Poliomyelitis, Vaccines and Possible Complete Eradication 17-27
4 Application of Zinc Ferrite Silica Gel Composite Photo-Catalysts for the
Treatment of Textile Effluents 28-36
5 Incidence of Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamase Producers
In Contact Surfaces of Meat and Meat Products Vendors in Kano Metropolis 37-47
6 Full Factorial Analysis of Parameters Used for Crude Oil Cleanup From
Contaminated Soil Using Zncl2 Based Deep Eutectic Solvent (Des) As Solvent 48-55
7 Analysis of Some Physicochemical Properties of Effluents and Raw Water from
Challawa Textile Industry, Kano State, Nigeria 56-63
8 Appraisal of Drainage Conditions and Flood Frequency in Calabar, Nigeria 64-75
9 Effect of Variations of Physicochemical Parameters Among Selected Fish Ponds
In Gombe State, Nigeria 76-86
10 Extraction and Identification of Reducing Sugars in Azanza garckeana Fruit 87-95
11 Isolation and Structure Elucidation of Ipolamiide from the Stem Bark of
Stachytarpheta angustifolia Mill Vahl (Verbenaceae) 96-107
12 Knowledge, Attitude and Perception of Tertiary Education Students Towards
People Living with HIV/AIDS in Gombe State 108-119
13 Peristaltic Flow of Particle-Fluid Suspension in a Circular Cylindrical Tract 120-139
14 An Assessment of Physicochemical Properties of Drinking Water Sources in
Kashere, Gombe State 140-147
15 External Magnetic Field in Chiral Model of Graphene 148-152
16 Evaluation of Optimum Conditions for the Removal of Selected Heavy Metals
in Tannery Effluents from Nilest Using Carbonised Sweet Dattock Shells 153-164
17 Modeling the Dynamic of Kalare Crime in Gombe Metropolis 165-175
18 Urination as a Case of Hagen-Poiseuille Flow 176-183
19 Aeromagnetic Investigation of Geologic Structures Associated with Gold
Mineralization Along Danja, Northwestern Nigeria 184-195
20 Studies on Fishes Species Diversity of River Hadejia Jigawa State Nigeria 196-203
21 Diversity and Relative Abundance of Fish Species in Gombe Abba River,
Gombe State, Nigeria 204-208
22 Stability of Graphene Surface an Application of Chiral Model 209-212
v
23 Biodiesel Production from Thorn Apple (Datura Metel) Seeds Oil Using NaOH
as Catalyst 213-227
24 A Study of The Phytochemical Constituents in The Leaf Fractions of
Combretum Molle (R.Br. Ex.G.Don) By Gc- Ms Analysis 228-234
25 Evaluation of Anticonvulsant Activity of Ethanol Leaf Extract of Ficus
Sycomorus Linn in Pentylenetetrazole and Strychnine Induced Seizures in Mice 235-243
26 Diplochory in Northern Nigeria: You Can’t Predict Dispersal of Seed by Its
Fruit Size 244-258
vi
A SURVEY ON THE SOLVABILITYAND SIMPLICITY STATUS OF PERMUTATION

GROUPS
1
M. BELLO AND 1*A. U. TERRANG
1
Mathematics and Computer Science Department, Federal University Kashere, Gombe State,
Nigeria
*Corresponding author: terrangabubakar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper is a survey for the solvability and simplicity status of a permutation group G whose
order is of the form 𝑟𝑝𝑟 , where r is any prime and p is odd prime. The group of this form can be
p-group or any group generated by wreath products of two permutation groups depending on the
value of r and p. The concept of p groups and wreath products of two permutation groups has been
applied to explore the groups of interest and later investigation has been carried out to test them
for the above stated status.
Keywords:
INTRODUCTION Definition
The study as we know is focused on the The series of subgroups

solvability and simplicity status of 𝐺0 , 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , … , 𝐺𝑛 such that 𝐺 = 𝐺𝑛 ⊃
permutation groups. This concept of 𝐺𝑛−1 ⊃ 𝐺𝑛−2 ⊃ ⋯ ⊃ 𝐺1 ⊃ 𝐺0 = {1} where
solvability and simplicity statuses are very 𝐺𝑖 /𝐺𝑖+1 is abelian, is called a solvable series.
important in the theory of permutation
groups. The two concepts go hand in hand Definition 1.2 (Milne, J.S, 2009)
with abelian groups which are also very A group G is solvable if there is a finite
important concepts of the theory of groups collection of groups 𝐺0 𝐺1 . .. 𝐺𝑛 such
entirely. That is why the attention of that(1) = 𝐺0 ⊆ 𝐺1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ 𝐺𝑛 = 𝐺
mathematicians focused on these two where 𝐺𝑖 ⊴ 𝐺 and 𝐺𝑖+1 /𝐺𝑖 is abelian.If
statuses. |𝐺| = 1 then G is considered as solvable
In order to understand the study so many group.
definitions are introduced, introducing also is
Definition A finite group is simple when its
the famous Sylow’s Theorem. This is
only normal subgroups are the trivial
because for a group theorist as someone put
subgroup and the whole group.
it and we quote “Sylow’s Theorem is such a
basic tool, and so fundamental that it is used Since the study is majorly on group and its
almost without thinking, like breathing”. properties, we pause and state one of the
1 M. Bello and A. U. Terrang, 2019

−1
fundamental theorems on group, i.e., Sylow’s 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑑1 (𝑑1 𝑑2 ). Then W is a group called the
Theorem. semi-direct product of P by D with the
MATERIALS AND METHODS defined action.
Sylow’s Theorem 1.1 (Audu, 2003) Based on the forgoing we note the following:
Let 𝐺 be a group of order 𝑝𝛼 𝑚, where 𝑝 is a ❖ If C and D are finite groups then the
wreath product W determined by an
prime, 𝑚 ≥ 1, and 𝑝 does not divide 𝑚.
action of D on a finite set is a finite
Then:
group of order |𝑊| = |𝐶||∆| . |𝐷| .
I. 𝑆𝑦𝑙𝑝 (𝐺) ≠ ∅, i.e., Sylow 𝑝- ❖ P is a normal subgroup of W and D is a
subgroups exists. subgroup of W.
II. All Sylow 𝑝-subgroups are ❖ The action of W on Γ × ∆ is given by
conjugate in 𝐺, i.e., if 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 (𝛼𝛽)𝑓𝑑 = (𝛼𝑓(𝛽)𝛽𝑑)𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛼 ∈
are both Sylow 𝑝-subgroups, then 𝛤𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛽 ∈ ∆.
there is some 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 such that
We shall at this point identify the conditions
𝑝1 = 𝑔𝑝2 𝑔−1 . In particular,
under which a subgroup will be soluble or
𝑛𝑝 (𝐺) = (𝐺: 𝑁𝐺 (𝑃)).
nilpotent and study them for further
III. Any 𝑝-subgroup of 𝐺 is contained investigation.
in a Sylow 𝑝-subgroup.
IV. 𝑛𝑝 (𝐺) ≡ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝. Theorem 1.3 (Thanos, 2006)
𝐺 is solvable if and only if 𝐺 (𝑛) = 1, for

some n.
WREATH PRODUCT (Audu, 2003)
Proposition
The Wreath product of C by D denoted by W
= C wr D is the semi-direct product of P by D Let G be solvable and 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺. Then
so that𝑊 = {(𝑓𝑑) | 𝑓 ∈ 𝑃𝑑 ∈ 𝐷} with
1. H is solvable.
multiplication in W defined as
−1 2. If 𝐻 ⊲ 𝐺, then 𝐺/𝐻 is solvable.
(𝑓1 𝑑1 )(𝑓2 𝑑2 ) = 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑑1 (𝑑1 𝑑2 ) for all
𝑓1 𝑓2 ∈ 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑑1 𝑑2 ∈ 𝐷. Henceforth we write Proof
f d instead of (𝑓𝑑) for elements of W.
Start from a series with abelian slices. 𝐺 =
Theorem 1.2 (Audu, 2003) 𝐺0 ⊵ 𝐺1 ⊵ · · ·⊵ 𝐺𝑛 = {1}. Then 𝐻 =
𝐻 ∩ 𝐺0 ⊵ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐺1 ⊵ · · ·⊵ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐺𝑛 =
Let D act on P as 𝑓 𝑑 (𝛿) = 𝑓(𝛿𝑑−1 ) where {1}. When H is normal, we use the canonical
𝑓 ∈ 𝑃𝑑 ∈ 𝐷𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛿 ∈ ∆. Let W be the group of projection 𝜋 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺/𝐻 to get 𝐺 ⁄𝐻 =
all juxtaposed symbols f d with 𝑓 ∈ 𝑃𝑑 ∈ 𝐷 𝜋(𝐺0 ) ⊵ ⋯ ⊵ 𝜋(𝐺𝑛 ) = {1}; the quotients
and multiplication given by (𝑓1 𝑑1 )(𝑓2 𝑑2 ) = are abelian as well, so 𝐺/𝐻 is still solvable.
2 M. Bello and A. U. Terrang, 2019

Theorem 1.5 (Milne, 2009) (18)(27)(36)(45)(14725836)(14)(23)(58)(67)(16385274)(16)(25)

(34)(78)(12345678)(12)(38), (47), (56)}
A group G is solvable if and only if it has a Hence 𝐷16 = 𝐻3 ⊳ 𝐻2 ⊳ 𝐻1 = (1)
solvable series.
Proposition 1.6
Thus; we give the following illustrations:
A group G is a direct product of subgroups
(i) 𝐺= 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 if and only if
{(1), (48765), (47586), (46857), (45678), (132)
a)
(132)(48765), (132)(47586), (132)(46857), (132)(45678), (123) 𝐺 = 𝐻1 𝐻2
(123)(48765), (123)(47586), (123)(46857), (123)(45678)} b) 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 = {𝑒} and
c) Every element of 𝐻1 commutes with
has the subgroups as follows;
every element of 𝐻2 .
𝐻0 = (1)
Proof
𝐻1 = {(1)(123)(132)}
If G is the direct product of 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 , then
𝐻2 certainly (a) and (c) hold and (b) holds
= {(1)(48765)(47586)(46857)(45678)} because, for any 𝑔 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 , the element
(𝑔, 𝑔−1 )maps to 𝑒 under (ℎ1 , ℎ2 ) ↦ ℎ1 ℎ2
𝐻3 = {(1)(48765)(47586)(46857)(45678), (132)
and so equals to (𝑒, 𝑒).
(132)(48765), (132)(47586), (132)(46857), (132)(45678), (123)
(123)(48765), (123)(47586), (123)(46857), (123)(45678)}
Conversely, (c) implies that (ℎ1 , ℎ2 ) ↦ ℎ1 ℎ2
has a solvable series which is (1) = 𝐻0 ⊲ is a homomorphism and (b) implies that it is
𝐻1 ⊲ 𝐻3 = 𝐺 hence solvable by Theorem 2.3 injective:
(ii) The dihedral group 𝐷𝑛 is solvable ℎ1 ℎ2 = 𝑒 ⟹ ℎ1 = ℎ2 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 = {𝑒}.

since 𝐷𝑛 ⊳ 〈𝑝〉 ⊳ {1} Finally, (a) implies that it is surjective.
Let D16 be the Dihedral group of
Proposition 1.7
Degree 8 given by:
𝐷16
A group G is a direct product of subgroups
= {(1)(28)(37)(46)(15)(26)(37)(48)(15)(24)(68)(1753), (2864)𝐻1 , 𝐻2 if and only if
(17)(26)(35)(1357)(2468)(13)(48)(57)(18765432),
a) 𝐺 = 𝐻1 𝐻2
(18)(27)(36)(45)(14725836), (14)(23), (58)(67), (16385274)(16)(25)
(34)(78), (12345678), (12), (38), (47), (56)}
b) 𝐻 ∩ 𝐻 = {𝑒}
1 2
whose subgroups are as follows; c) 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 are both normal in G

𝐻1 = (1) Proof
𝐻2 = {(1)(15)(26)(37)(48)} = 〈𝑝〉 Certainly, these conditions are implied by
𝐻3 those in proposition 1.5 and so it remains to
= {(1)(28)(37)(46)(15)(26)(37)(48)(15)(24)(68)(1753)(2864)show that they imply that each element ℎ1 of
(17)(26)(35)(1357)(2468)(13)(48)(57)(18765432)
𝐻1 commutes with each element ℎ2 of 𝐻2 .
3 M. Bello and A. U Terrang, 2019

Two elements ℎ1 and ℎ2 of 𝐺 commute if and p-sub groups. By second Sylow

only if their commutator theorem
𝑑𝑒𝑓 −1
[ℎ1 , ℎ2 ] =(ℎ1 ℎ2 )(ℎ2 ℎ1 ) i.e. 𝑒 but 𝑛𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 1, 𝑝, 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑝 =
1, implying that 𝑆𝑦𝑙𝑝 is normal
(ℎ1 ℎ2 )(ℎ2 ℎ1 )−1 = ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ1 −1 ℎ2 −1 showing that G is not simple as
(ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ1 −1 ). ℎ2 −1 required.
={
ℎ1 . (ℎ2 ℎ1 −1 ℎ2 −1 ) b) Suppose G is a group of order 𝑟𝑝𝑟 ,
clearly G has Sylow r-subgroups and
Which is in 𝐻2 because 𝐻2 is normal and is Sylow p-subgroups for all odd prime
in 𝐻1 because 𝐻1 is normal. Therefore (b) p. Let N be the Sylow r-subgroup of
implies that [ℎ1 , ℎ2 ] = 𝑒. G then N is unique (one) by Sylow
second theorem and hence normal in
G of prime order and solvable by
Proposition 1.8
Proposition 1.8. Being N a normal
Any group of order 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 where p is a prime,
subgroup of G, it forms a factor group
is solvable.
𝐺/𝑁 of order 𝑝𝑟 which is a p-group
and this subgroup is solvable by
Proof
Proposition 1.8. it follows that G is
We prove the proposition by induction on 𝑛𝑛.
solvable by Proposition 1.7
For 𝑛𝑛 = 0, the proposition is trivial. Let n ≥
1 and assume that the proposition is true for APPLICATION
𝑟𝑟<𝑛𝑛. Let G be a group of order 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛. Then
by a Proposition, the centre C of G has order Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟏 and
𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 where s ≥ 1. Then the order of 𝐺𝐺/𝐶𝐶 is 𝑫𝟏
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛−𝑠𝑠and 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑠𝑠<𝑛𝑛. By the induction
𝐶1 = {(1), (12)}, 𝐷1 =
hypothesis G/C is solvable. Milne (2013).
{(1), (3,4,5), (3,5,4)}acting on the sets 𝑆1 =
{1,2}𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆1 = {3,4,5} respectively.
RESULTS
Theorem 1.9 Let 𝑃 = 𝐶1 ∆1 = {𝑓: ∆1 ⟶ 𝐶1 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑃| =
Let G be a group of order 𝑟𝑝𝑟 where p is an |𝐶1 |∆1 = 23 = 8
odd prime and 𝑘 is an integer greater than or
equals to 2 (and that p and q are not We can easily verify that 𝑊1 is a group with
consecutive in any case), then respect to the operations
a) G is not simple. (𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 .

b) G is Solvable
The wreath product of 𝐶1 and 𝐷1 is given by
Proof 𝑊1 as follows:
a) It is clear by second Sylow theorem that gap> C1:=Group((1,2));

G has Sylow r-subgroups and Sylow Group([ (1,2) ])

gap> D1:=Group((3,4,5)); gap> IsSimple(w2);

Group([ (3,4,5) ]) false
gap> W1:=WreathProduct(C1,D1); gap> quit;
Group([ (1,2), (3,4), (5,6), (1,3,5)(2,4,6) ])
gap> Order(W1); Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟑 and
24 𝑫𝟑
gap> IsSimple(w1); 𝐶3 = {(1), (12)},
false 𝐷3
= {(1), ( 113121110 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2), ( 11210 8 6 4 21311 9 7 5 3),
gap> IsNilpotent(W1); ( 111 8 5 212 9 6 31310 7 4), ( 110 6 211 7 312 8 413 9 5), ( 1 9 412 7 210 513 8 311 6),
false ( 1 8 2 9 310 411 512 613 7), ( 1 713 612 511 410 3 9 2 8), ( 1 611 3 813 510 2 712 4 9),
( 1 5 913 4 812 3 7 11 2 610), ( 1 4 71013 3 6 912 2 5 811), ( 1 3 5 7 91113 2 4 6 81012),
gap> quit; ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910111213)}
acting on the sets 𝑆3 = {1,2}𝑎𝑛𝑑∆3 =

Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟐 and {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13} respectively.
𝑫𝟐
Let 𝑃 = 𝐶3 ∆3 = {𝑓: ∆3 ⟶ 𝐶3 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑃| =
𝐶2 = {(1), (12)}, |𝐶3 |∆3 = 213 = 8192
𝐷2
We can easily verify that𝑊3 is a group with
= {(1), (37654), (36475), (35746), (34567)}
respect to the operations
acting on the sets 𝑆2 = {1,2}𝑎𝑛𝑑∆2 =
{3,4,5,6,7} respectively. (𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 .
Let 𝑃 = 𝐶2 ∆2 = {𝑓: ∆2 ⟶ 𝐶2 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|4𝑃| =
|𝐶2 |∆2 = 25 = 32
𝑊3 as follows:
We can easily verify that 𝑊2 is a group with
gap> C3:=Group ((1,2));
Group ([(1,2) ])
(𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 . gap>
D3:=Group((3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15
The wreath product of 𝐶2 and 𝐷2 is given by ));
𝑊2 as follows: Group ([ (3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15)])
gap> C2:=Group((1,2)); gap> W3: =WreathProduct(C3, D3);
Group ([ (1,2) ]) Group ([ (1,2),
gap> D2:=Group((3,4,5,6,7)); (1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19,21,23,25)
Group ([ (3,4,5,6,7) ]) (2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20,22,24,26)])
gap> W2:=WreathProduct(C2,D2); gap> Order(W3);
Group ([(1,2), (3,4), (5,6), (7,8), (9,10), 106496
(1,3,5,7,9)(2,4,6,8,10) ]) gap> IsSolvable(W3);
gap> Order(W2); true
160 gap> IsSimple(w3);
gap> IsSolvable(W2); false
true gap> quit;
Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟒 and gap> C4:=Group((1,2,3));

𝑫𝟒 Group([ (1,2,3) ])
gap> D4:=Group((4,5,6,7,8));
𝐶4 = {(1), (123), (132)}, Group([ (4,5,6,7,8) ])
𝐷4 gap> W3:=WreathProduct(C4,D4);
= {(1), (48765), (47586), (46857), (45678)} Group([ (1,2,3), (4,5,6), (7,8,9), (10,11,12),
acting on the sets 𝑆4 = {1,2,3}𝑎𝑛𝑑∆4 = (13,14,15),
{4,5,6,7,8} respectively. (1,4,7,10,13)(2,5,8,11,14)(3,6,9,12,15) ])
Let 𝑃 = 𝐶4 ∆4 = {𝑓: ∆4 ⟶ 𝐶4 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑃| = gap> Order(W4);
|𝐶4 |∆4 = 35 = 243 1215
gap> IsSolvable(W4);
We can easily verify that 𝑊4 is a group with
true
gap> IsSimple(w4);
(𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 . false
gap> quit;
𝑊4 as follows:
Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟓 and 𝑫𝟓
𝐶5 = {(1), (123), (132)},

𝐷5 = {(1), ( 410 9 8 7 6 5), ( 4 9 7 510 8 6), ( 4 8 5 9 610 7), ( 4 710 6 9 5 8), ( 4 6 810 5 7 9),
( 4 5 6 7 8 910)}
acting on the sets 𝑆5 = {1,2,3}𝑎𝑛𝑑∆5 = <permutation group of size 15309 with 8
{4,5,6,7,8,9,10} respectively. generators>
Let 𝑃 = 𝐶5 ∆5 = {𝑓: ∆5 ⟶ 𝐶5 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑃| = gap> Order(W5);
|𝐶5 |∆5 = 37 = 2187 15309
gap> IsSolvable(W5);
We can easily verify that 𝑊5 is a group with true
respect to the operations gap> IsSimple(w5);
false
(𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 .
gap> quit;
Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟔 and
𝑊5 as follows:
𝑫𝟔
gap> C5:=Group((1,2,3)); 𝐶6
Group ([ (1,2,3) ]) = {(1), ( 11110 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2), ( 110 8 6 4 211 9 7 5 3), ( 1 9 6 311 8 5 210 7 4),
( 1 8 411 7 310 6 2 9 5), ( 1 7 2 8 3 9 410 511 6), ( 1 611 510 4 9 3 8 2 7),
gap> D5: =Group((4,5,6,7,8,9,10)); ( 1 5 9 2 6 10 3 711 4 8), ( 1 4 710 2 5 811 3 6 9), ( 1 3 5 7 911 2 4 6 810),
Group ([ (4,5,6,7,8,9,10) ]) ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11)},
𝐷6 = {(1), (12 13)}
gap> W5:=WreathProduct(C5,D5);

acting on the sets 𝑆6 = Let 𝑃 = 𝐶7 ∆7 = {𝑓: ∆7 ⟶ 𝐶7 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑃| =

{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11}𝑎𝑛𝑑∆6 = {12,13} |𝐶7 |∆7 = 115 = 161,051
respectively.
Let 𝑃 = 𝐶6 ∆6 = {𝑓: ∆6 ⟶ 𝐶6 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑃| = We can easily verify that 𝑊7 is a group with
|𝐶6 |∆6 = 112 = 121 respect to the operations
(𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 .

We can easily verify that 𝐺1 is a group with
respect to the operations The wreath product of 𝐶7 and 𝐷7 is given by
(𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 . 𝑊7 as follows:
gap> C7:=Group((1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11));
Group ([ (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11) ])
𝑊2 as follows:
gap> D7:=Group((12,13,14,15,16));
gap> C6:=Group((1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11)); Group ([ (12,13,14,15,16) ])
Group([ (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11) ]) gap> Order(W7);
gap> D6:=Group((12,13)); gap> W7:=WreathProduct(C7,D7);
Group([ (12,13) ]) <permutation group of size 805255 with 6
gap> W6:=WreathProduct(C6,D6); generators>
Group([(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11), gap> Order(W7);
(12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22), 805255
(1,12)(2,13)(3,14)(4,15)(5,16)(6,17)(7,18) gap> IsSolvable(W7);
(8,19)(9,20)(10,21)(11,22) ]) true
gap> Order(W6); gap> IsSimple(w7);
242 false
gap> IsSolvable(W6); gap> quit;
true
Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟖 and
gap> IsSimple(w6);
false 𝑫𝟖
𝐶8
Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟕 and = {(1), ( 113121110 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2), ( 11210 8 6 4 21311 9 7 5 3), ( 111 8 5 212 9 6 31310
7 4), ( 110 6 211 7 312 8 413 9 5), ( 1 9 412 7 210 513 8 311 6), ( 1 8 2 9 310 411 512
𝑫𝟕 613 7), ( 1 713 612 511 410 3 9 2 8), ( 1 611 3 813 510 2 712 4 9), ( 1 5 913 4 812 3 7
11 2 610), ( 1 4 71013 3 6 912 2 5 811), ( 1 3 5 7 91113 2 4 6 81012), ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝐶7 910111213)}
= {(1), ( 11110 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2), ( 110 8 6 4 211 9 7 5 3), ( 1 9 6 311 8 5 210𝐷87 4),
( 1 8 411 7 310 6 2 9 5), ( 1 7 2 8 3 9 410 511 6), ( 1 611 510 4 9 3 8 2 7), = {(1), (1418171615), (1417151816), (1416181517), (1415161718)}
( 1 5 9 2 6 10 3 711 4 8), ( 1 4 710 2 5 811 3 6 9), ( 1 3 5 7 911 2 4 6 810),
( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11)}, acting on the sets 𝑆8 =
𝐷7
= {(1), (1216151413), (1215131614), (1214161315), (1213141516)}
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11}𝑎𝑛𝑑∆8 =
{12,13,14,15,16} respectively.
acting on the sets 𝑆7 = Let 𝑃 = 𝐶8 ∆8 = {𝑓: ∆8 ⟶ 𝐶8 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑃| =
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11}𝑎𝑛𝑑∆7 = |𝐶8 |∆8 = 135 = 371,293
{12,13,14,15,16} respectively.

We can easily verify that 𝑊7 is a group with Burnside W. (2012),”Theory of Groups of

respect to the operations Finite Order,” Ebooks.
Hall M. Jr. (1959),” The Theory of Groups”
(𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 . Macmillan Company New York.
The wreath product of 𝐶7 and 𝐷7 is given by Hamma S. and Mohammed M.A. (2010),
𝑊7 as follows: ”Constructing p-groups From Two
Permutation Groups by Wreath
gap> Products Method”, Advances in
C8:=Group((1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13)); Applied Science Research, 2010,
Group([ (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13) ]) 1(3), 8-23
gap> D8:=Group((14,15,16,17,18)); Hielandt, H. (1964),” Finite Permutation
Group([ (14,15,16,17,18) ]) Groups”, Academic Press, New York,
gap> W8:=WreathProduct(C8,D8); London.
<permutation group of size 1856465 with 6 Thanos G. (2006), “Solvable Groups-A
generators> numerical Approach”.
gap> Order(W8); Joachim Neubüser et al (2016), “Groups
1856465 Algorithm and Programming”, 4.8.5,
gap> IsSolvable(W8); 25-Sep-2016, build of 2016-09-25
true 14:51:12 (GMTDT).
gap> IsSimple(w8); Kurosh A.G. (1956), "The theory of groups"
false , 1–2 , Chelsea (1955–1956).
gap> quit; Milne J.S. (2009),” Theory of groups”.
William Burnside (2012)’’Theory of Groups
DISCUSSION
of Finite order’’Ebook.
It can be seen from the result that any group
G whose order is 𝑟𝑝𝑟 for any prime r and odd
prime p;
a) Is solvable for all values of p and r.

b) Is not simple.
REFERENCES
Audu M.S., K.E Osondu, A.R.j. Solarin

(2003),”Research Seminar on
Groups, Semi Groups and Loops,”
National Mathematical Centre,
Abuja, Nigeria (October).

PLANKTONIC COMPOSITION OF DADIN KOWA DAM, GOMBE STATE,

NIGERIA
1
BARA’ATU, A., 1UMAR, D.M. 2ABUBAKAR, K. A. AND 2VANDI, P.
1
Department of Biological Sciences, Gombe State University, Gombe, Gombe State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, ModibboAdama University of
Technology, Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria.
Corresponding author: baraatuabubakar2014@gmai.com
ABSTRACT
Planktons are small plants or animals that float, drift, or weakly swim in the water column. The
organisms that constitutes this group are; phytoplanktons and zooplanktons. This paper
presents the results of the variability in species composition and abundance of plankton in
Dadin-Kowa Reservoir, Gombe State, Nigeria. Plankton was collected from three sites; sites
A, B and C, these sites were water entry point, middle of the reservoir and the exiting point
respectively, this was done to reduce bias in sampling. At each site a well labeled plastic bottles
of 750 ml with full details of site of the sample and date of collection. Identification and
counting of the phytoplankton and zooplankton sample was done using a compound
microscope. The results showed a total of 16 species of phytoplankton belonging to four (4)
different groups or classes which are Chlorophyceae, Cyanophycea, Bacillaroophycea, and
Desmidiacea. The results showed a total of 10 species of zooplankton belonging to four (4)
different groups or classes which are Protozoa, Rotifers, Copepodac and Cladorerans. In
conclusion, the following phytoplanktons; Spirogyra Spp and Cyclotella Spp, and
zooplanktons; Copepod Spp, Chlamydemonas Spp, Phacus Spp and Bosmina Spp were found
to be dominant in Dadin-Kowa Dam.
Keywords: Plankton, zooplanktons, phytoplankton, Dadin-kowa, Gombe.

this group are; phytoplanktons and
INTRODUCTION zooplanktons.
The water world is another ecosystem with Phytoplanktons are assemblage of

different habitats occupied with a wide heterogenous microscopic algal forms, they
range of organisms. These organisms thrive are situated at the lowest level of production
at different water column, among these and correspond with the most important
organisms are a group of organisms called part of the primary production of the oceans
the planktons. Planktons are small plants or (Kudela and Peterson 2009). They
animals that float, drift, or weakly swim in influence the concentration of dissolved
the water column. The word ‘Plankton’ is oxygen and light penetration in our marine
originated from the Greek word ‘Planktos’ environment. Aside from the vital role they
which means drifting about in water under play in the aquatic food webs,
the action of water movement (Sharma et phytoplankton community also acts as
al., 2013). The organisms that constitutes indicators of water quality (Abuzer and
9 Bara’atu A et. al., 2019

Okan 2007). They also provide information MATERIALS AND METHODS

concerning the ecosystem condition or
health. Among the phytoplankton groups, Study area
the bacillariophyceaen members can
Dadin Kowa Dam is located 5km North of
specifically be used as suitable bio-
DadinKowa village (about 37 km from
indicators for water quality assessments due
Gombe town, along Gombe-Biu road) in
to their short generation time and many
Yamaltu Deba Local Government Area of
species have a specific sensitivity to
Gombe State. The area lies within longitude
ecological characteristics (Goma et al.,
110 30’ E and 110 32’ E, and Latitude 10 0
2005). Zooplanktons are animal that drift in
17’ and 10o 18’ N of the equator (UBRDA,
water column. They graze on primary
1980). The reservoir has an active capacity
producers and organic debris in the water
of 1770 million cubic meters of water, at a
column and thereby play an important role
height of 42.0 meters and a surface area of
in the integration of energy budget of the
300 square kilometers, and has potential as
ecosystem (Anene, 2003). Zooplanktons
a source of fish. The dam was completed in
abundance is usually closely related to
1988, its objectives are for irrigation and
phytoplankton concentration and species
hydropower (Okoye and Achakpa, 2007).
composition and increases with increasing
nutrients concentrations. Zooplanktons Plankton collection
occupy an important trophic niche in the
aquatic ecosystem as they constitute the Plankton was collected from three sites;
most important link in energy transfer sites A, B and C, these sites were water
between phytoplankton and higher aquatic entry point, middle of the reservoir and the
fauna (Salomoni et al., 2006). Zooplankton exiting point respectively, this was done to
organisms are important component of reduce bias in sampling. At each site a well
aquatic ecosystems which help in labeled plastic bottles of 750 ml with full
regulating algal microbial productivity details of site of the sample and date of
through grazing and in the transfer of collection was used as described by
primary productivity to fish and other Indabawa, (2012), the sampling bottles was
consumers. Zooplankton community sterilized in the laboratory. On the field, for
structure can be affected by within-lake and each sampling site, the bottle was rinsed
by watershed ecological factors, including several times with the water to be sampled.
water chemistry (related to landscape Each bottle was open at a depth of 30cm
position), lake morphology and human from the surface in the direction of water
activity in the watershed (Dodson et al., current to be filled with the water. The
2009). This paper presents the results of the resultant concentrated plankton sample was
variability in species composition and preserved with 4% formalin and Lugols
abundance of plankton in Dadin-Kowa iodine solutions according to the method of
Reservoir, Gombe State, Nigeria Baloloy et al. (2016), in the field. The
sample was transported to Zoology
laboratory of Gombe State University,
Gombe, Gombe State, in a sampling box.

Plankton analysis (2013). Count was made and expressed as

total number and percentage abundance of
Plankton sample was concentrated plankton.
to 50ml volume before the analysis of
organisms. Identification and counting of RESULTS
the phytoplankton and zooplankton sample
was done using a compound microscope. Phytoplanktons composition
The concentrated sample was agitated to
The results showed a total of 16 species of
homogenize before placing a drop of the
phytoplankton belonging to four (4)
sample on slide, covered with a cover slip
different groups or classes which are
and examined with compound microscope
Chlorophyceae, Cyanophycea,
at a magnification of x4, x10 and x40
Bacillaroophycea, and Desmidiacea. In
objective lenses as described by Ahmed and
term of number of species; Chlorophyceae
Indabawa, (2015). The planktons
(green algae) and cyanophycae (blue green
(phytoplankton and zooplanktons) was
algae) had the highest with 5 species each,
identified and total number of species
followed by Bacillariophyceae (diatom)
recorded using keys for species
with 4 species, while Desmidiaceae
identifications provided by the standard
(desmids) had only 2 species (Table 1).
work of Emi and Catlin, (2007); Umar et al.
Table 1: Phytoplankton composition in Dadin Kowa Reservoir

Major classes Chlorophyceae Cyanophycea Bacillaroophycea Desmidiacea
Phytoplankton Spirogyra Spp Anabaena Spp Fitagiria Spp Tubellaria

species
Characium Spp Cladophora Spp Cyclotella Spp Closterium Spp
Scendesmus Spp Oscillatoria Spp Navicular Spp -
Coelastrum Spp Nostoc Spp Diatoma Spp -
Volvox Spp Apharizomena Spp - -
The relative abundance of the various 2.5% respectively. The relative abundance
phytoplankton species identified revealed revealed that there was high relative
that Spirogyra species had the highest with abundance in the month of December with
16.3%, followed by cyclotella species with 59, followed by November with 40, while,
13.8% Characium, Navicular and Diatoms October, September and August had 34, 30
had 6.9% each. Cladophora and Anabena and 21 respectively, the least was in the
species had 5.9%. Closterium species had month of July with 20 (Table 2).
5.4%, Aphanizomenon and coelastrum
species had 4.4% each, Scenedesmus,
Fragilaria and Tubellaria species had 3.9%
each, while Volvox and Nostoc 3.0% and
Table 2: Relative Abundance of Phytoplankton Species in Dadin Kowa Reservoir
S/No Phytoplankton Species Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total %
1. Spirogyra Spp 3 5 5 2 9 9 33 16.3
2. Fragilaria Spp 2 - - 1 2 3 8 3.9
3. Characium Spp - - 4 3 2 5 14 6.9
4. Scenedesmus Spp 2 - 3 - 2 1 8 3.9
5. Volvox Spp 1 - - 2 2 1 6 3.0
6. Aphanizomenon Spp 2 3 - 1 2 1 9 4.4
7. Cyclotella Spp 2 4 5 6 4 7 28 13.8
8 Navicular Spp 2 - 1 2 3 6 14 6.9
9 Cladophora Spp - 1 2 3 2 4 12 5.9
10 Tubellaria Spp 1 - 1 2 1 3 8 3.9
11 Coelastrum Spp - 2 1 - 2 4 9 4.4
12 Oscillatoria Spp - 1 3 3 2 3 12 5.9
13 Diatoma Spp 1 2 2 3 2 4 14 6.9
14 Anabena 2 2 1 2 3 2 12 5.9
15 Closterium Spp 2 1 1 2 2 3 11 5.4
16 Nostoc Spp - - 1 2 - 2 5 2.4
Total 20 21 30 34 40 59 203 100
Zooplanktons composition species, Copepod, Phacus and Bosmina

species recording the highest with 11.6%
The results showed a total of 10 species of each. Dapnia and Rotaria species had 10.1%
zooplankton belonging to four (4) different each. Euglena, Paramecium and
groups or classes which are Protozoa, Limnoclanus species had 8.7% each, while
Rotifers, Copepodac and Cladorerans. In Keratella species had the least with 7.2 %.
term of number of species; Protozoa had 4 The highest relative abundance was recorded
species, followed by Rotifers, Copepodac in the month of July with 22, followed by
and Cladorerans with only 2 species each September with 14, while, December and
(Table 3). August had 9 each, November and October
The relative abundance of various had 8 and 7 respectively (Table 4).
zooplankton species with CIamydomonas
Table 3: Zooplankton composition in Dadin-kowa Reservoir

Major classes Protozoa Rotifers Copepodac Cladorerans
Zooplankton species Euglena Spp Keratella Spp Limnoclanus Spp DapniaSpp

Chlamydomonas Spp RotariaSpp Copepod Spp DapniaSpp
PhacusSpp
Paramecium Spp

Table 4: Relative Abundance of Zooplanktons Species
S/No Zooplankton Species Jul. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total %
1. Euglena Spp 2 - - 1 2 1 6 8.7
2. Paramecium 3 2 - - 1 - 6 8.7
3. Keratella Spp 2 1 1 - - 1 5 7.2
4. Limnoclanus Spp - 2 1 2 1 - 6 8.7
5. Copepod Spp 3 1 - 2 1 1 8 11.6
6. Chlamydemonas Spp 2 1 2 1 - 2 8 11.6
7. Phacus Spp 2 1 3 - 1 1 8 11.6
8. Dapnia Spp 3 - 2 - 1 1 7 10.1
9. Rotaria Spp 2 1 2 - 1 1 7 10.1
10. Bosmina Spp 3 - 3 1 - 1 8 11.6
Total 22 9 14 7 8 9 69 100
DISCUSSION Lake Buhi, Camarines Sur, Philippines

belonged to five major plankton groups:
Phytoplanktons diatoms, green algae, cyanobacteria,
eustigmatophytes and dinoflagellates. The
The study revealed that the Reservoir is rich
dominance of Chlorophyceae in the present
in phytoplankton flora. The observation
study is typical to most African waters and
showed slight seasonal variations of
agrees with the findings of Awanda, (1987),
phytoplankton, according to the report of
in River Kaduna and Abubakar et al. (2006),
Kadiri, (1993), this is a known trend in
in Lake Geriyo, they observed that
tropical West Africa. This dynamic of
chlorophyceae was the dominant
phytoplankton could result from a
phytoplankton. The order of dominance of
combination of alteration in the nutrient level
the groups in the present study is however in
as well as change in the predator or grazer
contrast with the report of Kola, (1996),
populations (Renolds and Descy, 1996). Due
where the order was bacillariophyceae >
to the fact that they are primary producers.
cyanophyceae > desmidiaceae. The relative
The numbers of phytoplankton groups
abundance of individual phytoplankton
identified in the present study is slightly
species in the present study contradict the
lower than the report of Baloloy et al. (2016),
report of Baloloy et al. (2016), who reported
who recorded that the identified species in
that the abundance of phytoplankton in Lake

Buhi, Camarines Sur, Philippines showed diferent from the report of James et al.
that Diatoms were the most abundant (2003), who recorded that Copepoda
(50.5%); followed by the green algae dominated zooplankton in abundance
(40.5%), cyanobacteria (7.4%), throughout the year, forming 35–60% of total
dinoflagellates (1.5%) and the least abundant zooplankton composition. Other dominant
eustigmatophytes (0.1%). The slightly high zooplankton groups, in order of abundance,
abundance of phytoplankton in the dry were Brachyuran zoea (forming between 10–
season is ascribable to increase in nutrient 40%), Mollusca larvae, Medusae,
and or the concentration of phytoplankton in Chaetognatha, Foraminifera, Caridea larvae
reduced volume of Dam water as well as and Pisces (fish eggs and larvae). This is
undoubtedly the high flows. Conversely, low because the ecosystem of a creek differ
abundance of phytoplankton in the rainy largely from that of a lake, as such, this
season as attributed to the diluting effect of difference cut across both the species and
flood as well as unfavorable photosynthetic abundance in these environments
conditions such as high turbidity and low In conclusion, the following phytoplanktons;
light intensity prevailing during rainy season. Spirogyra Spp and Cyclotella Spp, and
Kiss and Genkal, (1993), observed a seasonal zooplanktons; Copepod Spp,
change in phytoplankton composition in Chlamydemonas Spp, Phacus Spp and
River Danube, Hungary. Bosmina Spp were found to be dominant in
Dadin-Kowa Dam. There is limited
Zooplankton information about plankton diversity in such
environment in Gombe state. Thus, more
The groups of zooplankton identified in the
studies are needed to understand and
present study if far lower than the number
compare the structure and ecology of the
reported by James et al. (2003), who reported
plankton systems.
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POLIOMYELITIS, VACCINES AND POSSIBLE COMPLETE ERADICATION

1*
BOBBO. K. A and 2USMAN M.A
1
Department of Human Anatomy, College of Medical Sciences, Gombe State University,
2
Department of Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria
Corresponding Author: khadijjabobbo@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Poliomyelitis commonly known as polio is one of the early 18th to 20th centuries most feared, most
deadly and wide spread epidemic disease. Studies have shown that it results from infection by 3
serotypes of poliovirus leading to spectrum of clinical manifestation imprecise infection, non-
specific febrile illness, meningitis, paralysis and even death. For over a century, combating efforts
were made by researchers to develop a vaccine to contain spread of the viral causing disease which
lead to the development of an inactivated (or "killed") polio vaccine (IPV) and oral (or "live") PV
vaccine (OPV) as far back between the early 1950 to mid-1960. These 2 vaccines were developed
towards preventing poliomyelitis and so far, have been officially recorded with singular dropping
leading to eradication of this condition in most part of the world. Yet this disease condition remains
endemic in countries like: Afghanistan, India, Nigeria and Pakistan. It has been reported in 2014
that as of 2012, more than 50% of the world’s present cases occurred in Nigeria. This posted a
belief that the key to complete eradication of poliomyelitis is in Nigeria. This might be due to high
refusal by controversies claims based on “unfounded rumours” probable due to lack of in-depth
knowledge of the disease and vaccine. Nigeria might be holding the key into total elimination,
huge amount of money invested to identify most of the set back. Drawing a final entry strategy by
findings base on a case study, issues that need to be tackled and recommendations for a complete
eradication in Nigeria and the globe at large. This should include enlightenment of history behind
the disease and a study into the “unfounded rumours”.
Keywords: Poliomyelitis, Vaccine, Eradication, Controversies, Nigeria

1789 by Michael Underwood, a British
INTRODUCTION physician, which was later known to be
caused by single strand non-capsulated
Poliomyelitis is a highly contagious disease
enterovirus known as Poliovirus (Robertson,
commonly known as polio. It is reported to
1993). The virus enters its host orally and
be one of the earliest 18th to the early half of
enters the cells through the process known as
20th century most feared, most deadly and
adsorptive endocytosis, which alters the cell
wide spread epidemic with more than 20
surface then proceeds to the cell cytoplasm to
million recorded cases as at 1992 (Ren 1992,
release its viral RNA targeted cells (Ren
Ren and Racaniello, 1996, Blondel at el,
1992, Blondel et al., 2005). The released
2005). Polio was first clinically described in
RNA gets remodels, translates and then
17 Bobbo K. A and Usman M.A, 2019

replicates itself, ultimately inhibits molecular biology of polio virus and

transcription of host cell. The virus enters its pathogenesis of poliomyelitis (Jesus, 2007).
host orally and has a range of symptoms with Not until recently, the effectiveness of the
its signature traits being paralysis of one or polio vaccine and vaccination schedule was
more limbs due to viral attack of the anterior successful worldwide with just few countries
horn of the spinal cord while in extreme cases not declared polio free. This as reported is
leads to death due to respiratory paralysis believed to be associated with accusation
(Robertson, 1993, Jesus, 2007). from some religions’ scholars and it is one of
the major reasons of its prevalence some
Combating efforts were put made by countries. In addition to these accusations,
researchers in the 19th centaury to develop a the global polio eradication team fear of
vaccine in order to halt the spread of the viral vaccine-derived polioviruses spreading
causing disease which was evident in all age especially from the laboratory and needs to
group at that time, although it was known to be eliminated (The Global Polio Eradication
predominately affect infants in earlier years Initiative, 2010).
(Miller, 2004, Animal Research Success,
2012). By the early 1950, inactivated (or The work of the global polio eradication
"killed") polio virus vaccine (IPV) was team’s does not end with polio eradication;
developed and immediately administrated to but rather is presently working on post-
people. In the mid-1960, a second vaccine; an Eradication Initiative of a multi-prolonged
oral (or "live") PV vaccine (OPV) was programme consisting of research, new
developed. These two vaccines were product development, strategy formulation
developed to prevent the occurrence of and policy development all aimed at lessen
poliomyelitis and so far have reduced the poliovirus re-introduction risk (The Global
prevalence have so far been officially Polio Eradication Initiative, 2010).
recorded accredited with singularly dropping
(Miller, 2004 and Jesus, 2007). Effective Nigeria, being one of the reported countries
usages of the vaccines have extremely lead to with so many challenges and issues
the eradication of this condition in most part surrounding polio vaccine vaccination needs
of the world with the United State reported its to deliberate on these issues to find lasting
last case was in 1979 due to infection with solution. This will serve as its own
wild type (wt) virus (Jesus, 2007). Although contribution towards the possible virus re-
the vaccine has effectively solved the introduction prevention initiative by the
problem, the question of its safety still Global Polio Eradication team.
questionable as evident with report on the This article attempts to provide a brief history
virus spread from the oral vaccines. of the deadly virus especially in west, its
The reported success in the effective infesting and spreading mechanism,
management of the disease condition was due combating contributing efforts towards its
to extensive modern research into the global eradication with Nigeria being the key

to attaining it. As such giving a general intensive studies on the molecular biology,
perception to the community about polio structure, and genetics of the virus (Ren
vaccination campaigns. 1992, Ren and Racaniello, 1996). Even
though, the virus has been well-known
POLIO VIRUS structurally and behaviourally, it has a short
fall in the area of its pathogenesis as its
Poliovirus is a member of the enterovirus
progressive understanding is limited due to
subgroup picornaviridae family alone side
absence of a convenient animal model of
agents of the common cold, foot-and-mouth
human being, which are the only animal
disease virus, hepatitis A virus and human
reservoir of the virus (Ren 1992, Robertson,
rhinoviruses (Blondel et al., 2005,
1993, and CDC, 2009) and the closet to them
Mehndiratta et al., 2014). Enteroviruses are
being the African rhesus monkey kidneys
small ether-insensitive viruses with a short
serving as cultivation medium.
RNA genome. They are temporary and stable
occupants of the acid pH gastrointestinal tract Polio or infantile paralysis is a contagious
(Robertson, 1993, Blondel at el, 2005, CDC, disease which enters its host as polio virus
2009 and Tagbo, 2013). Hogle et al. 1985 (as through the mouth and attaches itself to
cited by Robertson, 1993), described epithelial receptors in the throat, then
poliovirus, as a small virion with 27 to 30 nm migrates down to the intestine where it
diameter containing a RNA with thin 20- incubates and replicates. Gradually finds its
sided shell surrounding the RNA composing way into the bloodstream to produce polio
of four virion proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3, antibodies (Maigari et al., 2014). The virus
VP4). There are three poliovirus serotypes; invades local lymphoid tissue and in the
P1, P2 and P3 or type 1, 2 and 3, although absence of sufficient levels of neutralizing
type 2 was last detected globally in 1999 antibodies, it might infect cells of the central
(Tagbo, 2013, Mehndiratta et al., 2014). He nervous system (Robertson, 1993, CDC,
further reported the ability of the virus to 2009). Consequently, the affected individual
survive for weeks at room temperature and its might develop a permanent immunity against
resistance to laboratory disinfectants (ether, the disease. Infected cells shed poliovirus and
70 % alcohol) (Robertson, 1993). However thus it can be cultured from the pharynx or
Minor & Bell in 1990 reported how the virus mouth in the first week after onset of
can be rapidly inactivated by heat, 0.3 % paralysis and from feces for several weeks
formaldehyde, chlorine, and ultraviolet light (Robertson, 1993, CDC, 2009). The virus
(50°C or higher) as in the case of preparing spreads along nerve fibres within the nervous
inactivated polio vaccine- IPV (Robertson, system and in the process of its intracellular
1993 and CDC, 2009). multiplication it destroys motor neurons,
resulting in flaccid paralysis even though less
Polio virus is known to be one of the most
than 1 % of all reported cases developed
understood viruses of eukaryotic cells today
paralysis (Robertson, 1993).
due its world epidemic rate which lead to

Polio is known to spread through contact with minor, non-specific illness presented without
contaminated faeces in airborne droplets, any clinical or laboratory evidence of central
food, or water especially in situations of poor nervous system invasion. This category of
hygiene and sanitation. It is also reported that affected person undergoes a complete
flies can passively transfer poliovirus from recovery in less than a week under treatment.
faeces to food (Miller, 2004, the global polio Non-paralytic aseptic meningitis occurs in 1–
eradication initiative, 2010) and possibly 2 % cases while less than 1% of all polio
from person to person (Robertson, 1993 and infections result in flaccid paralysis
Tagbo, 2013) mostly in areas of poor (Robertson, 1993 and CDC, 2009).
personal and environmental hygiene (Ren, Poliovirus is one virus with a very short
1992). manifestation period presenting it most
infectious form within 7 to 10 days before
Signature characteristics of poliomyelitis is and after the onset of symptoms while present
its interference with neurological structures in the stool from 3 to 6 weeks (CDC, 2009).
(nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord and
thus motor function) causing paralysis of one Paralytic result is not reversible as there is
or more limbs with an early symptoms of still no cure thus strategy to eradicate polio is
meningitis. Intramuscular injection might therefore based on preventing infection by
increase the susceptibility of the motor immunizing every child until transmission
paralysis to the virus which could lead to stops. While early detected cases could be
respiratory associated problems due to reversed or managed properly (the global
paralysis of the muscular diagram in life- polio eradication initiative, 2010).
threatening cases (Miller, 2004). Replication
of poliovirus in the motor neurons of the Studies conducted by Siegel and Greenberg
anterior horn of the spinal cord and that of the (1956) between the years 1949 to 1953 in
brain stem results in cell destruction and New York City and that of Finland in 1985
causes the typical manifestations of by Harjulehto et al. (1989), recorded no
poliomyelitis (CDC, 2009). Other symptoms increase in congenital defect prevalence in
include fever, headache, sore throat, stiff the subsequent follow-up of infants born to
neck and vomiting. The global polio mothers infected with poliovirus during their
eradication initiative 2010 reported, about 90 pregnancies although Poliovirus is reported
to 95 % of everyone who is vulnerable to the to cross the placenta (Robertson, 1993).
natural polio virus does not show up with any Although there are have not been any reports
symptoms (thus asymptomatic) even under of congenital defects due to administration of
epidemic conditions (Miller, 2004, Animal Vaccine a molecular based approach studies
Research Success, 2012, The Global Polio are recommended.
Eradication Initiative, 2010 and Routh et al., POLIO VACCINE
2014). Around 4–8 % of persons affected
with polio virus have an abortive Jonas Salk (1952) developed the first
poliomyelitis which is characterized by a successful polio vaccine known as the

inactive polio vaccine (IPV) and shortly The human dosage of IPV is: first dose is
afterwards Albert Sabin in 1957 produced given at 2 months of age, second dose at 4
another polio vaccine using a weaken virus months of age, the third dose is be given
known as the oral polio vaccine (OPV) between at 6 to the 18 months of age and the
(Robertson, 1993 and Miller, 2004). These 2 final dose of the IPV series should be
vaccines have so far been able to eliminate administered at 4years of age or older. The
about 99 % of the world epidemic as of 2015 normal recommended dosage for the IPV
(Tagbo, 2013). Although, with the intervals is 2 months but 4 weeks in
introduction and widespread use of OPV emergency protection (CDC, 2009).
(containing live attenuated poliovirus strains)
lead to vaccine-associated paralytic The live but weaken polioviruses in OPV
poliomyelitis (VAPP) (18). The oral polio replicate in the intestinal mucosa and
vaccine strains are genetically unstable in intestinal lymphoid cells thus having
vaccines, and chronic infected patients can effectiveness in producing gastrointestinal
excrete neurovirulent vaccine-derived PV immunity, this was one out of the two
(VDPV) mutants for up to 22 years (Blondel characteristics of OPV that propelled for its
et al., 2005) selection by the world health organisation
(WHO) as the instrument of choice in the
IPV contains all three serotypes of polio global polio eradication initiative. The
vaccine virus which are grown and second characteristic is the fact that no
inactivated with formaldehyde in a monkey’s special instrumentation (i.e., needles) was
kidney tissue culture (Vero cell line). The required for its administration. In the vaccine
vaccine contains 2-phenoxyethanol as a treatment, viruses are excreted in the stool for
preservative, and trace amounts of neomycin, up to 6 weeks after a dose with a maximum
streptomycin, and polymyxin B. It is supplied viral shedding presented in the first 1–2
in a single-dose prefilled syringe and should weeks post-vaccination, predominantly after
be administered by either subcutaneous or the first dose leading to a disadvantage of
intramuscular injection. While the OPV is possible spread from the recipient to persons
also known as “trivalent oral polio vaccine” coming in contact with faecal material of a
or “Sabin vaccine” and like the IPV, it also vaccinated person, yet still archived the
contains all three poliovirus serotypes but in present success of eradication rate (Jesus,
live weakened strains of ratio 10:1:3 which 2007 and CDC, 2009).
are also grown in Vero cell line like IPV.
Unlike the IPV, OPV is supplied as a single RECOMMENDED SUCCESS
0.5 ml dose in a plastic dispenser. The STRATEGY
vaccine contains trace amounts of neomycin
Following the United States polio vaccine
and streptomycin with no preservative (CDC,
trend in archiving its success in combating
2009 and Maigari et al., 2014).
the polio virus, the country used IVP
extensively from 1955 when it was first

licensed, until the early 1960s when type 1 enterovirus species found in the collected
and 2 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine samples, with an isolation rate (79.7 %)
(MOPV) were licensed. Shortly afterward consistently described by other authors in
type 3 MOPV became licensed in 1962; IVP different countries which included Abidjan,
was largely replaced in 1963 with the Finland and Iran.
licensed trivalent OPV in United States and
in most part of the world. However with the In the early vaccine era, after the introduction
development of an enhanced-potency IPV in of the polio vaccine, its incidence
1987, the United States based on the dramatically decreased to total of 2,525
recommendations of the Advisory paralytic cases were reported in 1961 to just
Committee on Immunization Practices 61 in 1965 and the last case was reported in
(ACIP) adopted a sequential polio 1979. Though America had re-introduction
immunization schedule that included 2 doses of the virus between 1980 through 1999
of IPV, followed by 2 doses of OPV. They (about 152 confirmed cases). Out of these,
discontinued the use of OPV in 2000 to few cases were imported but 95% of cases
reduce the costs as well as prevent re- were vaccine-associated paralytic polio
introduction of vaccine-derived and its (VAPP) caused by live oral polio vaccine
possible elimination (the global polio (CDC, 2009, 18).
eradication initiative, 2010, CDC, 2009,
The last case of VAPP acquired in the United
and Routh et al., 2014). Nigeria as of 2016
States was reported in 1999. In the year 2000,
adopted the steps of replacing the use of the
the United States recommended that IPV be
OPV with IPV on her way to eradicate this
used exclusively In order to eliminate VAPP
virus and prevents the possibilities of VAPP
from the United States. Between the years
re-introduction “Only the complete
2005 to 2009, a few cases were reported of
discontinuation of use of OPV would lead to
unvaccinated individuals thus led to initiation
complete elimination of VAPP” (CDC, 2009
of efforts to combat re-introduction of the
and Routh et al., 2014). The fact that IPV are
virus as the world is yet to be declared polio
administered via injection poses a major
free (CDC, 2009). Between year 2009 and
challenge as it has been reported to increase
2010, 22 other counties which were
susceptibility to polio (Animal Research
previously polio-free were reported to be re-
Success, 2012). This remains a challenge too
infected with polio virus from importations
if Nigeria decide to adopt IPV and needs to
(Tagbo, 2013).
adequately prepared.
The international community primarily led
Clean environment is key as it was reported by the world health organization (WHO), the
that improved sanitation in the immediate rotary international, the United States centre
prevaccine era, allowed less frequent for disease control and prevention (CDC),
exposure. A study conducted by Ndiaye et and the United Nations children’s fund
al., 2014 in Senegal, reported a wide variety (UNICEF) launched a global polio
of enteroviruses belonging to the four human eradication initiative in 1988 which was able

to drastically reduced polio cases by more Primary Health Care Development Agency,
than 99 % from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 2013).
to 1,874 in 2006 and 1,352 reported cases in
A study by Tegegne et al., 2018 reported that
2010 from 125 endemic countries in 1988 to
Ethiopia had five WPV importations between
3 in 2012 (Jesus, 2007and Tagbo, 2013).
2004 and 2008 was genetically linked to the
Though termed as safe and effective, polio
virus that originated from Nigeria through
vaccine is reported to have some side effects
Chad and Sudan. They also reported that
which include the unclear reason behind
there were zero cases in Africa by the end of
increased polio risk (paralysis) by injections
2015 but in August 2016, Nigeria reported
to polio vaccine immunized children as
four WPV cases after almost 2 years of polio-
reported by researchers in the early 1900
free status (Tegegne et al., 2018). This shows
(Miller, 2004).
that Nigeria surely needs eliminates this virus
THE NIGERIAN STATUS to declare Africa polio-free continent.
In Nigeria, polio vaccination is overseen by CONTRADICTION

the Nigeria's presidential task force on polio Polio remains endemic in Afghanistan, India,
eradication (PTFoPE), is in charge of the Nigeria and Pakistan (CDC, 2009, 18). This
implementation of the national polio is believed to be due to plagued by
eradication emergency plan with a goal of controversies worldwide which health
achieving interruption of polio transmission officials claims to be based on “unfounded
by December 2014. In 2008, Nigeria was rumors” about alleged adverse health effects,
reported to have the highest number of vaccine safety, contaminated with anti-
reported cases 0f 801 and closely followed by infertility agents (estradiol hormone), HIV
India with 559 reported cases (Ghosh, 2009). and cancerous agents (Nwozor, 2013 and
In the year 2013, Nigeria recorded great Jegede, 2007), “more vaccinated than
attainments with at least 58 % reduction in unvaccinated people get sick” (Maigari et al.,
the number of WPV1 cases compared to 2014). These accusations led to some
2012. In 2013, Borno, Yobe, Kano and countries such as Nigeria, boycotting
Bauchi states from the Northern part of the immunization with polio vaccine leading to a
country recorded an overall drop in 50 of noticeable decline in vaccine acceptance. The
infected local government areas as compared security challenge in the northern part of the
to that recorded in 2012. These 4 states country has put the polio eradication at risk.
accounts for 84 % of the total cases reported The federal, state governments and other
in 2013, with Borno and Yobe states stakeholders should regard the eradication of
accounting for 54 % of the 84 % cases polio as a national public health emergency.
recorded. This could be to inaccessibility of Misconceptions about polio vaccine have
significant number of LGAs to the vaccines remained a strong barrier in eliminating the
due to insecurity challenges, the major disease globally (Maigari et al., 2014).
setback in realization of goal (National

Immunization treatment schedule in Nigeria treatment (Horwin,2003; Miller, 2004 and

is 2 to 3 drops of oral polio vaccines Mehndiratta et al., 2014).
administered orally at certain intervals to
children within the range of 0-5 years Ronald Desrosier, a Harvard Medical School
(Maigari. et al, 2014). The standard dosage is professor, stated the possibility that SIV was
not understood by the people as such more possible a precursor to HIV and that polio
suspicions towards the authenticity of the vaccine was the means of transmission from
vaccine. Odoh Diego Okenyodo a pharmacy monkey to human. Japanese researchers
student as well as a journalist on Daily trust stated that the African green monkey should
newspaper of 2nd March 2013 voiced his not be used to produce polio vaccines as they
pseudo-science observations of the dosages have antibodies agent SIV (Miller, 2004).
of OPV compared to other disease conditions CONCLUSION
vaccine (Okenyodo, 2013).
It was reported that 10-30 % IPV and OPV Mangal et al, 2014 highlighted issues needed
produced and used between the year 1954 to to tackled for a complete eradication of the
1963 had traces of simian virus 40, SV-40 (a virus which include; vaccine efficacy which
monkey virus) and where administered to seems to be lower in northern states, secondly
millions of people world wide. SV-40 was coverage and population immunity remain
found in contaminated Sabin’s oral sugar too low to interrupt wild poliovirus
cube vaccine as well as in the kill virus transmission; and thirdly and most
vaccine as SV-40 is said to survive the heat importantly refusals and unawareness of
and formaldehyde. SV-40 is known to have vaccine availability or importance as they
oncogenic (cancer-causing) properties and belief to be reasons which dominate failure to
it’s also reported to alter the genetic material immunize children who develop
which could not be neutralized. SV-40 is a poliomyelitis. Nigeria might be able to have
catalyst for many types of cancer which has a total elimination of the virus if these
been found in many brain tumors, leukemia problems are being addressed. Nigeria
and recently in bone cancer and some recently launched of IPV which is hopefully
mesothelioma cancers, a deadly type of lung to eliminate the threat of cVDPVs and VAPP.
cancer (Horwin, 2003, Miller, 2004, Nwozor, This might also face some challenges due to
2013 Mehndiratta et al., 2014). its administration medium and thus need
more awareness as suggested by Tago, 2013.
It has been suggested that the virus and SV- There have been several tactical management
40 can be spread sexually and from mother to structures by the Nigerian government in
child in the womb, this could explain why collaboration with the global polio
some cancers rate are on the rise. A study eradication initiative (GPEI) which it
showed that children of mothers who strengthens could lead to total elimination of
received salk vaccine between 1959 and 1965 the virus.
have 13 times higher susceptible to cancer
than mothers who did not receive such

FUTURE PERSPECTIVE scientific advice from experts. The results of

such study might change the perspective of
Polio has no cure but can be prevented Nigerians, especially the Northern part of the
through immunization, hygiene, and country towards the vaccine and thus the
sanitation, thus environmental surveillance of country contributing its quarter towards
polio virus is critical for maintaining polio- achieving the global polio eradication team.
free areas and toward attaining global
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A. B., (2018) Characteristics of wild

APPLICATION OF ZINC FERRITE SILICA GEL COMPOSITE PHOTOCATALYSTS

FOR THE TREATMENT OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS
*PAUL E. D1, IBRAHIM D1 AND YASHIM Z. I1.

*
Department of Chemistry Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: elaoyi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The photocatalytic activity of the zinc ferrite silica gel composite photocatalysts was evaluated
using decolourization of Methylene Blue (MB) which revealed that 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2 was
found to have the best photocatalytic activity than 10 wt%, 20 wt% while 40 wt% showed
significant reduction in the photocatalytic activity which can be attributed to the increased
agglomeration of the zinc particle on silica gel, thereby decreasing the rate of diffusion of
photogenerated electron-hole pairs on the MB molecule at the interface of solid photocatalysts and
the MB solution. The SiO2 support improves the photocalytic activity of the ZnFe2O4 under visible
irradiation. The application of the best zinc ferrite silica gel composite photocatalysts to the
treatment of real textile effluent resulted more efficiency in the reduction of the effluent’s color,
COD, BOD than the bare zinc ferrite and the photolysis. 50% color removal, 46% COD and 45%
BOD with 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2 while 30% Color removal, 25% COD and 24% BOD with bare
ZnFe2O4 and 14% color removal, 10% COD, 10% BOD using photolysis.
Keywords: Zinc Ferrite, Silica gel, Photocatalysts, Textile effluents.
treatment, because they convert organic

INTRODUCTION contaminants to a large extent in to stable less
toxic compounds, such as carbon dioxide and
Water pollution due to the release of water. The high reactivity of hydroxyl radical
chemicals from industrial sectors has been a generated by the AOPs play an important role
major concern in recent times. The major in oxidizing the organic species present in
constituents of industrial effluents are heavy wastewater in to harmless species (Hameed
metals, pesticides, dyes, aliphatic and and Hassan et al., 2009). Heterogeneous
aromatic compounds, detergents, photocatalysis by semiconductor materials
chlorophenols, e.t.c. many conventional such as TiO2, ZnO, Fe2O3, CdS, GaP, and
methods (such as sedimentation, ZnS has indeed been widely used for the
chlorination, precipitation, etc.) are used to degradation of various organic and inorganic
treat these effluents and each method has its pollutants (Faber et al., 2005).
own merits and shortcomings (Nagaveni et
al., 2005). Recently, advanced oxidation Photocatalysts are important materials that
process (AOPs), especially photocatalysis, provide a relatively simple means for the
have become techniques for wastewater conversion of light energy including (solar
28 Paul E. D et. al, 2019

energy) for use in oxidation and reduction and water sample was analyzed both before
process. They utilize light energy (hv) to and after the treatment.
carry out oxidation and reduction reactions.
When irradiated with light energy, an MATERIALS AND METHODS
electron (e-) is excited from the valence band
Photocatalytic Decolouration of MB
(VB) to the conduction band (CB) of
Solution
photocatalysts leaving a photogenerated hole
(h+). The produced e- and h+enable oxidation A 100 ml/L stock solution of MB was
and reduction process to occur. When prepared using distilled water for all the
photocatalytic process takes place in aqueous experiments. The adsorption tests under dark
solutions, water and hydroxide ions react condition were carried out, for the evaluation
with photogenerated h+ to form hydroxyl of the adsorption- adsorption of MB on the
radicals (*OH) which is the primary oxidant surfaces of synthesized photocatalysts.
in the photocatalytic oxidation of organic 100ml of solution of MB was taken from the
compounds (Cao et al., 2007). stock solution and poured in to the beaker and
kept in the dark at room temperature with
Zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4) has been applied as a
continuous stirring for three and half hours.
visible light responsive photocatalyst for the
After one hour of continuous stirring in the
remediation of hazardous wastes,
dark, an aliquot of 5ml was withdrawn from
contaminated groundwater and control of
the beaker and then switched on the 500W
toxic air contaminants (Jadhav et al., 2010).
halogen lamp to provide irradiation for the
To enhance the photocatalytic activity of
two and half hours (2:30hours). 5ml of the
ZnFe2O4, several methods have been
aliquot was also withdrawn with a syringe at
proposed for its synthesis with unique size
regular interval of time; same procedure was
dependent, physical and chemical properties.
strictly followed for the decolourization of
Various composites of ZnFe2O4 (ZnFe2O4
methyl orange. About 100 ml of solution of
/TiO2, ZnFe2O4/ZnO etc) have also been
MB was taken in to a beaker; 0.1g of
synthesized and their photocatalytic activity
Photocatalysts was added then the suspension
is often higher than that of the bare ZnFe2O4
was kept in the dark at room temperature with
(Cao et al., 2007)
continuous stirring by the help of magnetic
In this work, ZnFe2O4 and ZnFe2O4/SiO2 stirrer. After one hour in the dark, 5ml of the
was used in varying proportion and the best suspension was taken and stored in a Vail for
photocatalys composite with the silica gel the analysis. The suspension was irradiated
ZnFe2O4 ratio was used to decolorize with source of halogen lamp while stirring of
Methylene Blue (MB) under visible the suspension continued. An aliquot of 5ml
irradiation using 500 W halogen lamps as a was taken for the beaker at regular interval of
model, then applied for the real treatment of 30 minutes. Then the catalysts were filtered
textile effluent. Also, in the process the and the samples were analyzed using UV-vis
physiochemical content of the textile effluent spectrophotometer. Same procedures were

followed for composite photocatalysts that is number of ZnFe2O4 active sites because
(ZnFe2O4 and ZnFe2O4/Silica gel) of (10 photocatalytic degredation occurs at the
wt%, 20 wt%, 30 wt%, and 40 wt %) active sites. However, percentage
photocatalytic degredation of MB decreased
Photocatalysts Degradation of MB when ZnFe2O4 loading increased to 40 wt%.
Solution The significant reduction of the
photocatalytic activity of sample containing
100 ml of solution of MB was taken in to a
40 wt% ZnFe2O4 can be attributed to the
beaker, 1.0g of Photocatalysts (ZnFe2O4 and
increased agglomeration of ZnFe2O4 particle
30 wt% ZnFe2O4/Silica gel was added. The
on SiO2 thereby decreasing the rate of
suspension was kept in dark at room
diffusion of photogenerated electron-hole
temperature with continuous stirring with the
pairs onto the MB molecules at the interface
help of a magnetic stirrer. After an hour in the
of solid photocatalyst MB solution.
dark, the suspension was then irradiated with
Retardation of the diffusion of electron-pairs
500 W halogen lamp while stirring of
decreases the extent of photocatalytic
suspension continued. An aliquot of 5 ml was
degredation (Li et al., 2011). Agglomeration
taken from the reactor at an interval of 30 min
of ZnFe2O4particle on the surface of SiO2
for 1 hour 40 min then the catalysts was
decreases the specific surface area and light
filtered and COD analysis of the sample was
penetration for an efficient photocatalytic
then carried out.
degradation. Similar observations were
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION reported for photocatalytic degradation of
methyl orange and Orange II dyes on
Photocatalytic decoulartion of MB as a suported α- Fe2O3 photocatalyst. Thus, 5 wt%
model using the synthesized photocatalyst α- Fe2O3 /zeolite-HY exhibited the highest
acitivty for degredation of methyl orange
The photocatalytic activity of the prepared
(Jaafar et al.,2012). 25 wt% Fe2O3/alumina
photocatalysts was first evaluated using MB
exhibited the highest degradation of oragne II
dye as a model substrate. MB is widely used
dyes (Li et al., 2011). in the present work,
dye and is often found in textile effluent. MB
highest photocatalytic degredation of MB
is also used as test molecule for evaluating
was achieved with 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2.
the activity of serries of photocatalyst
therefore the best loading of ZnFe2O4 on the
(Disanto and Wagner,1972). The effect of
SiO2 support is trade off between good
varying ZnFe2O4 loading (10, 20, 30 and 40
dispersion of ZnFe2O4 on the support and the
wt%) on SiO2support were investigated at an
amount of the photocatalytic active sites.
initial MB concentration of 50mg/l with a
Moreover Fu et al.,(2010) reported that SiO2
photocatalyst dosage of 1.0g/l it is clearly
support improves the formation of OH
seen in Fig.1 that the percentage
radicals by photocatalysts.
photocatalytic degradation of MB increases
with increase in the ZnFe2O4 loading from 10
wt% to 30 wt% due to the increase in the

Fig.1: Photocatalytic degradation of MB Fig.2: Effect of initial concentration of MB

using ZnFe2O4 and SiO2 Supported ZnFe2O4 on its photocalytic degradation using 30 wt%
ZnFe2O4/SiO2
The effect of the initial MB concentration on
its photocatalytic degradation using 30 wt% Photocatalytic treatment of textile effluent
ZnFe2O4/SiO2 was investigated by varying
MB concentration from 25 to 100mg/l. Fig.2 The properties of the raw treated textile
shows that the photocatalytic degradation effluent used in the work are presented in
decreased with increasing initial Table.1, also presented in the Table are the
concentration of MB, for instance, when the properties of the treated textile efleunt via
initial concentration of MB was increased photolysis and photocatalysis with ZnFe2O4
from 25 to 100 mg/l, the photocalytic and 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2. Due to the
degradation decreased from 59% to 17%, complex nature of most industrial effluents,
after 60 min of visible light irradiation. This the organic content of the effluents is
observation can be explained as follows: the measured using lamp parameters such as
generation of electrons and holes is the same Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),
for a given dosage of photocatalyst and Biological Oxyen Demand (BOD) and Total
intensity of the incident radiation. At higher organic carbon (TOC) etc. Conductivity and
initial concentation, MB molecules can TDS indirectly measure the amount of in-
absorb some of the incident radiation. This organic species (such as disolved salts) in the
will decrease the amount of available light effluent. As seen in Table 1. upon photolysis
photons that will drive the photocalytic of the effluent, smaller changes were
process (Jaafar et.al.,2012). observed in the properties of the effluent
degradation of the organic and inorganic
pollutants present in the effluent via
photocatalysis. The decrease in the effluent’s
PH is due to the release of CO2 during

photocatalytic degradation of organic inorganic and organometallic dyes and other

pollutants. The observed reduction of the pollutants
effluent’s condcutivity and TDS can be
attributed to photocatalytic decomposition of
Table 1: Properties of the raw and treated textile effluents
pH Conductivity Turbidity TDS BOD COD

(µs/cm) (NTU) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Raw effluent 11.81 3.07 8.80 1520 28.45 784
Effluent treated via photolysis 11.69 3.05 7.00 1510 25.61 706
Effluent treated via photocatalysis 10.01 2.67 6.52 1505 21.34 588
and ZnFe2O4
Effluent treated via photocatalysis 8.40 2.0 5.01 500 15.65 423
with 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2
Photocatalytic decolouration of textile information of more OH radicals in the

effluents presence of SiO2 as reported by Fu et al.,
(2010)
UV-Vis analysis of the treated effluent
provides information about the 60 50
decouloration (%)
decolourazation of the wastewater caused by

Percentage
40 30
photolysis and photocatalytic destruction of
20
the chromophores responsible for the colour 14
20
of the waster water (Boorman et.al.,1999).
The results of decolourization of textile 0
effluents are presented in Fig. 3 Irradiation
Photolysis SiO2 ZnFe2O4 ZnFe2O4/SiO2
of the textile effluent in the absence of
photocatalyst (photolysis) resulted in the Fig. 3: Decolourization of textile effluent via
removal of only 14% of the effluent’s initial photolysis and photocatalysis using ZnFe2O4
colour after 80 mins. When decolourization and 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2. [Irradiation time
of the textile effluent via photocatalysis – 80 mins. Photocatalysts dose - 0.1 g/L]
treatment under visible light was performed,
percentage decolourization of 30% and 50% Photocatalytic degradation of textile
were observed for ZnFe2O4 and 30 wt% effluent (COD removal )
ZnFe2O4/SiO2 respectively. Thus, 30 wt%
The results of COD removal from textile
ZnFe2O4/SiO2 is more effective in colour
effluent via photolysis and photocatalysis are
removal than ZnFe2O4. This higher
presented in Fig 4. It was found that
adsorption effeciency of 30 wt%
irradiation of textile effluent for 90 mins in
ZnFe2O4/SiO2 can be attributed to the

the absence of photocatalysts (photolysis) Photocatalytic degradation of textile

resulted in the COD removal of only 10%. effluent (BOD removal )
This indicates that the organic load of the
sample irradiated without photocatalysts did The results of BOD removal from textile
not change much, and the small COD effluent via photolysis and photocatalysis are
removal observed was due to the presented in Fig 5. It was found that
photochemical oxidation of the organic irradiation of textile effluent for 90 mins in
compounds present in the textile effluent the absence of photocatalysts (photolysis)
(Pelantridous et al., 2009). Therefore, resulted in the BOD removal of only 10%.
irradiation without photocatalysts is not This indicates that the organic load of the
sufficient to efficiently degrade the textile sample irradiated without photocatalysts did
effluent. When the solution was exposed to not change much, and the small BOD
visible light irradiation in the presence of removal observed was due to the
ZnFe2O4 and 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2 for 90 photochemical oxidation of the organic
mins, 25% and 46% COD was achieved, compounds present in the textile effluent
respectively. This evidently shows that 30 (Pelantridous et al., 2009). Therefore,
wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2 has better photocatalytic irradiation without photocatalysts is not
performance than the bare ZnFe2O4 for the sufficient to efficiently degrade the textile
treatment of the textile effluent. effluent. When the solution was exposed to
visible light irradiation in the presence of
ZnFe2O4 and 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2 for 90
50 46
mins, 25% and 45% BOD was achieved,
Percentage COD removal (%)
respectively. This evidently shows that 30

40
wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2 has better photocatalytic
30 25 performance than the bare ZnFe2O4 for the
treatment of the textile effluent.
20 17
Percentage BOD removal (%)
10 50 44
10
40
0 30 25
20 15
Photolysis SiO2 10
ZnFe2O4 ZnFe2O4/SiO2 10
0
Fig 4: COD removal from textile effluent via
photolysis and photocatalysis using ZnFe2O4 Photolysis SiO2 ZnFe2O4 ZnFe2O4/SiO4
and 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2. [irradiation time
– 80 mins. Photocatalyst dose – 0.1 g/L] Fig 5: BOD removal from textile effluent via
photolysis and photocatalysis using ZnFe2O4
and 30 wt% ZnFe2O4/SiO2. [irradiation time
– 80 mins. Photocatalyst dose – 0.1 g/L]

CONCLUSION photocatalytic applications. Journal of

Material Chemistry and Physics, 106:
Zinc ferrite silica gel composite showed 175-180.
better photocatalytic activity than bare zinc Disanto, A.R., Wagner, J.G. (1972).
ferrite and photolysis on the treatment of real Pharmacokinetics of highly ionized
textile effluent but the best result was drugs. II Methylelene blue
achieved through using 30 wt% zinc ferrite absorption, metabolism and excretion in
silica gel composites photocatalysts. Man and Dog after oral administration.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Science, 61:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1086-1090
The author is thankful to Chemistry Ezike, N. N., Udiba, U. U., Ogabiela, E. E.,
Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Akpan, N. S., Odey, M. O., Inuwa, B.,
Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria for providing Sule, A. M., and Gauje, B. (2012).
research facilities and encouragement. Assessment of the performance of
primary effluent treatment plant of
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INCIDENCE OF EXTENDED SPECTRUM BETA LACTAMASE PRODUCERS IN

CONTACT SURFACES OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS VENDORS IN KANO
METROPOLIS
*1DAHIRU A. T. 2SHAMSUDDEEN U. AND 3MUKHTAR M. D.

*1
Department of Hospitality Management, School of Technology, Kano State Polytechnic,
2, 3
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Bayero University Kano.
*Corresponding Author E-mail: dturajo61@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamases (ESBLs) are enzymes produced by certain types of bacteria
which break down the active ingredients in many of the common antibiotics making them inactive
or ineffective. There are atleast two hundred (200) different types of ESBL enzymes documented.
The first infection of ESBL was reported in Greece in 1960s. Infections with Extended Spectrum
Beta Lactamases (ESBLs) producing organisms are of great clinical significance because of their
association with refractile diseases in humans. It is therefore epidemiologically important to public
health to continue survey for the incidence of ESBLs from hands, knives and tables of meat and
meat products vendors in Kano metropolitan. A total of 96 swab samples of hands, knives and
tables (32 of each) of fresh meat, Balangu,Kilishi and Tsire vendors at different retailing points in
Kano metropolis were randomly collected using sterile swab sticks. Direct culture method using
Eosin Methylene Blue Agar was employed for the detection of enteric bacteria. Isolates were
identified using biochemical tests. Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute Break Point procedure
was used to confirm antimicrobial susceptibilities. From the 96 swab samples analyzed, the
following organisms were isolated Enterobacter aerogenes 5(14.29%), E-coli 17(48.57%),
Klebsiella pneumoniae 8(22.86%), Proteus mirabilis 3(08.67%), Salmonella species 2(05.71%).
Also, 12(34.29%) of the organisms were isolated from hands with the following percentages:
Enterobacter aerogenes 2(16.67%), E-coli 4(33.33%), Klebsiella pneumoniae 4(33.33%), Proteus
mirabilis 1(08.33%) and Salmonella species 1(08.33%). 11(37.14%) organisms were detected
from knives and reads as follows: Enterobacter aerogenes 2(18.18%) E-coli 6(54.54%), Klebsiella
pneumoniae 2(18.18%), Salmonella species 1(09.09%). 12(34.29%) organisms were isolated from
the tables which include Enterobacter aerogenes 1(08.33%), E-coli 7(58.33%), Klebsiella
pneumoniae 2(16.67%) and Proteus mirabilis 2(16.67%). Twelve 12(34.29%) of the enteric
bacteria isolates were confirmed ESBLs positive. Statistical analysis shows no significant
difference in the incidence of ESBLs among the different samples. It is recommended that hands
and tables should be sanitized and the meat be well protected with nylon leather cloth to prevent
meat contamination with enterobacteria.
Key words: Fresh Meat, Meat products, ESBLs, Sensitivity, Antimicrobials.
37 Dahiru A.T et. al, 2019

INTRODUCTION Meat and meat products can be contaminated

through contacts with utensils and
Microorganisms are in association with our equipments such as spoons, grinders, sausage
foods because of their ecological stuffers, pots and casings (Henok et al.,
predisposition and nutritional requirement 2015). However, the main source of
for their growth and development. More than contaminating bacteria is the exterior of the
400 foodborne illnesses were reported by the animal with great proportion coming from its
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention natural surface flora, water, soil, feed and
(2011). The illnesses are caused either by the manure, as well as the intestinal contents
microorganisms themselves or by the toxins (Ndahi et al., 2013).. Knives, cloths, air and
they produced (Assefa et al., 2015). Bacteria hands are secondary sources of bacteria to the
are one of the etiological agents of about two meat (Abubakar et al., 2014). These
thirds of foodborne diseases in both humans problems can pre-dispose the meat products
and animals with great clinical significance sold in these areas to contamination by
contributing to the high morbidity and members of the Enterobacteriaceae
mortality rate (Andes and Craig, 2012). familywhich are associated with poor
sanitary practices (Shamsuddeen et al.,
Extended-spectrum-beta-lactamases
2017). Enteric microbes that are believed to
(ESBLs) are plasmid-mediated beta-
be capable of being transmitted by food
lactamase of predominantly Bush class A, so
handlers include E. coli,Salmonella spp.,
far described only in gram negative bacilli
Shigella spp., Listeria monocytogenes,
(Emery and Weymouth, 1997). Extended-
Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium
Spectrum-Beta-Lactamases are capable of
butilinum, Campylobacter sp. Yersinia,
efficiently hydrolyzing penicillin, narrow
Citrobacter, and enterobacter species
spectrum cephalosporin (cefotaxime,
(Biswas et al., 2011). Pathogens originating
ceftazidine) and monobactams aztreonam).
from raw animal products such as Klebsiella
Beta-Lactamase, inhibitors (clavulanic acid,
and proteus can contaminate hands from
sulbactam and tazobactam) generally inhibit
where they could be transferred to foods,
ESBLs-producing strain (Naumoski and
equipment and other food workers (Assefa et
Paizkill, 1996).
al., 2015). Accordingly, the meat and related
The overall incidence of ESBL among products are being incriminated as sources
patient in Kano is 37.1%. Escherichia coli through which drug resistance bacteria could
recorded a incidence of 37.8% followed by be transmitted to humans or other animals
Klebsiella pneumoniae with 36.4%.) with and with epidemiological consequences.
4.8% in Saudi Arabia an incidence rate of
Antibiotics such as cephalosporins
12% in Younde, Cameroun, 15.8% and
carbapenems, penicillins and monobactams
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. ( Yusuf et al., 2011)
are reported to have lethal effect on bacteria
by inhibiting bacterial cell wall biosynthesis,
targeting the penicillin-binding proteins
(PBPs). The beta-lactam ring binds to these Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamases have
different PBPs, rendering them useless to been reported to be disseminated through
perform their role in cell wall synthesis. This foods, vegetables and water by many workers
then leads to death of the bacterial cell due to (Ananias and Roland, 2017). It is therefore
osmotic instability or autolysis (Deepti the intention of the current work to monitor
and Deepthi, 2010). Beta-lactam antibiotics meat being processed by butchers for the
are the most effective and commonly used presence of ESBLs Producers from hands,
agents in the treatment of infectious diseases knives and tables of meat and meat products
(Öztürk et al., 2015). They are mainly semi- vendors in Kano Metropolis, Kano, State,
synthetic compounds, originating from fungi Nigeria. This is with the view to addressing
and bacteria found in the environment Hazard Analyses and Critical Control Point
constituting of about 60% of the worldwide (HACCP) areas requiring better attention in
antibiotic usage (Andes and Craig, 2012 ; order to promote public health and food
Öztürk et al., 2015). Some beta-lactams have hygiene habit in the society.
a very narrow antimicrobial spectrum, while
others have a very broad spectrum and targets MATERIALS AND METHODS
both Gram-positive and Gram-negative
Field Survey for the Study Area and
bacteria (Deepti and Deepthi, 2010).
Population
However, few in the bacterial population
The survey was conducted in Kano
termed as Extended Spectrum Beta
Metropolitan, Kano State, Nigeria with a
Lactamase producers (ESBLs)
population of 13 million people (NPC, 2017)
are resistant against β-lactam antibiotics
(11.7574° N, 8.6601° E). Kano is one of the
(Maria, 2012). Resistance against beta-
commercial centers of livestock in West
lactams is primarily mediated by a structural
Africa (Maigari and Dabo, 2018). According
change of the penicillin PBPs or by bacterial
to Dossa et al (2015), livestock keeping is the
production of enzymes. Other mechanisms
most popular Urban Agriculture (UA)
are decreased permeability or active
practitioner households in Kano State, and
transportation via efflux pumps (Deng et al;
that household involved in livestock keeping
2013). More than 1,000 different β-lactamase
accounted for about 90% of UA. Meat and
enzymes have been reported in various
meat products is significant portion of the
species of bacteria with wide variations in
diet of a large population in Kano. These
their chemical structure and catalytic
products are commonly sold as ready to eat
activities (Tidwell, 2008). When bacterial
products within Kano Metropolis.
populations have these resistant subgroups,
treatment with β-lactam can result in Sample Collection and Processing
widespread and more potent resistant strain
(İsmail and Haydar, 2016). Thirty-two (32) Swab samples (each) of
hand, knives and tables of Fresh meat,
Balangu, Kilishi and Tsire vendors were
randomly collected using sterile swab sticks Confirmatory Test for Coliforms
containing 1ml of peptone water from
different selling centers within the Confirmatory test for coliform was carried
Metropolis. out as described by Shamsuddeen (2015). A
loopful from each gas positive tube from the
The samples were thoroughly shaken and presumptive test was inoculated into a
1ml pipetted into test tubes containing 9mls separate tube containing Eosine Methylene
of peptone water (10-1). The test tubes were Blue agar plate (EMB) and the tubes were
further diluted to 10-5 as described by Food incubated at 37+10C for 24hours. Formation
and Agricultural Organization of the United of bluish black colony with green metallic
Nations (FAO, 1979). sheen and reddish colonies confirms the
presence of coliform bacteria. The numbers
Enumeration of Coliform Bacteria of positive tubes were recorded and the most
probable number of the Coliforms was
The Most Probable Number (MPN) method
determined from an MPN index table.
was used for the enumeration of coliform
Positive colonies from the confirmatory test
bacteria as described by Atlas (1997). Each
were further sub cultured into tubes of lactose
of the three tubes containing 9ml of Lactose
broth at 37 OC for 24 hours for gas
broth with an inverted Durham tube was
production. This is completed test for
autoclaved to expel air and sterilized. Each
coliform. Colonies were then preserved on
tube was inoculated with 1ml of the swab
nutrient agar slant at 0oC for further analysis.
sample to give a dilution of 10-1. From these
dilution 1ml aliquots each was transferred to Identification of Isolates
another set of 3 tubes of lactose broth (LB) to
make a dilution of 10-2. The same procedure Gram staining was carried out to identify the
was followed to give a dilution of 10-3. All morphological features of the isolates.
the tubes were incubated at 370C for 24 Biochemical tests such as motility, IMVIC
hours. Tubes that showed gas and acid Tests, Urease production, Oxidase, Triple
production after 24 hours were recorded as Sugar Iron Agar Test (TSI) were conducted
positive for the presence of Coliforms. according to standard procedure for the
Negative tubes were further re-incubated for identification of bacterial colonies as
24 hours after which positive tubes were described by Cheesbrough, (2005). The
recorded. Number of gas positive tubes was enteric bacteria were further confirmed using
compared with the most probable number API 20E identification kit.
table to obtain the estimated number of
Coliforms per gram of sample (MPN/g) at Screening of Isolates for ESBLs
95% P-value.
Inoculums Standardization
The isolates were cultured on prepared Brain

Heart Infusion (BHI) Agar (Biotech,

England) plates and incubated at 37oC for 24 of an Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamases
hours so as to obtain confluent growth for (ESBLs).
sensitivity test. Few colonies of isolates from
BHI plates were dispensed in sterile normal Double Disc Synergy Test (DDST) For
saline to match the 0.5 McFarland standards Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamases
for sensitivity tests. Confirmation
Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing The confirmatory test for the presence of

ESBLs was performed using the procedure
The antibiotics susceptibility test of the employed by (Yusha’u et al. 2010 ;
isolates was performed on Mueller–Hinton Shamsuddeen et al. 2017). A sterile swab
agar by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion technique stick was used for inoculation on to the
and results interpreted according to criteria surface of prepared Mueller-Hinton Agar
recommended by the CLSI, (2011). (Biotech, England). Augmentin (Oxoid
England) disc was gently placed at the center
Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute of the inoculated agar plate and a disc of
(CLSI) Break point for ESBLs Screening Ceftriaxone (CXN) (30ug) (Oxoid England)
20mm apart (center to center). Another disc
One to 5 colonies was picked from a purity
of ceftazidime (CAZ) (30ug) was also placed
plate, with a sterile wire loop and emulsified
on the plate 20mm (center to center) from the
into 5 ml of sterile saline in a test tube. The
Augmentin disc. Synergistic effect of both
saline was stirred with the loop to uniformly
the Ceftriaxone disc and the Ceftazidime disc
mix the colonies in the saline. The turbidity
towards the Augmentin disc were observed.
of the saline was adjusted to match the
Clear extension of the edge of either or both
standard McFarland Standard No. 0.5,
Ceftriaxone and ceftazidime inhibition zone
Biomerieux. Then antibiotic discs
towards the Augmentin disc confirms the
ceftaxidime (CAZ)(30µg) Oxoid, England
presence of ESBLs.
and Ceftriaxone (CXN) (30 µg) Oxoid,
England were independently and gently Statistical Analysis
placed on the agar surface and the plates
incubated at 37 OC aerobically for 18-24 Chi square test of independence was used to
hours. The diameters of zones of inhibition analyze the categorical data for the analysis
around each disc, was measured using a ruler, of meat contact surfaces using Maxstat
and compared against the zone diameter software version 3.0.
interpretative standards recommended by the
Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
(2011). Zone diameter of inhibition equal to
Ninety-six (96) swab samples of Hands,
or less than 22mm for Ceftaxidime and less
Knives and Tables of meat and meat product
than or equal to 25mm for Ceftriaxone discs
vendors were analyzed for the presence of
were interpreted as positive for the presence
ESBLs from which thirty-five (35) enteric
41
Dahiru A.T et. al, 2019
bacterial species were isolated, thus, re- The transmission of pathogenic bacteria from
establishing the occurrence of bacteria in the environment and the unhygienic
meat and meat products. This is in processing utensils to the hands, knives or
conformity with the findings of Henok et al. tables of the vendors then finally to the foods
(2015) in a similar study conducted on meat is facilitated by imperfect hand washing
and meat products. Out of the 35 enteric (Ananias and Roland, 2017). The use of dirty
bacteria isolated, E. coli had the highest items and for mites by the vendors,
percentage of Incidence with 17(48.57%), inadequate personal hygiene and the use of
followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae unsafe processing water might contribute to
8(22.86%) with Salmonellaspecie having the the presence of Klebsiella and other coliform
least count 2(05.71%). The high frequency of on the hand of the vendors (Bukar et al.,
E. coli indicates that the sources are 2010). Usually all processing of meat and
contaminated. The presence of E-coli on meat products including retailing of the
hands, knives or tables of the vendors is an finished products are carried out on wooden
indication of faecal cross contamination tables, this may give room to cross
probably at one stage of preparation or from contamination and might be the reason for
the processing materials used (Shamsuddeen higher coliform counts when compared with
and Dahiru, 2018). The microbiological bacterial counts on knives. When these
quality of meat and meat products is strongly organisms are transferred from hands to the
influenced by the conditions of hygiene food could cause mild to severe infections
existing during their production and such as diarrhea, typhoid and cholera (CDC,
handling. The natural source of E. coli is the 2011). The most obvious sources of faecal
human intestine and although most strains are coliform is the intestine and the skin surfaces
harmless, some serotypes 0157:H7 can cause of the animal, then followed by knives, tables
serious illness (Assefa et al., 2015). E. coli is and other processing utensils which can
not commonly found on hands, but its directly get on to the hands of vendors
presence gives a better indication of recent through cross contamination. These faecal
fecal contamination with enteric pathogens coliform can be transferred to the products if
probably during processing (Moshood et al., not properly processed. The high occurrence
2012). In a similar study conducted by of Gram-negative bacteria is an indication of
Ananias and Roland (2017) on roasted beef poor sanitary conditions of processing and
samples, it is noted that having functional mishandling (Iheagwara and Okonkwo,
hand washing facilities is critical to the 2016).
control of E. coli. Cross-contamination may
occur as a result of handling meat or meat The 35 enterobacterial isolates were
products with unwashed hands which subjected for ESBLs screening using CLSI
consequently leads to the introduction of Break point procedure, and 12(34.29%) were
microbes on the products. found to be ESBLs positive. Bacterial
isolates from the hands and tables of the
vendors were found to be having the highest
percentage of the ESBLs organisms 4(33.33%) were detected from tables and
12(34.29%) each, when compared with those 1(08.33%) from knives. Hand involvement in
detected from Knives 11(31.42%). Among the production and retailing activities
the ESBLs organisms, E-coli was the most coupled with its participation in daily
prevalent 8(66.665), followed by Klebsiella activities may contribute to its high bacterial
2(16.67%) and Enterobacter 2(16.67%). counts. In a cross-sectionalstudy carried out
in Malysia by Aliyu et al. (2016) indicates
ESBLs confer resistance to most beta-lactam that majority of the meat vendors are using
antibiotics, including 3rd- and 4th-generation the same water placed in a container to wash
cephalosporins, which led to increased their hands and utensils throughout the
prevalence of enterobacteriaceae (Alejandro, retailing period, thus the contaminated water
2013). Studies conducted by Sarah et al. continued to contaminate subsequent meat,
(2014) have demonstrated similar pathogenic contact surfaces and processing environment
E. coli and Klebsiella strains on contact (Table 1). Most of the local producers in
surfaces of meat products. Heat treatment and Nigeria use wooden tables for meat and meat
hand hygiene prevent transmission, but hand products preparations processing and
could be re contaminated by touching used retailing, this may lead to cross
items during preparation (Sarah et al., 2014). contamination under unsanitary conditions.
Direct contact with human or animal carriers Being pathogenic, these microorganisms may
and the environment are great sources of E- cause outbreak of diseases when consumed.
coli especially to our foods and most of these Poor hygienic practices may as well lead to
transmissions are via hands of the working the transfer of plasmids from the
personnel (Hetty et al., 2013). environment to the non ESBLs producing
isolates hence acquiring plasmids for ESBLs
Higher ESBLs counts 7(58.33%) were
production (Shamsuddeen and Dahiru,
detected from the hands of vendors while
2018).
Table 1: Distribution of ESBLs Organisms Isolated from swab samples of Hands, Knives and
Tables of Meat and Meat Product Vendors in Kano Metropolis
Isolated organisms Hands Knives Tables Total Organisms

N E NE N E NE N E NE Isolated
Enterobacter aerogenes 2 1 1 2 0 2 1 1 0 5
Eschericia coli 4 3 1 6 1 5 7 2 3 17
Klebsiella pneumoniae 4 1 3 2 0 2 2 1 1 8
Proteus mirabilis 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 2 3
Salmonella specie 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 2
Total 12 7 5 11 1 10 12 4 8 35
Key: N= Number Isolated E = ESBLs , NE = Non- ESBLs

CONCLUSION educated on the ill effects of eating

contaminated food products. Maintenance of
Results of the study indicated that the hands, good personal hygiene, prompt sanitation of
Knives and tables of meat and meat product all meat contact surfaces and environmental
vendors were contaminated with pathogens sanitation is as well essential to minimize the
such as E. coli spp and Salmonella. The risk of direct and cross-contamination of the
presence of these pathogenic microbes on meat and meat products. This will ensure
contact surfaces when transferred to the meat meat quality and public health protection.
products could pose a serious public health
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FULL FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF PARAMETERS USED FOR CRUDE OIL

CLEANUP FROM CONTAMINATED SOIL USING ZNCL2 BASED DEEP EUTECTIC
SOLVENT (DES) AS SOLVENT
1*
E. A. AUDU, 2P. A. EKWUMEMGBO, 3S. UBA AND 4I. M. ENGAH
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Nigeria
Corresponding Author: ephraim.audu@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
A new strategy of crude oil cleanup from contaminated soil using synthesized DES based on zinc
chloride/acetamide was studied. The ability for cleaning up crude oil from soil was investigated
under different condition and was optimized using full factorial design of experiment.
Physiochemical analysis of synthesized DES showed viscosity to be 26.0cp at 28 °C, pH was found
to be 5.4, density was 1.32 g/cm3 and the flammability test confirmed the solvent to be non-
flammable. Factors considered for the optimization of cleanup include solvent volume,
temperature and contact time. Experiment was carried out in duplicates generating 16 runs giving
percentage yields of 40%,54%,58%, 56%, 44%, 56%, 28%, 78%, 41%, 54%, 58%, 54% 48%,
60%, 32% and 81% from standard run order of 1- 16 respectively. From the results, run 16 gave
the best yield of 81% with optimal conditions (A+ B+ C+) at 25 mL solvent volume, 120°C
temperature and 30 min contact time. Run 7 gave the least yield of 28%. Results were subjected
to various analyses using Minitab 18.0 to find significant factors, effect of factors and interactions.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that at SV and T were significant factors at p = 0.05.
However, CT was statistically not significant at the same confidence level. Perato chart ranked the
order of factor and interaction effect as: SV > SV*T*CT > SV*CT > T > SV*T > T*CT > CT
with SV being the most effective factor and CT being the least effective at P = 0.05. Main effect
analysis showed that SV is the most significant factor with individual effect of 61% yield followed
by T with individual yield of 56% and CT is the least with yield of 53%. Model Summary for the
optimization of cleanup parameters showed the predicted R-Squared value of 0.972 which is in
reasonable agreement with the R-Squared adjusted value of 0.9897. From the results, the
application of the DES as solvent for crude oil cleanup was found to be effective with optimal
cleanup at run 16.
Keywords: Deep eutectic solvent, ionic liquids, cleanup, Total petroleum hydrocarbon
INTRODUCTION problematic worldwide (Okereke et al.,

2007). Oil sands are combination of crude oil,
Oil spillage is the discharge of crude oil into sand and water which is bound together
either soil or water a result of activities such (Fekete, 2009). These can be treated and be
as accidental spillage or intentional spillage. converted into gasoline, diesel fuels and other
Oil-spill pollution is hazardous and
48 Audu E.A et. al, 2019

useful products. Problems associated with ambient temperature and have properties that
crude oil pollution have been present since are very similar to ionic liquids (ILs). DES
the beginning of petroleum exploration in and ILs are more environmentally friendly
Nigeria (Okoh et al., 2001). Contaminated than traditional volatile organic solvents
soil damages body system due to the because of their near-zero volatility,
accumulation of pollutants in tissues of suggesting that these are attractive
animals and plant which may result to alternatives for solvents use in chemistry.
mutations and possibly death on the long run. Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) are possible
Spillage of crude oil has the tendency to green replacements for organic solvents for
cause serious health implications to chemical reactions, extractions and
organisms in the sea and those close to the biotransformation. They are not volatile,
shore (Rodríguez-Martínez, 2006). stable to heat and their solvation properties
vary by altering the cation or anion. (More et
In Niger Delta, large amount of harmful al., 2014). These types of solvents have high
chemicals entering the environment are on capacity to make new technologies which
the increase (Eregha & Irughe, 2009; Linden have more potential applicability.
& Palsson, 2013). These harmful chemicals
get into the environment through various Solvent extraction is a widely used
ways such as leaching and seepage, technology for soil remediation, in which
extraction, transportation, distribution, contaminants are removed from soil using a
storage and refining (UNEP, 2011). Human single or mixture of solvents (Gan et al.,
activities which contaminate the environment 2009). Soil contaminated with crude oil can
can be controlled to reduce crude oil spillages be cleaned using reagent and solvent which
by monitoring of oil infrastructure with state- are capable of removing the contaminants
of-the-act technology (Zabbey, 2016). Crude from the soil (Lim et al., 2016 ; Yao et al.,
oil spillage cannot be controlled until proper 2012).
policies and improved technologies for
detection are implemented. Other ways in The aim of this paper is to carry out full
which spillage can be prevented from getting factorial analysis of cleanup parameters used
into the environment is by controlling in crude oil cleanup from contaminated soil
leakages from wellhead, pipelines, overflow using ZnCl2 based Deep eutectic solvent
and stop dumping of contaminated soil (DES) as solvent.
(Kadafa, 2012; Nwilo & Badejo, 2006). MATERIALS AND METHODS
Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) are Synthesis of deep eutectic solvent (DES)
combination of two compounds that has the
lowest melting point and depression of Zinc chloride/Acetamide DES was prepared
freezing point related to the strength of by heating ZnCl2: (acetamide) CH3CONH2 in
interaction between the two components a 1:4 molar ratio. ZnCl2 (0.125 mol = 17.0393
(Abbott et al., 2003). They are liquids at g) and acetamide (0.5 mol = 29.5350 g) were

°
weighed and then transferred to a beaker Temperature T 100 120 C
(Kumari et al., 2016). The beaker was placed Contact time CT 15 30 Mins
on a magnetic stirrer at 80 °C and stirred at
RESULTS
300 rpm until a homogenous liquid formed.
Results for the physiochemical properties of
Sample collection
synthesize DES is presented in Table 2. The
The contaminated soil was collected within
parameters analysed for the DES include-
Warri Refining and Petrochemical Company
pH, viscosity, density and flammability test.
Limited (WRPC), a Subsidiary of Nigerian
National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) Table 2: Physiochemical Properties of DES
Delta state, Nigeria. Six samples were taken
Parameter Values
within the depth of 0 to 10 cm each around
pH 4.3
pump house A and used to form a composite Viscosity 26.0 cP (28°C)
sample. Soil samples were poured inside Density 1.32 g/cm3
sterile labeled polyethylene bags which were Flammability Not flammable
carried to the laboratory. Clean
uncontaminated soil was collected within the
Table 3: Results for full factorial design of
same location and poured inside sterile
experiment for crude oil cleanup from
labeled polyethylene bags too. Samples were
contaminated soil using DES based on
prepared through hand picking of dirt, stone,
ZnCl2/CH3CONH2
irons etc., air dried and filtered using 2 mm
sieves. Runs SV T CT %Yield
Optimization 1 - - - 40
2 + - - 54
The soil extraction conditions were 3 - + - 58
optimized using full factorial design of 4 + + - 56
experiment (FFD). In this study, the factors 5 - - + 44
adopted were solvent volume, temperature 6 + - + 56
7 - + + 28
and contact time. Table 1 illustrates the coded
8 + + + 78
and actual operating conditions of the factors 9 - - - 41
to be optimized. 10 + - - 54
11 - + - 58
Table 1: Parameters for the full factorial 12 + + - 54
design of experiment for crude oil cleanup 13 - - + 48
from contaminated soil using DES based on 14 + - + 60
15 - + + 32
ZnCl2/CH3CONH2
16 + + + 81
Factors symbols Low High unit
level (-) level (+) key: +high-level and - low level
Solvent volume SV 15 25 mL

Table 4: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for the optimization of cleanup parameters of soil
contaminated with crude oil using type IV DES based on ZnCl2/CH3CONH2
Source DF MS F-Value P- Value

Model 7 425.82 109.89 0.000
Linear SV 7 1296.00 334.45 0.000
T 1 144.00 37.16 0.003
CT 1 9.00 2.32 0.061
2 way SV*T 1 110.25 28.45 0.001
interaction SV*CT 1 650.25 167.81 0.000
T*CT 1 42.25 10.90 0.011
3 way SV*T*CT 1 729.00 188.13 0.004
interaction
Error 2.06
Figure 1: main effect plots for yield for the Figure 2: Pareto chart of standardized effects
optimization of cleanup parameters of soil for the optimization of cleanup parameters of
contaminated with crude oil. soil contaminated with crude oil.
SV=solvent volume, + = high level A=solvent volume B= temperature C=

T= temperature, - = low level contact time
CT= contact time
AC, AB, BC, ABC= factors interaction

DISCUSSION Main effect analysis
Optimization of cleanup parameters The main effects plot shows how each of the
analyzed responses changes within the
The result of the optimization parameters for boundaries of the stated upper and lower limit
the cleanup of crude oil from contaminated factor values. Fig. 1 shows that the increase
soil using type IV DES based on in values for SV, T and CT stimulated the
ZnCl2/CH3CONH2 using full factorial design raise in the cleanup efficiency. Solvent
of experiment (FFD) is shown in Table 3. The volume SV has the highest increase (61%)
experiment is carried out in duplicate which when the values change from low to high (15
produce 16 runs with their corresponding to 25 mL) cleanup was significantly
percentage yields. The result shows run 16 enhanced. This shows that increase in solvent
has the best yield of 81% while run 7 gave the volume promotes extraction of the crude
lowest yield of 28%. from soil as the interaction between the oil
contaminants and solvent is enhanced. Crude
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
oil desorption from the soil surface is favored
ANOVA results for the optimization of at higher volumes. This result is in agreement
cleanup parameters of crude oil from with a study by Li et al, (2012) and another
contaminated soil using the synthesized DES study by Islam et al., (2012) which shows that
is presented in Table 4. The Table indicates higher solvent volume favors higher removal
that in both the linear parameters SV and T, efficiency of oil contaminants from soil.
the effects are significant on removal of crude
Effect of increase in temperature shows
oil from the contaminated soil at p = 0.05.
increase in cleanup efficiency of 56%. As the
Similarly, the response levels of the
temperature values changes from low to high,
interactions of independent variables SV*T,
viscosity reduces; this invariably will
SV*CT, T*CT are all significant at p = 0.05.
enhance the removal of oil from soil. The
However the independent variable CT is
reduction in viscosity will lead to the
statistically not significant at p = 0.05.
mobilization of oil, which creates an avenue
Likewise F-values of all parameters and
for its separation from soil (Alomair et al,
interactions were above critical values which
2014; Urum et al, 2005).
implies they are all significant at p = 0.05
except the F- value of CT which is 2.31 and The response observed for the change in
hence not a significant factor. The Predicted values from low to high of contact time CT
R-Squared value (R2 = 0.9721) and the (53%) is not very steep as seen in the graph.
adjusted R2 value (0.9807) indicate that the This means that there is no much increase in
model was well correlated. cleanup efficiency when values change from
low to high values. A study by Taki et al.,
(2018) gave similar results which showed

that crude oil removal increased little as run applied in crude oil cleanup from
time is increased. contaminated soil.
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means it has a negative effect on the cleanup (2014) A viscosity prediction model
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ANALYSIS OF SOME PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF EFFLUENTS AND

RAW WATER FROM CHALLAWA TEXTILE INDUSTRY, KANO STATE, NIGERIA
*IBRAHIM D1, PAUL E. D1 AND YASHIM Z. I1.

1
*Department of Chemistry Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: thrbrhm@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Assessment of some physicochemical properties and raw water of Challawa Textile Industry Kano,
State, Nigeria revealed that some of the effluents are highly impacted at the discharge point than
the upstream and downstream; for instance, the pH, 11.14mg/l, total solids (TS), 520mg/l and total
dissolved solids (TDS), 500mg/l but restored to normal downstream to 7.15, 170mg/l, 40mg/l
respectively. However, the chromium (Cr), 0.74ppm copper (Cu) 0.43ppm and zinc (Zn) 6.33ppm
contents of water from the effluents recipient river were greatly increased to levels much higher
than are considered safe to the environment and human health
Keywords: Physicochemical properties, Effluents, Raw water, Textile Industry
INTRODUCTION necessary priority it deserves; therefore,

industrial waste and domestic sewage are
Rapid growth of industries during the past discharged into receiving water bodies
200 years has resulted in a significant without treatment. The consequence of this is
increase in the quantities of effluents released increased river pollution, loss of aquatic life
into the soil and aquatic environments (Sethy and uptake of polluted water by plants and
et al., 2011). animals which eventually gets into human
body resulting in health-related problems.
Industrial activities among other things are a
The situation is compounded by the fact that
major source of environmental pollution;
the common man in most of these countries
Water ecosystem for example is majorly
does not have access to portable water and in
affected by various industrial activities such
many instances; raw river water is used as
as mining, cement production, soap and
source of drinking. (Suriptono and Newman,
detergent productions and textile
2000).
manufacturing (Venkatesharaju et al., 2010).
Developing and especially densely populated Textile industries use a lot of water in their
countries like Nigeria has most of its water various manufacturing stages (i.e. scouring,
bodies contaminated by industrial effluents bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, printing and
as river water is considered means of final finishing) and hence they generate a lot
industrial effluent disposal (Kayode, 2010). of waste water. Effluents released from these
Waste water treatment is not given the operations usually contain a significant
56 Ibrahim D et. al, 2019

amount of pollution load, as hundreds of dyes concentration. The absorbance was being
and auxiliary chemicals are used in the most plotted against concentration of the calibrated
complex stages of wet processes (i.e. dyeing samples. These calibration curves were store
and printing) and this is usually discharge in the system and the concentration of the
into water bodies half treated or untreated unknown sample was calculated directly
(Jamaluddin et al., 2009). from the absorbance.
In this research work some physicochemical Temperature

properties of effluents and raw water from
African Textile industry in Challawa linked Temperature (Celsius) was measured on site
to Challawa River was analyzed in which using procedure provided in the HACH
some of the physicochemical properties were conductivity/TDS/temperature Meter (model
above the permissible limits both in the 44600.00) manual.
effluents, downstream and upstream while The electrode of the meter was immersed into
some normalized downstream each sample long enough to permit accurate
and stable reading and the temperature icon
MATERIALS AND METHODS on the meter was pressed. The temperature
value in Celsius was displayed on the screen
Assessment of heavy metals and of the meter and the reading was recorded.
physicochemical parameters of the textile
effluent and treated water samples pH
Standard methods for the assessments of The pH was measured on site using a Hanna
heavy metals and physio-chemical contents instrument pH 210 microprocessor PH meter.
of effluent and water samples was used in this The electrode of the pH meter was rinsed
study as described in details below. thoroughly first with distilled water. To
standardize the pH meter to a pH 7.0 as
UV-Visible Spectroscopic Analysis instructed in the manual, it was immersed
into a buffer solution. The pH meter was
A PC based UV-Vis spectrophotometer was
adjusted using a screw 7.0 pH meter. The
used for the determination of concentration
electrode was then removed and inserted into
of samples. The system was switched on and
each of the textile effluent and water samples
warmed up to 30 minutes and thoroughly
and the pH of the samples was taken after
clean quartz cuvettes were used. One cuvette
some few seconds.
was used as reference and the other one was
used for compound whose absorbance was Electrical conductivity
measured at maximum wavelength. To get
the relationship between concentration and Electrical conductivity (micro siemens per
absorbance of the compound, a calibration meter µS/m) was measured on site using
curve was used. Calibration solutions were procedure provided in HACH
made from standard solutions of known

conductivity/TDS/temperature Meter (model Biological oxygen demand (BOD)

44600.00) manual as described below.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is the
The textile effluent and water samples were amount of oxygen required by
gently shaken to mix. The electrode of the microorganisms to stabilize biologically
meter was rinsed thoroughly first with decomposable organic matter in water under
distilled water. The electrode of the meter aerobic condition, the BOD test is widely
was then immersed into each of the sample used to determine (1) the degree of pollution
long enough to permit accurate and stable in water bodies at any time and their
reading and the electrical conductivity icon purification capacity, (2) the pollution load of
on the meter was pressed. The electrical waste water and (3) efficiency of water
conductivity values in micro siemens per treatment plant.
meter (µS/m) was displayed on the screen of
The BOD was determined following the
the meter and was recorded.
method of Ademoroti, (1996). The textile
Dissolved oxygen (DO) effluent and water samples were pre-treated
with 0.5M acid (HCl) or 1M alkali (NaOH)
Dissolved oxygen is important in water to a pH 7. Using a volumetric flask, 60ml
systems for its effect on other chemicals in (20%) of the textile effluent was transferred
the water; it oxidizes, organic and inorganic into two separate 300 ml BOD bottles and
matter altering their chemical and physical covered with a glass stopper. The BOD
states and their capacity as a nuisance to the bottles were labelled DO1 and DO5
consumers (APHA, 1992). The type of life in representing the initial dissolved oxygen of
a natural water depends on the amount of DO day 1 and final dissolved oxygen of day 5
present. Most micro-organisms use free DO after incubation respectively. The BOD
for respiration APHA, (1992). The level of bottles containing the samples were then
the dissolved oxygen in the textile effluent filled to the brim with dilution water. The
and water samples was measured on site BOD bottles were gently covered using a
using procedure provided in HACH stopper without leaving any air bubble inside
DRELL/2400 manual as described below: the bottle. The initial dissolved oxygen (DO1)
The textile effluent and water samples were was measured and recorded on that same day
gently shaken to mix. The electrode of the using procedure provided in HACH
meter was rinsed thoroughly first with DRELL/2400 manual as described above.
distilled water. The electrode of the meter The second BOD (DO5) will be incubated for
was then immersed into each of the sample five days in the dark at 200C in a cooled
10-40 min hours enough to permit accurate incubator. After the incubation period, the
and stable reading and the dissolved oxygen final dissolved oxygen content was measured
icon on the meter was pressed. The dissolved and recorded. The BOD of the textile effluent
oxygen value in mg/l was then displayed on and water samples was calculated using the
the screen of the meter and recorded. formula;

BOD (mg/l) = (DO1– DO5) x volume BOD bottle used of the empty crucible dish was subtracted
Volume of sample used
from the weight of crucible after drying to
give the weight of total residue. The total
Measurement of chemical oxygen demand
solids were then calculated using the formula
(COD)
below:
COD is the quality of oxygen required by Total solids = weight of total residue x 1000 (mg/l)
bacteria during biodegradable and Volume (ml) of sample used
transformation of oxidized organic matter
and oxidazable inorganic matter Total dissolved solids
COD can be determined when the sample is Total dissolved solids (mg/l) were measured
refluxed with excess potassium dichromate on site using procedure provided in the
with sulphuric acid in the presence of HgSO4 HACH conductivity /TDS /temperature
to remove any interference due to nitrate and Meter (model 44600.00) manual.
AgSO4 as catalysts. The excess potassium
The samples were gently shaken to mix. The
dichromate remaining un-reacted is then
electrode of the meter was rinsed thoroughly
titrated with standard solution of ferrous
first with distilled water. The electrode of the
ammonium sulphate.
meter was then immersed into each sample
COD can be calculated as: for 10 – 40 min long enough to permit
(𝑉1−𝑉2)∗𝑁∗100 accurate and stable reading and the total
COD =
𝑥 dissolved solids icon on the meter was
Where: pressed. The total dissolved solids a value in
V1, V2 = volume of ferrous ammonium mg/l will be displayed on the screen of the
sulphate. X = volume of the sample used. N meter and recorded.
= number of mole of ferrous ammonium
sulphate. Assessment of Cr, Cu and Zn contents of
the raw effluent and water samples
Total solids
Determination of chromium, copper and zinc
Total solids in the samples were determined in the samples will be carried out using acid
by following the procedure described by digestion method as described by Abida et
APHA, (1992): 100 ml of the sample was al., (2009); Thippeswany et.al., (2012). The
filtered using 0.5 mm Whatman filter paper procedure is as follows; 20 ml of the effluent
and placed in a pre-weighed crucible dish. and water samples was heated in a beaker on
The dish and the content were then dried to a hot plate for 20 minutes.9 ml of
complete dryness in an oven for 2 hours at Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and 3ml of nitric
1030C. After dyed, the crucible dish was then acid (HNO3) was added into the sample in the
transferred into a desiccator and allowed to ratio of 3:1 for 15 minutes. A brownish fume
cool for 1 hour 30 minutes. The initial weight was formed after which the sample was

removed from the heat and allowed to cool. textile effluents are discharged and
The samples were then filtered using a profoundly impacted at the discharge points.
Whatman’s no. 1 filter paper. The filtrates For instance, the pH, total solids (TS) and
were diluted up to 50ml with distilled water total dissolved solids (TDS), Nitrate, sulphate
and transferred to a 50 ml plastic container. and to a lesser extent phosphate content of
The samples were then analyzed for heavy water samples collected at the discharge
metal content using Schemadzu atomic point were much higher than both upstream
absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) model and downstream samples (Table 1).
AA 6800. However, the marked increase in the total
solids (TS) and total dissolved solid (TDS) as
Physicochemical properties of textile well as the nitrate and sulphate that resulted
effluents and water from Challawa River from the entry of the effluents at the
discharge point were restored to normal level
Results of analysis revealed that, some of the
downstream the river (table 2).
physicochemical properties of water samples
from Challawa River into which the raw
RESULTS
Table 1: Physicochemical properties of textile effluent samples from Challawa River

Parameter Assessed Samples
Effluent (A) Effluent (B) Effluent (C) Permissible limit
Not treated Partially Discharge
treated point
pH 11.81 11.65 11.14 6.0-9.0
Temperature (OC) 26.30 26.30 26.35 <40
Electircal Conductivity (µs/cm) 3.07 2.72 0.78 2.0
Turbidity (NTU) 8.80 6.35 5.35 5
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 1520 1360 500 500
Total Solids (mg/l) 1530 1420 520 200
Total soluble solids (mg/l) 1.22 1.05 0.35 30
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 39.25 35.85 28.45 30

(mg/l)
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 3.40 3.23 3.05 10
Nitrate (mg/l) 24.59 18.55 22.15 20
Sulphate (mg/l) 74.00 73.50 43.50 500

Phosphate (mg/l) 43.50 40.80 32.00 5.00
Chromium (ppm) 1.71 0.52 0.25 0.50
Copper (ppm) 2.30 0.56 0.49 0.10
Zinc (ppm) 6.34 5.91 5.61 <1
Table 2: Physicochemical properties of water samples from Challawa River
Parameter Assessed Water samples

Upstream (A) Downstream Permissible limit
(B)
pH 7.31 7.15 6.0-9.0
Temperature (OC) 26.25 26.40 <40
Electircal Conductivity (µs/cm) 0.12 0.08 2.0
Turbidity (NTU) 8.25 9.15 5
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 110 40 500
Total Solids (mg/l) 120 170 200
Total soluble solids (mg/l) 0.08 0.15 30
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l) 29.45 35.48 30
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 1.95 2.50 10
Nitrate (mg/l) 9.25 4.35 20
Sulphate (mg/l) 15.50 13.00 500
Phosphate (ppm) 23.3 37.7 5.00
Chromium (ppm) 0.61 0.74 0.50
Copper (ppm) 0.44 0.43 0.10
Zinc (ppm) 6.24 6.33 <1
increased to levels much higher than are

DISCUSSION considered safe to the environment and
human health (Table 1 and 2). On the other
It was observed that, the Chromium (Cr),
hand, the temperature, electrical
Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn) contents of water
conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO) and
from the effluent recipient river were greatly

biological oxygen demand (BOD) of water Ademoroti, C. M. A., (1996). Standard

from the recipient river was not drastically method for waterand Effluents
altered by the entry of the effluent even at the Analysis.Foludex press Ltd, Ibadan
discharge point (Table 1). However, the pp.22-23, 44-54, 111-112.
dissolved oxygen (DO) level of water from American Public Health Association
the recipient river was much lower than is (ALPHA). 1992. Standard methods for
expected of water source meant for domestic the examination of water and waste
uses. water, 18th edition. ALPHA,
Washington, DC.
CONCLUSION Hussain, J., Hussain, I. and Arif, M. (2004).
Characterization of textile wastewater.
The physicochemical properties from the
Journal of Industrial Pollution Control,
Challawa River are impacted at the discharge
20(1):137-144.
point. Some of the properties restored to
Jamaluddin, M.J., Kadaruddin, A., Kadir, A.
normal downstream while some are
and Azahan, A. (2009). Development,
unaffected both from the discharge point to
environmental degradation and
the upstream and downstream of the river
environmental management in
while some are considered beyond the
Malaysia. European Journal of Social
permissible limits.
Sciences; 9(2):257-264.
Kayode, J.O. (2010). Technology
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
Development in Nigeria: The Nigerian
The author is thankful to National Research Machine Tools Industry Experience.
Institute for Chemical Technology, Baswa- Journal of Economics; 1(2): 85-90.
Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria, for providing Obebiyi, E.O. Awomeso, A.J., Martins, O.,
research facilities and encouragement. Idowu, A.O., Oguntoke, O. and Taiwo,
A.M. (2010). Assessment of Pollution
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63 Ibrahim D et al., 2019

APPRAISAL OF DRAINAGE CONDITIONS AND FLOOD FREQUENCY IN

CALABAR, NIGERIA
EMMANUEL EFOBE NDOMA1, ADAM MODU ABASS1, BIBI MUHAMMED1, ALI

ABDU1 AND EDNA UWAYEME INEGBEDION2
1
Federal University of Kashere, Gombe State.
2
Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna
Corresponding Author: semmamyx2@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Flooding has been identified as one of the major factors that prevents Africa’s growing population
of city dwellers from escaping poverty and stands in the way of United Nations 2020 goal of
achieving significant improvement in the lives of urban slum dwellers. The rapid increase in
urbanization without corresponding infrastructures in Calabar metropolis has led to increased
incidences of flood. The available drainage channels in the area cannot contend with the volume
of storm water. The study is aimed at appraising the drainage conditions and flooding frequency
in Calabar metropolis. This study therefore, establishes gauging stations for the measurement of
drainage run off using stop-watch method (velocity of flow), measuring steel tape, and copies of
questionnaires were administered to 400 households proportional to seven sample units. The time,
volume of flooded water was measured using stop watch, measuring velocity of flow. The
frequency of flood is compounded with its intensity as over 59% of the sampled population agreed
that flooding is very high in Calabar. The study also revealed that as shown in frequent floods in
the city. The incessant flood often leads to water inundating compounds (64.5%), preventing
people from going out (11.25%), distortion of the scenic beauty of the environment (6.25%),
landslide (4.75%). However, it was not waters from the Ocean that usually floods the city but the
heavy rains, and the low nature of the topography and the poor drainage networks, increased paved
surfaces, river channel encroachments, poor waste disposal techniques, physical development
control problems, gaps in basic hydrological data and cultural problems as major causes of street
flooding in Calabar metropolis. Based on these findings, the study recommended that since Calabar
is located in a tropical zone characterized by heavy rainfall the government should take proactive
measure to mitigate storm water. It is recommended that the present drainage systems in Calabar
metropolis should be cleared on regular basis to allow for a free flow of storm water in the area.
Keywords, flooding, urbanization, storm, water, rainfall

INTRODUCTION slum dwellers (Action Aid, 2006). This is
because many African cities lack the
Flooding has been identified as one of the infrastructures to withstand extreme weather
major factors that prevents Africa’s growing conditions. Poor urban planning together
population of city dwellers from achieving with other urban governance challenges
significant improvement in the lives of urban
64 Emmanuel E.N et al., 2019

contributes to making African urban slum yearly to flooding. Eze (2008) attributed
dwellers most at risk (Eze 2008). flood occurrence to expansion of residential
areas and the multiplications of paved
In Nigeria a study by Douglas et al (2014) surfaces including roads and sidewalks.
report that many of the urban poor in Africa Offiong and Eni (2007) using both
face growing problems of severe floods. conventional questionnaire and secondary
They further buttressed the fact that increased data corroborated these claim by observing
storm frequency and intensity related to that the damage to materials is quantified to
climate change are exacerbated by such local be well over 115.76 million naira per year.
factors as the growing occupation of flood The main factors of flooding in the city of
plains, increased runoff from hard surfaces, Calabar in the view of Offiong and Eni,
inadequate waste management. Askew (2007) are increasing demand for concrete
(2015) reiterated that floods cause about one surfaces for buildings which has increased
third of all deaths, one third of all injuries and surface runoff, and waste waters that have
one third of all damage from natural disasters increased the volume of water in rivers,
globally. Generally, flood events are streams and drainage channels.
attributed to global warming, climate change,
ocean swell/surge and torrential rains. flood Afangideh, et al., (2012) examined the
hazards are natural phenomena, damage and implication of changing rainfall pattern on
lose from floods are mostly the consequences building loss in Calabar. Rainfall data for the
of urbanization without corresponding study were collected from the Nigerian
infrastructural restructuring (Brooks, 2013). Meteorological Agency (NIMET) and
Margaret Ekpo International Airport,
Other researches have been conducted to Calabar. While data on cost of building loss
establish the relationship between to flood for the previous 20 years were gotten
urbanization and flooding. Some of these from the inhabitants of the flood prone areas
studies emphasized the implications of in Calabar. The result from their study
flooding on the environment and socio revealed that annual rainfall intensity with
economic wellbeing of the affected cities, beta coefficient of 0.437 has more
Offiong and Eni, (2007) in their study on the implication on cost of building loss to rainfall
effects of urban floods on infrastructure in in Calabar than annual rainfall duration, with
Calabar that rainfall duration was the major beta coefficient of -0.063.
determinant of runoff volume which leads to Flooding in urban areas is not just related to
drainage infrastructure destruction in the city. heavy rainfall and extreme climatic events; it
Ahern, et al., (2004); Abaje and Giwa (2008); is also related to changes in the built-up areas
Ladan (2007); Offiong et al., (2008); and Eze themselves. In the case of Calabar, the
(2008) summarises that the twin factors of problems of street flooding began when some
poor urban planning and increased paved socio economic and anthropogenic activities
surfaces are the main causal factors that gained momentum as a means of face lifting
increase the frequencies of floods in Nigeria. the city as State Capital. The influx of people
Eze (2008) using both questionnaire and from both rural and adjoining states led to
secondary data in the analysis of the history increased demand for housing. Houses were
and causes of flood incidence in the city of hurriedly built to meet the burgeoning
Calabar opined that no year passes without demand for shelter. This alters the aesthetic
flooding in the city claiming lives and
properties; on average, four lives were lost

image of the city as buildings were erected South Local Government Areas of Cross
anyhow and anywhere (Sule, 2004),. River State, Nigeria. The area is bordered in
However, none of these studies measured the the North and West by Odukpani Local
condition of drainage channels (gutters) and Government Area, in the east by Akpabuyo
their role in flood events as majority of Local Government Area and in the South by
reviewed studies only mentioned poor the Atlantic Ocean (Fig.1).
drainage system as a factor of flood events in
Nigeria. This is the gap the research intends Climate
to fill. It is against this background that this
research to assess the condition of drainage Calabar is located in a coastal zone within the
channels in the study area and how they humid subtropical region and it is affected by
influence flooding incidence in Calabar weather systems originating from all sides.
metropolitan city of Calabar. The city experiences the full influence of the
over- head sun throughout the year which
MATERIALS AND METHODS provides abundant and constant insolation.
Consequently, the atmospheric temperature
The Study Area within the area as observed by Mannion
(2002) are constantly high and changes
The study is confined to Calabar Metropolis slightly with the year and according to Udo
that lies between latitudes 40461- (1975) the mean daily temperature remain
40581Northof the equator and longitudes around 370C all year round excepts during the
80151 - 80 261 East of the Greenwich meridian raining season due to the cooling effects of
with an approximate area of 1480 km2. It rains and clouds cover that curtails the
covers Calabar Municipality and Calabar amount of insolation (incoming radiation).
Figure 1: Cross River State Showing the Study Locations (Source: Modified from Map of Cross
River State 2018

Rainfall in Calabar is however influenced by valleys of the Great Qua River on the east
the interaction between two air-masses which flows into the Cross River State
blowing over the area. the warm moist (rain estuary and the Calabar River on the west.
bearing) tropical maritime (mT) air mass, Calabar is moderately undulating with land
which originate from the Atlantic Ocean and descending rather abruptly to the Calabar
the dry dusty tropical continental (cT) air River at the western boundary of the town
mass which originated over the Sahara while the slope is towards the Qua River to
Desert. These two air masses alternate the west (Inyang, 1980). The crest of the
seasonally with each other, but the tropical coastal range of hills rising from the coastal
maritime (Tm) has domineering influence plains about 40km to the Atlantic sea shores,
over the area because of the nearness of the with height of 60 to 70m above sea level in
area to the sea which has resulted in rain some places. The coastal plains is linked with
falling throughout the year. undulating hinterland on which the rest of the
town is built by a number of channels and
Rainfall is therefore very high in Calabar. gaps, open primarily by head ward erosion of
With an annual rainfall average of 2000mm formal streamlets.
to 3000mm (NAAR, 1995), Calabar ranks
very high among stations receiving heavy Reconnaissance Survey
precipitation in the coastal zone of Nigerian
and West African sub-region (Inyang, 1980). A Reconnaissance survey of Calabar was
The rainfall distribution shows that it is undertaken to identify flood prone areas. Using
characterized by double maxima rainfall information obtained from literature on flood
regime which starts from the month of April in the city of Calabar, couple with verbal
to October, reaching its climax in the months discussion of residents of the city, the
of July and September. researcher identified areas that are often
flooded whenever it rains. The reconnaissance
The area has a relative humidity that is high assisted in the determination of suitable
throughout the year except during the short location for the establishment of the
dry harmattan spell. Calabar has an average measurement points. At the end, a distinct
of eighty (80 %) percent relative humidity area with well-defined boundaries was
that is sometimes one hundred (100 %) identified. Thus, flood volume data were
percent much higher in the morning and with collected from the following locations;
an average vapour pressure in the air of 29 IkotAnsa, EsukEdiba, Henshaw Town,
millibars throughout the year (NAAR, 1995). Anangtigha, CRUTECH, MCC and a control
Udo (1975) reported that Calabar has the was established at Satellite Town.
highest amount of relative humidity in Questionnaires were administered to residents
Nigeria. Generally, the major air masses of the selected streets in accordance with the
which are separated by the Inter-Tropical guide outline in the procedure for data
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) or Discontinuity collection.
(ITD) oscillate north and south to give the
two distinct seasons of the area. Types of Data
Relief and Drainage Poor drainage system is exhibited in the
structural degradation of the form and pattern
The area is an inter-fluvial settlement, built of already existing urban social facilities.
on a high land between two rivers adjacent Therefore, the following physical and social

facilities which form the main component of (Velocity of flow). Seven streets were
the urban facilities were considered as data purposively sampled. Along a given street, a
required for this study. number of measured points were established
along the drainage paths. The values obtained
Four types of data were collected in the study: were further subjected to statistical
manipulation to determine depth to width
i. Data on flood frequency and ratio.
intensity
ii. Data on drainage characteristic Data on flood volume (direct field
(drainage width and depth) measurement)
iii. Data on runoff volume (Direct
field measurements) To determine flood volume in the sampled
iv. Data on effects of poor drainage streets, a gauging station was established at
systems on the urban predetermined points (Ayoade, 1988). The
environment. velocities were estimated and together with
the cross-sectional area at each runoff gauge
These data sets are considered relevant given level they were used to estimate the runoff
that flood episodes are often linked to the poor from the urban drainage catchment. The
state of drainage system as exhibited in the assumption is that the area where runoff was
structural degradation of the form and pattern sampled is taken to be representative of the
of already existing urban social facilities. entire urban catchment of the city of Calabar.
Sources of Data Questionnaire administration and

Sampling techniques
Two data sources were relied upon; primary
and secondary data sources. The primary The construction of questionnaire focused
sources of data involved data obtained on the factors of poor drainage systems, the
through questionnaire administration, effects of poor drainage systems on the urban
measurement of the attributes of interest, environment, inadequacy of drainage
direct observation to extract the necessary systems, causes of flooding, frequency and
information in the field. Secondary Sources intensity of flood events in Calabar, and the
basically included, residential map, socio-economic implications of flooding.
population trend data obtained from the Systematic random sampling technique was
National Population Commission (NPC), used in the administration of questionnaire
existing literature on the research topic from
journal articles, textbook, magazines and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
gazettes.
Drainage Characteristics
Methods and procedure of data collection The incidence of floods in Calabar was
on drainage width and depth: attributed to diverse causes. Calabar like
other cities in Nigeria lack adequate storm
The dimensions of the drainage were water way. This is evident in the recurrent
measured directly from the field with a waves of flood events in the study area. Table
measuring steel tape and the volume of flood 1 revealed that heavy rainfall was claimed to
water was measured using stop watch method be the main factor of flood occurrence in

Calabar (26.3%). Statistical evidence from valleys. This practice has led to the blockage
the Nigerian Meteorological Agency. of the drainage channels at various points
(NIMET), Calabar shows that the mean which could account for 14% of the
annual rainfall for the city based on 1912- households interviewed agreeing that
2011 rainfall data of the area is 245.78mm. flooding is usually a product of such
These will mean volumes of water running blockages.
off roofs and paved surfaces from such
storms are enormous. All too often, drains Table 1: Causes of Flooding In Calabar
and culverts cannot cope and localized flash Metropolis
flooding occurs. These flash floods happen
Causes of Number of Percentage
suddenly, with little lead time for warning; flooding responses distribution
they are fast-moving and generally violent, Frequency
resulting in threat to life and severe damage Building on water 21 5.3
to property and infrastructure; and they are channels
generally small in scale with regard to area of Poor Physical 63 15.7
Planning
impact Inadequate 88 22
Drainage Channel
Heavy rainfall 105 26.3
Nature of Terrain 34 8.5
Dumping of 56 14
wastes on
channels
All of the above 19 4.7
Others 14 3.5
Total 400 100
Source: Field survey (2018)
Table 1 further indicates that 22% (88) of the
sampled population attribute causes of
flooding in the city to inadequate drainage
channels. In a similar vein, poor physical
planning was also identified as another factor
of flood occurrence with a response intensity
of 15.7 percent. Despite the efforts of the
Cross-River State government to keep the
city of Calabar clean, waste can still been
seen strewed in gutters and road junctions
Plate 1: Showing drainage characteristics of (Plate 1).
Waste strewed in gutters and road junctions The state of the drainage with regard to the
in CRUTECH Source: Field Survey (2018). prevalence of flood incidence cannot be over
emphasized because of the poor observance
In fact, drainage characteristics of waste
of frequent flooding in the area (Plate 1). The
management among most residents is rather
respective views on the quality of the
too poor. Refuse and other wastes are usually
drainages across the sampled areas clearly
dumped into available open spaces, including
points to the fact that the drainages are in
drainage channels and river plains and
poor state. Plate 1 is an evidence of what one

can easily find in most of the streets in the when provisions are made for drainage
sampled area. As the plate indicates, the channels in road construction contracts, the
persistent rain couple with the poor materials contractors often construct the roads without
and engineering works has made these recourse to drainage provisions (Offiong et
gutters to look like rabbit holes. al., 2008). This has persisted because
governments pay little or no attention to
On drainage dimension, the study, it was contract specification. This is compounded
shown that the drainage dimensions vary by the weak institutions in the state.
from one study zone to another. However, the
general observation is that the width and Condition of the Drainage Channels in
depth of the gutters in most of the sampled the Study Area
zones are narrow as exemplified by
frequency flood episodes. Jimoh (2008) Table 2 presents data on the condition of
made a similar observation in a study of drainage channels (gutters) in Calabar
drainage dimension in Ilorin Nigeria. In the metropolis. From the table, it can be observed
study it was reported about 31.5% of the that there was an overwhelming agreement
respondents were of the view that one of the across the sampled flood prone areas that the
effects of drainage channel problem is the dimensions of the drainages is well below the
incidence of temporary street flooding. In volume of storm water that is often
addition, in a study by Daniel et’ al.,(2012) in experienced in the area. Specifically, in
Gombe also observed that 42.5% of the IkotAnsa, 65.11 %of the respondents
respondents agreed that lack of drainage believed the gutters are very narrow just like
facilities constitutes the major factor that is 75% were of similar view in Esuk Ediba. In
causing flood in Gombe. Henshaw Town, Anangtigha, CRUTECH
and MCC, 54.83% (17), 64.28% (54),
Plate 1 also revealed that government do not 79.49% (31) and 77.17% (71) respectively of
often prioritize the provisions of drainage the sampled households accepted that the
channels as about 18.2% of the respondents drainage channels in their area were very
claimed government neglects this segment of narrow
urban infrastructure development. Even
Table 2: Condition of drainage channels in the study area
Respondents’ Responses
Conditions of IkotAnsa EsukEdiba Henshaw Anangtigha CRUTECT MCC Satellite
Drainage channels N % N % N % N % N % N% N %
Very narrow 56 65.11 39 75.00 17 54.83 54 64.28 31 79.49 71 77.17 4 25.00
Not well plastered 9 10.46 4 7.69 7 22.58 16 19.04 02 5.12 14 15.21 9 56.25
Not well designed 18 20.93 6 11.53 5 16.12 9 10.71 5 12.82 6 6.52 2 12.5
Highly fractured 3 3.48 1 1.92 2 6.45 1 1.19 01 2.57 01 1.08 1 6.25
Not present at all 0 0.0 2 3.84 0 0.00 4 4.76 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Total 86 100 52 100 31 100 84 100 39 100 92 100 16 100
Source: Field Survey (2018)
Table 2 further revealed that some of the views were unevenly distributed in the
respondents were of the view that the sampled zones. For instance, in IkotAnsa,
drainages were not well plastered. These 10.46% (9) of the respondents said the gutters

were not plastered properly, while in Effects of Poor Drainage Network on the
EsukEdiba, 7.69% of the sampled population Environment/Infrastructure
held similar views. In the same vein, 22.58%
of those sampled in Henshaw Town said the In figure 1, 64.5 % of the respondents have
drainages were not well plastered. While in their houses flooded, 11.25 % of the
Anangtigha, 16 of those interviewed agreed respondents said they are prevented from
that drainages around their neighborhood moving out, while 6.25 % of the sampled
were not done properly. It was observed also population accepted that flooding distort the
that in CRUTECH axis, only 5.12% of those beauty of the environment. More so, 3% said
interviewed held the view that the drainage houses often collapsed during flooding, 11
channels were not well plastered. people out of the 400 interviewed said
Surprisingly, Satellite town which is flooding of houses, landslide/erosion,
purported to be a high brow area have very collapsing of buildings, prevention from
high responses in favour of the fact that going out, pollution of water sources, silting
drainages within their zone were not well of streams and compounds, and distortion in
plastered too. Specifically, out of the 16 the beauty of the environment are agoning
people sampled, 9 representing 56.25% gave effects of poor drainage channels in the city.
such responses. Relating it to the present
dimension of the drainage, it was observed Generally, beside the personal effects of
that the channels are without concrete at the flooding, all the respondents noted that
base and walls. Over time, the force of the flooding has affected public infrastructures
torrential rain will cut off the road as is the such as roads been submerged, electric and
case in IkotAnsa (Plate 2). telephones pulled down, markets, schools
and churches flooded and drainage channels
blocked with wastes. It was also observed
that majority of the buildings do not obey
established meters setback to the drainage
channels and from one building to another.
The observation has been corroborated

elsewhere in Nigeria. According to
Etuonovbe (2011), floods are the most
devastating natural disasters, claiming more
lives and causing damage to properties than
any other natural phenomena. In Nigeria,
though not leading in terms of claiming lives,
flood affects and displaces more people than
any other disaster. It also causes more
damage to properties and at least 20% of the
population of Nigeria is at risk of one form of
flooding or the other (Ochere and Okeke,
2012). The observation has also been
corroborated in Calabar. According to Eze
Plate 2: Torrential rain in yellow duke Road (2008), poor drainage network is often
associated with street flooding and this has

become critical environmental problem in moving out, houses collapsed, pollution of

coastal cities of Nigeria especially in Calabar sources of water especially hand dug wells,
metropolis. However, it is not water from the flooding also affects public infrastructures
ocean that usually floods these cities but the such as roads been submerged, electric and
heavy rains, and the poor drainage network telephones pulled down, markets, schools
(Aderamo, 2008). and churches flooded and drainage channels
blocked with wastes.
CONCLUSION
Flood remains a very serious environmental

problem in Calabar. Recurrent flood events in
the city of Calabar have been traced to in
inadequate drainage channels. Many
properties have been destroyed, lives lost and
this has subjected the people to
unquantifiable trauma. More so, the menaces
of flood have been on the increase as a result
of incipient and prolong weather conditions.
In view of these, the study put forward some

recommendations which when implemented
will help in mitigating flood incidence in
Calabar.;
Figure 2: Effects of poor drainage network
(2018), (Source: Field Survey, 2018) i. The government should award
contract to a competent company for
The study also revealed that the effects of the construction of underground
flood in Calabar include streets inundation by drainages covering the entire city of
flood waters, landslide/erosion, distortion of Calabar, as surface drainages have
the beauty of the environment, silting of created many problems to the resident
streams, prevented from going out among including the loss of lives, the present
others. The finding of this study is line with drainage systems should be cleared
the studies of Offiong et al., (2008), Offiong with shovel on regular basis to allow
and Imoke (2008), Eze (2008), Jimoh (2008), for the free flow of storm water.
Adedeji et al., (2012), Aderogba (2012a, ii. The government and NGOs should
2012b), Olajuyigbe et al., (2012), Ocheri and carry out massive awareness campaigns
Okeke (2012), Bariweni et al., (2012). on the need for the people to stop
dumping waste in the drainage
DISCUSSION channels.
iii. In addition, government should put in
These studies listed the effects of flood in
place flood early warning signal
most southern and northern parts of Nigerian
system with the capability to deliver
to include both not limited to death of people
reliable timely and effective flood
especially children and the aged, damage to
information at an appropriate
properties, displaces people prevented from

response time. This will help to Aderogba, K.A. (2012). Qualitative Studies
reduce the loss of lives and properties of Recent Floods and Sustainable
in the city. Growth and Development of Cities
and Towns in Nigeria. International
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EFFECT OF VARIATIONS OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS AMONG

SELECTED FISH PONDS IN GOMBE STATE, NIGERIA
KABIRU MUHAMMAD1, ALIYU IDRIS K.B1, HARUNA SAIDU1, ISHAKU

MUHAMMED1, ZAINAB A. ABUBAKAR1
1
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University.
Corresponding author: dogonyaro97@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Fishing activities has been known to be the common sources of food and employment to the people
leaving around riverine area. As such, increase in agricultural activities such as fertilizer
application has led to the severe alteration of the chemistry nature of the water body thereby
affecting the fishing activities. Analysis of the physicochemical parameters of some selected Ponds
at Kwadon area of Yamaltu Deba LGA, Gombe State were conducted with the aim of determining
the effect changes in physicochemical parameters on aquatic biota. Standard laboratory techniques
were employed for the analysis of the parameters. Results of the study showed that, the average
values of the temperature, pH, dissolve oxygen (DO), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Total
hardness, Conductivity and Total dissolve solid (TDS) were found to be at ranged of 27.4oC±0.56-
27.6oC±1.2, 6.68±0.1-7.62±0.30, 4.66±4.45-13.84±3.96mg/L, 1.69±1.13-7.7 7±2. 89 mg/L,
23.50±1.7-31.20±0.80 mg/L, 15.90±0.68- 22.10±0.78 mg/L, 139.70±3.90-247.40±1.5 S/cm,
66.90±12.28-113.90±75.86 mg/L. These values were found to be within the ranges recommended
for good fish production, indicating the minimal effect of agricultural activities on the healthy state
of the ponds. Hence suggesting good environmental conditions for fish survival and growth.
Keywords: Fish, Pond, Physicochemical parameters, Water, Agricultural Activities
INTRODUCTION pond by streams that feed into, run off during

rain, or by the human anthropogenic
Pond ecosystems are often teaming with rich activities (Ehiagbonare and Ogunrinde,
vegetation and a diverse organism life. Pond 2010). The water in soil, animal waste and
is a body of fresh water smaller than a lake decaying plant matter in the pond are broken
which is naturally formed by a depression on down and used to fuel the pond ecosystem
the ground filling and retaining water. It can (Boyd, 1990).
also be man-made which can be created by
damming a stream, and digging holes Water quality refers to the chemical,
(Muhammad et al., 2018). The bottom of a physical, biological, and radiological
pond is usually sediment of sand, decaying characteristics of water (Vyas et al., 2009).
matter and micro-organisms. Pond water is Water quality describes the condition of the
usually stagnant with a wide variety of water, including chemical, physical, and
microbial life. Nutrients are brought to the biological characteristics, usually with
76 Kabiru M et al., 2019
respect to its suitability for a particular The increasing demands for animal protein
purpose such as drinking, fishing, swimming by man, coupled with the dwindling supply
or to ascertain the suitability of such pond from livestock and poultry, has shifted
water for artificial fish culture (Ayanwale et attention to fishery for meeting human needs.
al., 2012). According to Burnett (2008), Fish is an inexpensive source of protein in
ponds have an average of 184.5 different many regions of the world whereas water
types of microbes. In some bodies of water, serves as the physical support in which they
the concentration of microscopic algae and carry out their function such as feeding,
quantities of pesticides, herbicides, heavy swimming, breeding, digestion and excretion
metals, and other contaminants may also be (Bromnark and Hansson, 2005). Studies have
measured to determine water quality shown that production of protein through
(Ayanwale et al., 2012). Conversely, other fishery is cheaper, less laborious and the
parameters like biological oxygen demand protein is of comparatively high quality. For
and chemical oxygen demand indicate instance, Adekoya (2001) noted that fishes
pollution level of given water body are responsible for about 55% of the protein
(Ehiagbonare and Ogundiran, 2010). The intake sources of Nigeria citizens. According
components of the pollution contribute to to James (2000), one of most the important
greater oxygen demand and nutrient loading factor that limits productivity in fish
of the water bodies, promoting toxic algal production is lack of controlled
blooms and leading to destabilized aquatic environmental conditions which is the main
ecosystem (Morrison et al., 2001). objective of the Committee for Inland
Fisheries and Aquaculture of Africa (CIFAA)
Water is the culture environment for fish according to Food and Agricultural
where they perform all their bodily functions. Organization of the United Nations (Saloom
They are totally dependent upon water to and Duncan, 2005).
breathe, feed and grow, excrete wastes,
maintain a salt balance, and reproduce (Saidu FAO (2012), reported that the major
et al., 2018). Water quality focuses on the environmental impacts of aquaculture have
various aspects of the physicochemical been associated mainly with high-input
parameters of water by which state of a water intensive systems which result in water
body can easily be observed. It is the first pollution. However, little or no information is
most important limiting factor in fish culture available to the farmers on the factors leading
which is normally governed by a number of decline of economic viability of aquaculture
parameters including color, odor, around the region. In view of these, this study
temperature, pH, DO, BOD, TDS, EC, seeks to ascertain the effect of water quality
transparency, acidity, alkalinity and hardness variation on growth performance of fish in
(Boyd, 1990). Each of these parameters has a aquaculture.
standard value for fish culture (James, 2000).

MATERIALS AND METHOD Measurement of pH
Study Area pH meter were first be calibrated with buffer

4 and 7 (using 1M NaOH and 1M HCL). The
Gombe State is located between latitude probes of the pH meter were rinsed with
9°30’ and 12°30’ N and longitude 8°45’E and distilled water. Samples of 20 ml of pond
1 1°45’E of the Greenwich meridian. The water were measured in labeled beakers, and
state share borders with Yobe and Borno to then the probes were inserted into the sample
the north and east, Adamawa and Taraba to collected. The reading were taken when the
the south and Bauchi to the east. Kwadon pH meter display a stable value (Ehiagbonare
which is an area of Yamaltu Deba Local and Ogunrinde, 2010).
Government is located at eastern part of the
state. Total Alkalinity
Method of Sample Collection 50 mL of the water (sample) was added in a

conical flask, followed by the addition of
Eight ponds were first sampled and three drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
physically surveyed twice in the first week of Methyl orange indicator was later added and
the study for preliminary survey. Four the resultant solution was titrated against
sampling stations were chosen using Random 0.05M HC1 until pink color was observed.
selections method and were designated as A, The final burette reading were recorded as
B, C and D. volume of acid used and the total alkalinity
was determined using the equation below as
Pond water was collected using plastic
adopted from (Ehiagbonare and Ogunrinde,
container of one-liter capacity. The bottles
2010);
were rinsed with pond water before
collection. During sampling, containers were Total Alkalinity = Vol. of Acid × Molarity of Acid × 1000
dipped and filled at a depth of 30cm below Vol. of Sample
the surface of the pond. The samples were

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
labeled and transported to the laboratory.
Samples were collected at two-week intervals 2 mL of manganese sulfate (MnSO4) and 2
for the period of the study. mL of alkali (sodium) iodide azide reagent
were added to 100 mL of pond water. The
Determination of Physicochemical
solution was left to stand until it formed clear
Parameters
supernatant, then 2 mL of concentrated
The physicochemical parameters analyzed sulphuric acid were added for preservative
during the study include pH, temperature, purpose then was swirl to ensure uniform
turbidity, alkalinity, DO, BOD and heavy distribution of iodide. The prepared sample
metals as per standard methods (APHA was then stored in the laboratory for three
2005). days. Later it was titrated against Sodium

thiosulfate (Ehiagbonare and Ogunrinde, were also added. The resultant mixtures were
2010). titrated with 0.04 mol/dm3 AgNO3 (APHA,
1992).
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Chloride ion, Cl = Titre value × M × 1000
3
Water samples were aerated for five days at Vol. of Sample (cm )
20°C in an incubator in a BOD bottle.
Where M = Molarity of AgNO3 = 0.04 mol 3.4.7
Distilled water was used as water solution for
dilution and as a blank. BOD reading was These were used to determine the
determined based on the expression below concentration of the dissolved mineral salt
(Ehiagbonare and Ogunrinde, 2010): and to determine the ionic effect in water
sample. The conductivity was determined
BOD5 (mg/L) = DOo – DOd
using a digital conductivity meter (HI 9853).
DOo = dissolved oxygen of the first day, Pond water samples of 20 mL were measured
and dispensed into the labeled beakers. The
DOd = dissolved oxygen after five days. meter were switched on and its probe rinse
with distilled water, then inserted into the
Total Hardness pond water samples, and the read button were
pressed on the meter to take the readings in
A buffer solution was prepared by dissolving
us/cm (micro Siemens per cm) (Ehiagbonare
1.179g EDTA and 780mg MgSO4.7H20 in 50
and Ogunrinde, 2010).
cm3 of distilled water. 2 cm3 of the buffer
solution and 2 drops of Eriochrome black T. Total dissolved Solid (TDS)
indicator was added to 50 cm3 of the sample
pond water. The resultant reddish solution This test was determined by the
was titrated with standard ethylene-diamine- concentration of total dissolved solid
tetraacetic acid (EDTA) with gentle drops of particles in the water samples. A digital meter
the EDTA at 5 seconds intervals until a blue (HI 9853) was used to determine the TDS of
colour appeared (Ntengwe, 2008). the sample pond water in ppm (Ehiagbonare
and Ogunrinde, 2010).
Total hardness, MgCaCO3/dm3 = (A ×B) × 100
Vol. of Sample (cm3) Statistical Methods
Where A =1.179 g (weight of EDTA), B = 780 mg
Data were analyzed using Statistical Package
(weight of MgSO4. 7H20)
for Social Sciences (SPSS) statistical
Chloride ion software for Windows version 23. Means and
Standard deviation were used to compare the
100 cm3 of the sample water were measured data from individual ponds while Pearson’s
and placed in a beaker. The pH of the water correlation was used to ascertain the level of
was adjusted to 8.0 using sodium hydroxide significance between the different ponds,
solutions and 10 cm3 of K2Cr2O4 indicator

parameters and their values a: r = 0.01 level have the highest value of BOD of 6.95ppm,
of significance. Pond B have the highest value of
Conductivity and TDS of 247.4is/cm and
RESULTS 113.9 ppm respectively. Pond C has the
highest value of Total hardness and chloride
The results for the physicochemical analysis
of 31.2 ppm and 22.l ppm respectively while
(pH, DO, BOD, Total hardness, Chloride,
Pond D have the highest value of DO and pH
Conductivity and TDS) of the four waters
of 13.84mg/L and 7.62 respectively.
sample are shown in the Table 1. Pond A
Table 1: Physicochemical parameters of the four ponds as compared with FEPA and WHO
Standard
Parameters Pond A Pond B Pond C Pond D FEPA1 WHO2 Desirable
Range3
Temperature (oC) 27.4±1.30 27.5±0.69 27.6±1.28 27.4±0.56 27.0 <35.0 20-30
pH 6.68±0.16 7.01±0.34 7.29±0.40 7.62±0.30 6-9 6.5-8.5 6.5-9
DO (mg/L) 8.64±3.75 4.66±4.45 6.26±4.37 13.84±3.96 8-10 8-10 5.0
BOD (mg/L) 1.69±1.13 2.20±1.29 2.56±2.24 7.77±2.89 10 10 0.29
Total Hardness (mg/L) 23.5±1.71 25.7±0.66 31.2±0.80 28.9±0.64 - 200 50-400
Chloride (mg/L) 21.6±1.30 15.9±0.68 22.1±0.78 19.3±0.87 - - -
Conductivity (us/cm) 139.7±30.9 247.4±175.77 215.7±68.4 161.2±107.59 200 - 20-1500
TDS (ppm) 80.7±61.03 113.9±75.86 90.2±12.28 66.9±12.28 500 - 500
Federal Environmental Agency (1991) 2World Health Organization (1986) 3Boyd (1990)
Table 2: Comparison between the correlation properties and result (r = 0.614),

parameter, pond and the values obtained while there’s no correlation between location
to pond location to result in all the study
Properties Result Location ponds.
Properties 1.000 0.614** 0.000
DISCUSSION
Result 0.614** 1.000 0.002
The water used for the cultivation of fish will
Location 0.000 0.002 1.000 not give maximum production if the
physicochemical parameters are not optimal
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level for fish and another aquatic organism. Water
(2-tailed). temperature, an important parameter in this
study, influences the onset of fish spawn,
In table 4.2 above, Pearson’s correlation was
aquatic vegetation growth and the biological
used to indicate which of the ponds correlate
demand for oxygen in ponds. As water
better in terms of properties, results and
temperature increases, it holds less oxygen.
locations. It shows that there’s strong
Also, plants and animals use more oxygen
correlation between location, results and
dependent due to respiration. These factors
properties (r =1.00). There’s also strong

commonly result in less available oxygen for for aquaculture as reported by Njoku et al.,
fish in water. (2015). The ranges of the pH obtained from
this study were 6.68+0.16, 7.01±0.34,
Temperature 7.29±0.34 and 7.62±0.30 in Pond A, B, C and
D respectively. This agrees with values
A prior knowledge of maximum and
reported by Stone and Thomforde (2003) as
minimum water temperature of the water is
acceptable range. It was also within normal
essential for fish culture. Ideal temperature of
range when compare with the reports of
27°C holds good for fish culture in pond
Kamal et al., (2007); Ehiagbonare and
(FEPA, 1999). In the present study, the
Ogunrinde (2010), and Mishra et al., (2014)
average temperature reading for sample A, B,
also reported a range of 6.28 - 7.30.
C and D were found to be 27.40±1.30°C,
27.5±0.60°C, 27.40+0.56oC and DO
27.40±0.56°C respectively which falls within
the guidelines given by FEPA. These Dissolved oxygen is a measure of amount of
temperatures was found to be similar to the gaseous oxygen dissolved in an aqueous
research of Mishra et al., (2014), Shrivastava solution. Among all the dissolved gases in
and Kunungo (2013), as well as Ntegwu and water, oxygen is the most important for the
Edema (2008) who reported optimum survival of organism under aquaculture.
temperature range of 20°C - 30°C for Dissolved oxygen plays a vital role in the
increased fish productivity. Also, this finding biology of cultured organisms (Dhawan and
corroborates the report of Fafioye (2011) Karu, 2002). The DO obtained from this
who reported a temperature range of 27°C- study varied significantly but all are within
28°C in his preliminary studies and water the required ranges of 8.64+3.75, 4.66±4.45,
characteristic of microbial population in 6.26±4.37 and 13.84±3.96 mg/L in pond A,
Kojalo fish pond. B, C and D respectively. Most of the values
obtained corroborate with the findings of
pH Onome and Ebinimi, (2010) who reported
DO of 4.34 mg/L and 6.33mg/L from the
pH is an important limiting factor in fish
surrounding industries near fish farm, and
culture. It indicates the acid - base balance of
Ehiagbonare and Ogunrinde (2010) who
the water which serves as a major factor that
reported DO value of 9.3 mg/L - 16.2 mg/L.
determines the growth of microorganisms.
According to Guidelines given by Water
The survival and growth of fish is also
Quality Management for fish culture by
depending on pH of the water since it helps
FEPA, the minimum concentration of 8.0
to determine if the water is a proper
mg/L should be maintained in fish ponds at
environment for fish, plants and algae. The
all times. However, Saloom and Duncan
desirable range for pond pH is 6.5 - 9.5 and
(2005) suggested that the minimum DO
acceptable range is 5.5 - 10.0 (Stone and
should be 5 mg/L for tropical fish. DO
Thomforde, 2003) and 7.0 to 10.0 is required
concentrations in the present study were

generally at the desirable value. This may be were not varied widely occurring at
as a result of high levels of photosynthetic 23.50±1.71, 25.70±0.66, 31.2±0.80 and
organisms in the ponds. 8.9+0.64 mg/L in pond A, B, C and D
respectively.
BOD
According to Guidelines for Water Quality
Biochemical oxygen demand varied Management for fish culture in Tripura, the
significantly among the ponds. The BOD ideal value of hardness for fish culture is 30-
obtained from Pond D (7.77±2.89mg/L) was l80 ppm (APHA, l992). The concentration
higher than the findings of Ehiagbonare and are also within the recommended value of 25-
Ogurinde (2010) who reported BOD of 3.38 l00 ppm (mg/L) (Wurts and Durbow, 1992)
mg/L in Oloku, 2.4 mg/L in concrete ponds indicating well management of the parameter
in Igusa and 1 .6 mg/L in earthen pond at in all the water ponds.
Afugle during the study of physiochemical
analysis of pond water in Okada and its Chloride
environs. The increase in BOD might be due
to excreta of the fish, feed use or high organic Results of the chloride ion were found to be
matter (Kay et al., 2008). The study also 21.60±1.30, 15.90+0.68, 22.10+078 and
revealed that the values of 1.69±1.13, 19.30±0.87 mg/L for pond A, B, C and D
2.20±1.29 and 2.56±2.24mg/L were recorded respectively. These are typical levels in fresh
in Pond A, B and C respectively. According water systems and are therefore considered
to the guidelines for Water Quality normal (APHA, 1992).
Management for fish culture in Tripura, the
Conductivity
optimum BOD level for aquaculture should
be less than 10 mg/L (APHA, 1992). The Conductivity value obtained in all the ponds
values are below FEPA recommended were measured and found to be
standard (FEPA, 1991) of 30 mg/L and those 139.70+30.90, 247.40±175.77,
of APHA (1992) which is 4 mg/L. This 215.70±68.49 and 162.20±107.59 us/cm for
implies that the pond water is devoid of pond A, B, C and. D respectively. The FAQ
pollution and the fishes are not affected acceptable limit for conductivity in
negatively. aquaculture is between 20 to 1500 µs/cm
(DWAF, 1996). In comparison, Ehiagbonare
Total Hardness
and Ogurinde (2010) reported lower
Water hardness is important in fish culture. It conductivity values of 0.012-0.01 7µs/cm for
is a measure of the calcium and magnesium Okada natural water but were comparable to
concentration in water samples. Hardness those of Utang et al., 2012) in fish ponds. The
gives a measure of the total concentration of conductivities are however typical of fresh
the divalent cation of Calcium, Magnesium water and are considered normal.
and Strontium. Hardness in all the ponds

TDS water quality. Farmers should be educated on

better managerial practices bordering on
Total dissolved solids readings obtained from practices, pond management, good water
the ponds were found to be 80.70±61.03, exchange practice to reduce organic load and
113.90±75.86, 90.20±16.93 and 66.90+12.28 waste accumulation.
ppm for pond A, B, C and D respectively. The
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EXTRACTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF REDUCING SUGARS IN AZANZA

GARCKEANA FRUIT
1
E. KARU, 2J. MAITALE AND 3F. U. MAIGARI
1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, PMB 127, Gombe
State, Nigeria.
2
School of Basic and Remedial Studies, Gombe State University, PMB 127, Gombe State,
Nigeria
3
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, PMB 127,
Gombe State. Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Azanza garckeana (AG), is a tropical tree widely distributed in Eastern, Southern and Western
Africa. The plant species has continued to attract interest due to its cytotoxicity and antioxidant
activities. Research on particularly reducing sugars from the plant found in Northern Nigeria
remain largely unexploited. Hence, there is a necessity for special research on such
compound(s) which could lead to the actual understanding of the medicinal impact of the plant
specimen. AG fruit samples were collected from five different areas of Tula town, Gombe state
Nigeria and prepared accordingly for sugars analysis. Fehling’s solutions A and B, then
chromatography analysis was used to test the presence of reducing sugars. Ethanol extraction
method of Benedict’s solution test was applied for reducing sugar test. Fehling’s solutions gave
a brick red precipitate indicating the presence of reducing sugars. Orange-brown precipitate
was observed from the ethanolic extract solution for reducing sugars test. The compounds
extract was found to contain, glucose, mannose, galactose, fructose and sucrose. The functional
groups OH, C=O and other absorption bands were identified by IR spectroscopy. Presence of
the sugars in the AG fruits confirms its consumption safety and as good source of energy.
Keywords: Azanza Garckeana fruit, reducing sugars, isolation, chromatography
INTRODUCTION AG is named Goron Tula (Burkill, 1985)

lends credence to the claim that it was first
Azanza garckeana (AG), a tropical fruit tree found in that area and probably dispersed to
is known to be widely distributed in Eastern other parts of the country by humans due to
and Southern Africa (Mbuya et al 1994; its economic value.
Mulofwa et al (1994) in countries such as
Botswana, Zambia, Kenya, Malawi and The nutritional value of the plant and its
Mozambique. In Nigeria, it was characteristics have been widely studied.
traditionally believed to be indigenous to The plant has continued to attract interest in
Tula in Kaltungo Area (Jacob et al, 2016, its cytotoxicity and antioxidant activity
and Michael et al, 2015) but a recent report (Mshelia et al 2016; and phytochemicals
(Ochokwu and Oshoke, 2014) indicated (Michael et al, 2015) and the proximate
that it is also found in Michika and Jimeta analysis of the fruit such as the
in Adamawa State. The fact that the plant carbohydrate, ascorbic acid, and some
87 Karu E. et al., 2019

mineral contents of the fruit have been seeds while the carpels were later dried in
reported (Jacob et al 2016). Abba et al an oven at a temperature of 105oC for about
(2018) published the taxonomic 8-10 hours to remove the moisture content.
significance of the plant. The fruit however Some samples were however sun dried.
continues to attract attention as it is During oven drying sweet aroma was
claimed to increase fertility, female libido perceived which could probably indicate
and heightening sexual sensation for the presence of some terpenoids.
women with no side effects. This has
demand for the fruit throughout the year The dried samples were then crushed using
round from many parts of the country. But mortar and pestle after which the
unknown to most people the fruit is sweetening substance in the samples were
seasonal and not available throughout the extracted using a literature method
year. It is however preserved by the local described by Kyari (2008)
people that grow it. In the process of Tests for simple sugars
preservation attracts worms like Phoenix
dactylifera commonly known as date or Fehling’s solutions A&B used to test for the
date palm fruits. Sequel to that publicity in presence of reducing sugars.. Solution
the social media there has been growing A(1ml) and solution B(1ml) were measured
interest by the local people to preserve and and put in a test tube, an aliquot of the
grow the fruit on a commercial scale. extract was added to the Fehling’s solution
in the test tube and boiled for about ten
In this work we report our findings on the minutes in a water bath set at 80oC. A brick
isolation and identification of the reducing red colour formation was observed
sugars in the fruit of AG that should indicating the presence of reducing sugars.
obviously be responsible for the energy
content of the fruit that we believe may be Benedict’s test (for reducing sugars)
linked to the male sexual performance that
An ethanol extract was used to test for the
is attracting wide publicity in the social
presence of reducing sugars. A brick red
media. And as far as the authors could find,
precipitate indicates the presence of
no report has appeared on the subject. The
reducing sugar.
aim of the study was to provide additional
information to our earlier publication Resorcinol (Seliwanoff’s test
(Jacob et al, 2016) on the valuable contents (ketohexoses)
of the fruit that has hitherto been lacking.
Approximately 0.01g of the reagent grade
MATERIALS AND METHODS resorcinol was weighed using analytical
balance and dissolved in 20ml of 3molar
Sample collection and preparation
hydrochloric acid, HClaq and kept in a dark
The fruit samples of AG were randomly bottle to protect it from light. Then 1%
collected from five different locations in solution of the ethanol extract was prepared
Tula, a hilly terrain in Kaltungo Local and also 1% solution of the standard sugars
Government Area of Gombe State Nigeria. (glucose, mannose, fructose, xylose,
The samples were peeled to remove the galactose, ribose, and sucrose) was
88 Karu E. et al., 2019

prepared. Then 1ml of the resorcinol Mannose, Fructose, Sucrose, Ribose, and
reagent was measured and placed into 8 Xylose, they were sported as Gl, Ga, Mn,
separate test tubes and 0.1ml of the sample Fr, Su, Rb, and Xy respectively, while the
and standard sugars were added and heated samples were leballed as Ae and Bw as
in a water bath at 100oC for about 5minutes ethanol and water extract respectively.
and slightly above. The solid sample (i.e.
crude) was also tested following the same Development of chromatogram: The
procedure. chromatogram was developed by using
different solvents systems. The solvent
Chromatographic identification of mixture used were n-Butanol, Ethanol and
simple sugars Water (BEW), at the ratio of 4:1:2.; n-
Butanol, Acetic acid and Water (BAW) at
Preparation of colour developing agent the ratio of 4: 1: 5; and phenol saturated
The colour developing agent that was used with water. The sample spotted paper is
for both TLC and Paper chromatography subjected to development by immersing it
was Hydrogen phthalate which was in the mobile phase making sure that the
prepared by dissolving with 2.3ml Aniline sported points doesn’t touch the solvent.
and 4.0g of phthalic acid in 122.5ml of n- The mobile phase moves over the sample
butanol, 122.5 of diethyl ether and 5ml of on the paper under the capillary action of
water and warmed in a water bath at 60oC paper.
and kept in a reagent bottle. Drying of the paper and detection of the
Paper chromatography compounds: Once the development of
chromatogram was over, the paper was held
Paper chromatography was used for the carefully at the borders so as to avoid
identification of simple sugars in the fruit touching the sample spots and then dried
extract, following standard procedures using an air drier. The detecting solution
(Ekpunobi and Eboatu, 2008).: (hydrogen phthalate) was sprayed and dried
to identify the sample chromatogram spots.
Preparation of sample: Sample(1ml) was
dissolved in distilled water(10ml) and Preparation of the TLC plate: An already
standard sugars(1.0g) were also dissolved prepared Silica gel and aluminum gel TLC
in distilled water(10ml) and swirled plates with the thickness 0.25cm were used
slightly, the resulting solutions were used for the analysis. The plates were measured
for sporting both the TLC plate and the to be 20x20 cm; a fainted line of 4cm was
chromatographic paper. drawn from the other end of the TLC plate
using a lead pencil.
Samples were spotted with a capillary tube
after a mark on the filter paper at 3cm from Preparation of standard sugar and
the bottom and 3cm in-between each spot sample solution: The solutions of standard
using a 30cm ruler and lead pencil for sugars were prepared by dissolving 0.50g of
drawing the fainted line at proper position each in 5ml of distilled water and placed
on the paper. The standard sugars that were into different sample bottles. The same
used include: Glucose, Galactose, weight of extract was dissolved in 5ml, 8ml
89 Karu E. et al., 2019

and 10ml of distilled water and properly Drying of the chromatograms and
labeled. detection of the compounds separated:
When the development of chromatogram
Spotting of the TLC plate: The TLC plate was over, the chromatogram was carefully
of 0.25cm thickness was carefully spotted held at the borders so as to avoid touching
using a capillary tube on the marked pencil the sample spots while the solvent front was
line at 3cm apart for the standard sugars marked with a pencil and dried using an air
Glucose, Galactose, Mannose, Fructose, drier and then sprayed with a colour
Sucrose, Ribose, and Xylose, which were developer (Hydrogen Phthalate) which was
sported as Gl, Ga, Mn, Fr, Su, Rb, and Xy again dried in an oven at 105oC for about
respectively, while the samples were 10minutes
leballed as Ae and Bw as ethanol and water
extract respectively, and allowed to dry. Rf values: After developing the
chromatogram, the colour visualization of
Development of the chromatogram: the the solute front was marked and measured
chromatogram was developed by using for both the standards and sample. The Rf
different solvents system. The solvent value was calculated for all the
mixture used were n-Butanol, Ethanol and chromatograms.
Water (BEW), at the ratio of 4:1:2; n-
Butanol, Acetic acid and Water (BAW) at Infra-red spectra
the ratio of 4:1:5; phenol saturated with The infra-red spectrum of the fruit extracts
water. But the solvent system that gave was acquired from NARICT Zaria using a
separation of sugars on a plain silica gel was model SHIMADZU FTIR-8400S Fourier
mixture of n-butanol, acetic acid, ether and Transform Infrared Spectrometer.
water(BAEW) at the ratio of 9:6:3:1 and
6:4:2:1 then the spotted paper was RESULTS
subjected to development by immersing it The qualitative analyses of the sugars are
in the mobile phase making sure that the presented under Table 1. Fehling’s
spotted points did not touch the solvent. solutions A and B gave a brick red
The chromatogram was developed in a TLC precipitate indicating the presence of
tank for about 4-8hrs the mobile phase reducing sugars. From the results of
moves over the sample on the paper under qualitative analysis, it can be seen that both
the capillary action. Both the standards and the ethanol and the water extracts of the
samples were run at the same time with samples also gave a positive test for
each label as indicated above. reducing sugars using Benedict’s solution
i.e. an orange-brown precipitate was
observed.
90 Karu E. et al., 2019

Table1: Qualitative tests for reducing sugars
Sugars Fehling Solution A & B Benedicts Solution Resorcinol Iodine

Glucose Positive positive Negative Negative
Mannose Positive positive Negative negative
Galactose Positive positive Negative negative
Ribose Positive positive Negative negative
Xylose Positive positive Negative negative
Sucrose Negative negative Positive negative
Fructose Positive positive Positive negative
Sample Ae Positive positive Positive negative
Sample Bw Positive positive Positive negative
Table 2 shows the separation of the sugars colours. The use of BEW as solvents
obtained by paper chromatography. The system for elution in the paper
solvents used were n-butanol/acetic chromatography gave average (Av.) Rf
acid/water (BAW); n- value of 21.0 for Ae and 22.0 for Bw. These
butanol/ethanol/water (BEW); n- Rf values can be compared with those of
butanol/acetic acid/ether/water (BAEW); glucose and galactose with the Rf values of
and phenol saturated with water (PHOL). 21.5 and 22.0 respectively which were run
The results obtained showed two distinct at the same time.
spots, Ae and Bw, both having brown
Table 2: Rf values, colours and solvents for paper chromatography

Sugar BEW Rf x100 BAW Rf x100 PHOL Rf x100 Colour with
Aniline
1st 2nd Av. 1st 2nd Av. 1st 2nd Av.
hydrogen
phthalate
Glucose 21.0 22.0 21.5 64.0 64.0 64.0 97.2 97.0 97.1 Brown
Galactose 22.0 22.0 22.0 67.0 67.0 67.0 97.6 97.4 97.5 Brown
Xylose 39.0 39.0 39.0 72.0 73.0 72.5 99.2 99.2 99.2 Red
Ribose 40.0 42.0 41.0 73.0 73.0 73.0 97.6 97.6 97.6 Red
Mannose 34.0 34.0 34.0 80.0 78.0 79.0 96.0 96.2 96.1 Brown
Sample Ae 21.0 21.0 21.0 68.0 68.0 68.0 97.2 97.2 97.2 Brown
Sample Bw 22.0 22.0 22.0 67.0 67.0 67.0 97.4 97.4 97.4 Brown
Key notes: BEW= n-Butanol-Etha nol-Water (4:1:2)

BAW= n-Butanol- Acetic acid- Water (4:1:5)
PHOL= Phenol saturated with water
Av. = Average
On the other hand, when BAW was used as respectively. The fact that different Rf
the mobile phase, the Rf values for the values were obtained for the same
sample spots Ae and Bw, were 68.0 and substance for different solvents is expected
67.0 respectively. These compare since the values usually depend on the
favaourably well with those of glucose and solvent used. Another solvent system used,
galactose with Rf values of 64.0 and 67.0 phenol (PHOL), gave high Rf values for the
91 Karu E. et al., 2019

standard samples when compared with chromatogram obtained with BEW also
those obtained with other solvents. The gave two spots with Rf values of 54.2 and
phenol extract appears to have high Rf 54.2 respectively which is comparable to
values probably because the more polar the our standard glucose and galactose of 52.2
solvent the more its eluting power. The and 54.3 respectively. But with BAEW as
values are however in close agreement with eluting solvents systems, the Rf value for
those of fruit extracts of 97.2 and 97.4 for Ae and Bw were both 33.0 which can be
Ae and Bw respectively. These values tally seen to exhibit the same characteristics as
with those for glucose and galactose with glucose, galactose and fructose having the
the Rf values of 97.1 and 97.5 respectively. close Rf values of 34.5. When standard
sucrose was run on the TLC plate with
Further separation of the extracts, Ae and BEW as solvent there was no visible spot.
Bw, by thin layer chromatography (TLC), However a brown colour was observed with
using two different solvents systems, BEW the BAEW solvent and with Rf value of
and BEAW, are presented in Table 3. The 10.5.
Table 3: Rf values, colours and solvents for TLC

Sugar BEW Rf x100 BAEW Rf x100 Colour with
Aniline hydrogen
1st 2nd Av. 1st 2nd Av. phthalate
Glucose 54.3 54.2 54.25 35.0 34.0 34.5 Brown
Galactose 54.3 54.3 54.30 35.0 33.0 34.0 Brown
Xylose 70.9 70.8 70.75 52.0 52.0 52.0 Red
Ribose 70.9 70.9 90.90 45.0 45.0 45.0 Red
Mannose 60.6 60.5 60.55 38.0 33.0 35.5 Brown
Fructose - - - 35.0 34.0 34.5 Brown
Sucrose - - - 11 10 10.5 Brown
Sample Ae 54.3 54.0 54.15 33.0 33.0 33.0 Brown
Sample Bw 52.2 52.2 52.2 35.0 33.0 34.0 Brown
Key: BEW= n-Butanol - Ethanol – Water (4:1:2). BAEW= n-Butanol – Acetic acid – Ether –
Water (9:6:3:1), Av. = Average
It appears the solvent systems that gives

good separation on the TLC plate was
BAEW and BEW for paper
chromatography. A chromatogram of TLC
with BAEW as solvent system is given
under Figure 1.
Figure 1: Ripened fruits of Azanza garckeana
92 Karu E. et al., 2019

The infrared spectrum of the fruit extract is identifications. The samples had sweet
shown in Figure 2, while absorption flavours like that of honey. So, the
frequencies are tabulated in Table 4. The absorption band around 1700cm-1 assigned
absorption frequencies at 3431cm-1, to the C=O stretching vibration could be
2924cm-1, 1721cm-1, 1651cm-1, and from an ester since these compounds are
1403cm-1 could be assigned to the known to possess this kind of aroma. The
stretching vibrations corresponding to the extracts were syrups. Hence the broad peak
functional groups O-H, C-H, C=O, C-C and around 3400cm-1 is usually characteristic of
C-O respectively. The rest of the peaks are water since the extract was not totally free
in the finger print region which is not so from water and our attempts to crystallize
useful for the functional group the syrup were unsuccessful.
Figure 2: Infra-red Spectrum of Azanza garckeana fruit extract.
Table4: IR Absorption frequencies and the red colour. Also, from Table 1, Resorcinol
assigned functional groups
reagent (Seliwanoff’s test) gave brick red
Frequency(cm-1) Stretching colour with the standard samples (sucrose
vibration and fructose) for reducing sugars. The fact
3431 O-H that a positive test was obtained with the
2924 C-H
1721 C=O
standard samples and the fruit extracts
1651 C=C indicated the presence of sucrose and or
1403 C-O fructose. The fructose was either present in
the sample initially or it was from the
DISCUSSION hydrolysis of sucrose during the extraction
process. The resulting positive test for
The test with Resorcinol reagent involves
reducing sugars obtained with standard
the hydrolysis of sucrose to two units i.e.
glucose and a negative test with resorcinol
glucose and fructose and it is the latter that
does not rule out the presence of glucose in
then reacts with the reagent to give a brick
the fruit extract since resorcinol is used to
93 Karu E. et al., 2019
distinguish glucose from fructose. Iodine CONCLUSION

solution gave a negative result for the
standards and the fruit extracts, which The identification of simple sugars in the
indicates the absence of starch. From the fruits of AG was done successfully using
results of the qualitative tests it is apparent qualitative tests and separation by
that the extracts contain reducing sugars chromatographic techniques (paper and
rather than starch. thin layer chromatography). From the
findings of this study, the fruits contain a
From these results, it could be inferred that mixture of reducing sugars such as glucose,
the fruit contains glucose and galactose galactose, fructose (monosaccharide) and
though the former could be a product of sucrose as a disaccharide. But whether the
hydrolysis from sucrose. However, the simple sugars are originally present or as
average Rf values 22 obtained with BEW as products of the hydrolysis of sucrose could
the mobile phase, could mean the presence not be ascertained. However, the presence
of glucose or galactose or both since their of the sugars in the fruit confirms its
Rf values are very close (21.5 and 22) as consumption as a good source of energy.
compared with our standard samples. The
Rf values obtained agrees with literature REFERENCES
(Harbone, 1969) though slightly higher by Abba, H.M, Sale, S. and D. A. Zhigila
5 units but agrees fairly well with a value of (2018). Taxonomic Significance of
20 reported by Ekpunobi and Eboatu (2008) Foliar Epidermal Characters in
for glucose. From the findings of this study, Azanza garckeana (F. Hoffin)
the isolation of the sugars in the AG fruit, Excell & Hillc in Tula, Kaltungo
by paper and thin layer chromatography Local Government Area of Gombe
showed the presence of simple sugars that State, Nigeria. American Journal of
is glucose, galactose and fructose. Plant Sciences Vol. 9. Pp 1677 –
However, the qualitative tests indicated the 1687.
presence of sucrose. This could mean that Burkill, H. M (1985). The Useful plants of
the sucrose was probably hydrolysed as West Africa, Vol. 4.
explained earlier. Fundamentals of Analytical
th
The IR technique employed confirmed only Chemistry 8 ed. Cengage Learning
the presence of some functional groups and Indian Private limited, India.
was not therefore informative about the Ekpunobi E.U and Eboatu A.N (2008),
different types of sugars present since all Extraction of Sugar from Nypa
the sugars basically contain these functional Palm (Nypa nnnnn fruitican)
groups. Furthermore, the importance of Journal of Chemical Society of
sugars in the body is well known especially Nigeria, 33 (1) pp122-125.
glucose which is the source of energy for all Mbuya L. P., Msaga C.K, Ruffo, Birnie A.,
cellular activities in the body including the Tengas B. (1994). Useful trees of
brain and nervous system. Tanzania Regional Soil
Conservation Unit/ SIDA. 23-27
(2).
94 Karu E. et al., 2019

Michael K. G, Onyia, L. U, and Jidauna, S. Mulofwa, J. S; Simute, S; Tungas, B. (1994)

B. (2015). Evaluation of Agroforestry Manual for Extension
Phytochemicals in Azanza garckeana Workers in Southern Province
(Goron Tula) Seed. Journal of Zambia. Technical Book No. 4.
Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences Regional; Soil Conservation
Volume 8 Issue 5 pp 71-74. Unit/SIDA.
Mshelia, E. H; Watirahyel, E. M.; Maigari, Ochokwu, I. J; Dasuki, A.; and Oshoke, J. O.
A. U; Yohanna Christopher, and (2015). Azanza garckeana (goron
Ismail, F. Cytoyoxicity and Tula) as an Edible Indigenous Fruit in
Antioxidant Activity of Stem Bark North eastern Part of Nigeria. Journal
Extracts of Azanza garckeana (kola of Biology, Agriculture and
of Tula). European Journal of Pure Healthcare. Vol, 5, No, 15, pp 26 –
and Applied Chemistry (2016) Vol. 3. 31.
pp16 – 24.
95 Karu E. et al., 2019

ISOLATION AND STRUCTURE ELUCIDATION OF IPOLAMIIDE FROM THE STEM

BARK OF STACHYTARPHETA ANGUSTIFOLIA MILL VAHL (VERBENACEAE)
1*
M. MOHAMMED, 2U.M. JAJERE, 1A. DANMALAM, 1M. T KOLO AND 1M. BABAKANO
1
National Research Institute for Chemical Technology, P.M.B. 1052, Zaria – Nigeria.
2
Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Faculty of pharmaceutical sciences,
Gombe state University.
*Corresponding Authors: contactdrmusa@gmail.com; ujajere076@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This research work is aimed at isolating and structural elucidation of the compound from the stem
bark extract of S. angustifolia using standard phytochemical and spectroscopic techniques. The
grounded powdered material of the stem bark was extracted and partitioned using various solvent
of different polarity. Column chromatography, n-BuoH soluble fraction of the ethanol extract of
stem bark S. angustifolia was run using silica gel and subsequently pooled fractions from various
portions were purified using sephadex LH20 to obtain compound 1. Pure isolate of compound 1
was subjected to analysis using FTIR, 1and 2D NMR. Compound 1 was determined as an Iridoid
glucoside Cyclopenta [C] pyran-4-Carboxylic acid, 1-(β-D glucopyranosyloxy)-1, 4A, 5,6,7,7A
Hexahydro-4A, 7- dihydroxy-7- methyl-, Methyl Ester, (1S, 4AR,7S, 7AR) (Ipolamiide), MP 218-
220oC, MW C17H27O12, [M]+424(EIMS) on the basis of spectral analysis and Comparism with
reference data.
Keywords: Stachytapheta angustifolia, Verbenaceae, Ipolamiide, Spectral data.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to

INTRODUCTION
developed new anti-microbial agents that are
Medicinal herbs constitute indispensable highly effective with less toxicity from
components of traditional medicine practiced natural sources (Maurer-Grams et al., 1996).
worldwide due to low cost, easy access and Previous phytochemistry of S.angustifolia
ancestral experience (Marini-Bettolo, 1980). and other species in the genus Stachytarpheta
Bacterial and viral resistance to almost all revealed the presence of the following Prenyl
anti-bacterial and anti-viral agents has been hydroquinone glycoside as 1 – O – (4” – O –
reported, this might be attributed to an caffeoyl) – β – glucopyranosyl – 1 – 4 –
indiscriminate use of anti-microbial drugs dihydroxy – 2 – (3; 3 – dimethyl allyl)
commonly employed for the treatment of Benzene, Acteoside isolated from the leaf
infectious diseases (Gbodossou, 2005). Apart and stem bark of Stachytarpheta cayemensis
from the development of resistance, some ( Cordell, 2000, Ganapathy et al., 1998).
antibiotics have serious undesirable side Lamiide, Ipolamiide and Samangaoside were
effects which limit their application. all reported to be isolated from the leaf
96 Mohammed M. et al., 2019

extract of Stachytarpheta indica (Sophon, MATERIALS AND METHODS

2002). While, Lucidemic acid, korolkoside, a
Bis – iridoid glycoside, Citrifolinoside, Plant Material
Isorhamnetin as 3-O- β-D- apio -D- furanosyl
The plant Stachytarpheta angustifolia
(1- 2)-β-D-galactopyranoside and
(MILL) Vahl. Verbenaceae was collected
Serratoside were all reported to be isolated
from a farm land in Basawa, a village outskirt
from Stachytarpheta species (Farnsworth,
of Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria in the month
2000).
of October, 2013. The plant was
The cold infusion of Stachytarpheta authenticated at the herbarium of the
angustifolia when mixed with natron is taken Department of Biological Science, Ahmadu
as a remedy for, gonorrhea and other forms Bello University Zaria, Nigeria, by
of venereal diseases. It is also taken as a comparing with the existing Herbarium
vermifuge or a purging vehicle for other Sample, (Voucher No. 900188). The fresh
vermifuge. The boiled leaf portion of the plant material was carefully separated into
plant is taken as a remedy for diabetes different parts, the leaf, stem bark and root.
(Dalziel, 1999). In Asia and America the The stem bark was cut, air-dried and made
aerial part of Stachytarpheta angustifolia is into powder using pestle and mortar and
boiled and taken traditionally as a remedy for subsequently referred to as powdered plant
diarrhea, intestinal parasites and skin ulcer. material of the stem bark.
(Eldridge et al., 1975).
Sample preparation
In Brazil, the triturated stem bark of
The powdered material of the stem bark
Stachytarpheta angustifolia is applied locally
(500g) was extracted with petroleum ether 60
for the treatment of ulcer and also as a good
– 800C (5 x 600 ml) to exhaustion using
remedy for rheumatism. The leaves have also
maceration technique. The defatted marc
been used for the relief of sprain. The plant
was air dried at room temperature and
has been reported to contain a glucosidal
exhaustively extracted with 95% ethanol (7 x
substance “Stachytarphine” which is reputed
500 ml) using the same procedure to obtain
to be Abortificient. In Ghana according to
the ethanol extract. The solvents were
Buntings, the juice from the leaf of this plant
removed in-vacuo to afford an oily and a dark
is used as a remedy for eye trouble such as
brown gummy mass referred to as petroleum
cataract and also applied to sores on
ether extract coded “Ps” and ethanol extract
children’s ear. The aqueous leaf extract of
coded “Es” respectively.
Stachytarpheta angustifolia are also used to
cure heart problems (Burkill, 1995). The ethanol extract 30g stem bark was
suspended in water (500ml) and sequentially
partitioned with chloroform (3 x 500ml),
ethyl acetate (4 x 500ml), and n-butanol (5x
500ml). These were concentrated using
rotary evaporator to afford chloroform, ∂3.30 (1H) and 49.00 (13C) with TMS as an
ethylacetate, n-butanol and residual aqueous internal standard. Chemical shift values (∂)
portions respectively (Yaching et al., 2004; were reported in parts per million (ppm) in
Shengmin et al., 2003). relation to the appropriate internal solvent
standard (TMS). The coupling constants (J-
The ethanol stem bark extract and the values) were given in Hertz,
partition portion of S. angustifolia were
subjected to phytochemical screening using Chemical shift values (δ) were reported in
standard protocols (Sofowora, 2008; Trease part per million in relations to the appropriate
and Evans, 2002). 2.5g of n-butanol extract internal solvent standard (TMS). The
from the stem bark was mounted over glass coupling constant (J-values) were given in
column (100cm×4cm) packed with silica gel Hertz while the HMBC, DEPT, COSY and
(60-120 mesh). The column was eluted NOESY are also obtained. The NMR solvent
continuously using chloroform, chloroform/ use for this measurement was deutrated
Ethylacetate mixture, Ethylacetate, Ethyl methanol.
acetate/ Methanol mixture and finally with
methanol by gradient elution technique. The RESULTS
progress of elution was monitored using thin
layer chromatography. A total of 465
fractions of 10 ml aliquot were obtained.
Fractions were combined based on their TLC
profile to afford 10 major fractions Coded as
B1- B10. Fraction B3 consisting of two major
spots was subjected to repeated gel filtration
using sephadex LH-20, eluted with methanol
to afford 36mg of Compound 1.
Sample analyses
Infrared (IR) absorption spectrum was

recorded using an infrared
1
spectrophotometer. Proton HNMR and
13
CNMR spectra both (ID and 2D) were
obtained using NMR Spectrometer. 1HNMR
and 13CNMR experiments were performed on
Bruker spectrometer 400 MHZ for 1H and 125
Plate 1.Stachytarpheta angustifolia
MHZ for 13CNMR. NMR spectra were
(Mill) Vahl; Verbenaceae
referenced to the CD3OD solvent signals at

Table 1: The results of Preliminary phytochemical screening of the ethanolic extract and the
partition portion of the stem bark extract of S. angustifolia plant was summarized in table 1.
Const. TEST Ps Es CL EtOAC n-But AQ
Carbohydrate Molisch - + - - - ++
Fehling’s ++ - - - +++
Barfoed + - - - ++
Benedict + - - - ++
Alkaloids Mayer’s - - - - - -
Wagner -- - - - -
Dragendorff -- - - - -
Hager’s -- - - - -
Flavonoids Lead Acetate - ++ + + ++ -
Shinoda ++ + + ++ -
Tetraoxosulphate + + - ++ -
(VI) acid
Glycosides Borntrager’s - ++ - + + ++
Legal + + + + ++
Saponin Froth test - ++ - + ++ +++
Cardiac Keller Killiani - + - ++ + ++
(Glycosides)
Tannins Gelatin test - + + - + ++
Alkaline -reagent + - - + ++
test
Key: (+) Present, ( - ) Absent, Es =Ehanol , Ps=Pet ether, CL=Chloroform, EtOAC=Ethylacetate,
n-But= n-butanol and AQ=Residual aqueous
Table 2: Showing TLC profile of Ipolamiide
Solvent Sprayin Colou No. Rf
system g r of spo Value
reagent spot t s
(A). EtoAc: 10% Bluish 1 0.48

MeOH:Wate H2SO4 green
r
(100:16.5;13.
5)
(B). CHCl3: 10% Bluish 1 0.51
MeOH:Wate H2SO4 green
r
(3:3:1)
I II
Plate 2: TLC Analysis of compound 1 in
Different solvent system

Chemical test in vacuum. The residue was dissolved in H2O

and the temperature reduced to 0oC. 5ml each
Ferric Chloride Test
was extracted with CH2Cl2 (10ml x 2). The
5.0% ferric chloride in 0.5N HCl was methylated compound was chromatographed
sprayed on the chromatogram, fluka-silica on silica gel with (Pet- ether: CHCl3) (8:2) as
gel precoated glass plate of compound 1 and solvent system to obtain compound 1 (Tian-
then kept in hot oven for 2-3 min. (Manguro shung et al., 2001).
and Lemmen, 2007).
The IR frequency of 3419cm_1 observed in
Vanillin/Sulphuric Acid Test MND indicate the presence of a hydroxyl
4.0g solution of vanillin was dissolved in group while, frequency at 1648cm -1 (s) could
100ml of Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid be attributed to esters of aliphatic acid. The
(H2SO4). This was spread on the intense band observed at 1021cm-1 (s) could
chromatogram precoated glass plate of be attributed to CH3C-O (kemp, 1991).
compound 1 in a fume chamber with the aid
Table 3: FTIR data of IPOLAMIIDE
of a spray canister. The plate was inserted in
Absorption Intensity Vibrations
to the oven and heated to 110oC, for about bands (cm-1)
10min after which it was removed to 3419 Broad OH
ascertain the colour formed (Richard, 1998). 2848 M Stretch
1648 S C-H
1ml of anhydrous Acetic acid was added to 1486 M C=O
1ml of chloroform, and cooled to 0oC in a test 1021 S -C=C
tube. Few drops of concentrated H2SO4 were Stretch
added to the test tube containing solution of C-O or OH
compound 1 (Harbone, 1984). ( def)
Shinoda’s TestA little portion of the Proton Nuclear magnetic resonance of

compound 1 was dissolved in ethanol; this Ipolammide
was further warmed and filtered. Three to
1
four pieces of magnesium chips was added to The HNMR spectrum of compound
the filtrate, followed by the addition of few ipolamiiderevealed resonance at δH 5.8(1H,
drops of Conc. Hydrochloric acid (HCl). d,1.1HZ , H-1), 7.4 (1H, S, H-3), 2.2 (H-5),
(Trease and Evans, 2002). 1.9 (1H, m, H-6), 1.6 (IH,m, H-7), 2.5 (1H,
brs, H-9), 1.2 (3H, S, H-10), 3.7 (3H, S,
Methylation
OCH3), 4.6 (1H, d, 7.8HZ H-11), 3.2 (3H,m,
3mg of the isolated compound 1 was treated H-21), 3.3 (3H,m, H-31), 3.4 (3H,m, H-41),
with excess methanol and 2 drops of H2SO4 3.4 (3H,m, H-51), (1H,dd, H-61).
added and then refluxed for 12 hours after
which the solution was evaporated to dryness

Figure 2: FTIR of the Ipolamiide

Signal at δH 3.7ppm (3H,S) is assign to the
Signal observed at δH 4.6ppm is a
methoxy group while signal at δH 1.2ppm
characteristic of an anomeric proton while δH
7.4ppm (s) signal could be attributed to an (3H,S) is assign to the only methyl proton of
compound ipolamiide.
iridoid proton presnt on the aglycone moiety.

Figure 4: Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrum of ipolamiide in CD3OD
Figure 5: Carbon -13 Nuclear magnetic resonance Spectrum of MND in CD3OD

Carbon-13 Nuclear magnetic resonance 3401.58cm-1, a conjugated carbonyl group at

1648.23cm-1 and the presence of a glycosidic
The 13CNMR and 13C-DEPT spectrum of
linkage at 1130-1025cm-1(IK, Kwi et al.,
MND exhibited resonance at δc 93.0ppm(C-
2004). The 1HNMR at signal δH (7.4, S)
1), 151.2 (C-3), 114.0 (C-4), 70.3(C-5), 38.0
indicated the presence of a 4-substituted enol
(C-6), 39.0 (C-7), 78.0(C-8), 60.5 (C-9), 22.0
ether system typical of an Iridoid proton
(C-10), 167.0(C-11), 50.3 (OCH3), 98.2 (C-
(Kemp 1991). Signal at (δH 3.8, 3H, S) is
11), 73.0 (C-21), 76 (C-31), 70.3 (C-41),
typical of a methoxy proton and also another
77.0(C-5) and 61.4 (C-61). 13CNMR spectra
signal at (δH 1.2,3H, S) is for a tertiary methyl
and DEPT experiment of MND indicated the
group. The signal at (δH 4.6 d, j= 7.8HZ) was
presence of 17 carbon atoms. Resonance at δc
assigned to the anomeric proton of a - β-
98.2ppm exhibited the presence of an
glucopyranose unit. The integral signal at (δH
anomeric proton. The spectrum showed 2
5.8378, d), which was shifted downfield due
quaternary carbon atom at δc 114.0, 78ppm
to glycosidation, indicated the attachment of
and δc 167ppm. The resonance around δc 77-
glucopyranose unit to the iridoid moiety.
61.4ppm exhibited the characteristic of sugar
Signals observed at δH 4.6141, δH 3.2190, δH
nucleus and methyl carbon atom on δc
3.3366, δH 3.3464, δH 3.5551 and δH
22.0ppm.
3.6780ppm are all protons attributable to
DISCUSSION glucopyranose (Shu-hua, et al., 2004). The
The phytochemical screening of the stem point of attachment for the β-glucopyranose
bark ethanol extract and the partition portions unit (C –1) was confirmed by HMBC and
revealed the presence of the following correlation between (H – 1I/C – 1) of δH
secondary metabolite such as Saponins, 4.6141ppm / δC 94.2578ppm to (H – 1/C - 1I)
Tannins, Cardiac glycosides, Flavonoids and of δH 5.8378 / δC 99.6268ppm (Masaki, et al.,
Sterols while Alkaloids were found to be 2001).
absents. The H-H COSY exhibited the correlation of
Column chromatographic separation of the n- H-1 of the cyclopentano pyran ring system
butanol fraction of the stem bark extract to H-1I, H-12 and H-10. The H-1I was also
followed by a repeated gel filtration using found to be correlated to H-5I, H-4I and H-1I
sephadex LH 20 led to isolation of an respectively (Nan-zhang et al., 2008). The
amorphous brownish solid. The ferric HSQC correlation shows that δC
chloride test on the isolate gave bluish-green 94.2579ppm/δ C 99.6268ppm C/C1 are
coloration on the chromatogram. The bluish coupled to δ H 5.70ppm/δH 4.50ppm of H/HI
green coloration observed on subjecting the (Dharma, et al., 2001).
compound 1 to FeCl3 test indicates the The 13CNMR spectrum of (1) exhibited 17
presence of phenolics OH (Francis, 2003). carbon signals, six of which could be
The IR spectrum (1) displayed absorption attributed to a β-glucopyranosyl moiety and
attributable to a hydroxyl group at 11 to the aglycone. Signals at δC
98.6268ppm, δC 72.9915ppm, δC
77.5058ppm, δC 70.2980ppm, δC anomeric proton at δH4.60ppm for δC

76.0267ppm and δC 61.4333ppm are all 98.1892ppm. By the complete analysis of
characteristic carbon signals for NMR data of (1), and comparison with data
glucopyranose unit (Yong and Peng 2003). given in the table above.
The β – anomeric configuration for the CONCLUSION
glucose was judged from its (JHZ 8.00ppm)
coupling constants. The correlations between In conclusion, it could be observed that, the
C – 1/H – 1, H – 1/C – 1I and H – 1/C – 1I compound isolated is a new compound in this
suggested that the β – glucopyranose unit was species of S. angustifolia but not in the genus
attached to (C – 1) position of the aglycone of Stachytarpheta. Compound 1 was
unit ( Kim, et al., 2004). The chemical shift determined to be the same as Ipolamiide
values, the splitting patterns of H-3 (δH 7.4,s) termed as Cyclopenta [C] pyran-4-
and H-9 (δH 2.5, s ) were suggestive of C-4, Carboxylic acid, 1-(β-D glucopyranosyloxy)-
C-5 and C-8 to be positioned at C-4, due to 1, 4A, 5,6,7,7A Hexahydro-4A, 7-
the high desheilded signal of the H-3 proton, dihydroxy-7- methyl-, Methyl Ester, (1S,
and the quaternary carbon resonance at δC 4AR,7S, 7AR)( Ipolamiide), mp 218-220oc,
70.2657ppm attributed to C-5 ( Zuhal et al., C17H27O12, [M]+424(EIMS) on the basis of
2005). The Complete analysis of the 1H and spectral analysis and Comparism with
13
C NMR spectral data of Compound 1 reference data. (Zuhal, et al., 2005; Tayfun et
allowed the assignment of the Multiplet al., 2001).
signals observed at δH 2.2/2.3 and δH 1.6/2.1
O
to the methylene protons at C-6 (δC 37.4 ) and
C-7 (δC 38.9934), respectively. The C OCH 3
multiplicity of H-9 was also an indicative of 11
6 OH
a totally substituted C-8. Therefore, the 4 3
chemical shift value of the tertiary methyl 5
7
group (δH 1.2, S) suggested its attachment at 8 O
1 CH 2 OH
C-8. However, the chemical shift values of 9 5'
HO O
both C-8 (δC 77.5058ppm) and H-10 also CH3 1' 4'
indicated the presence of a tertiary hydroxyl O OH
function at C-8 position (Robert, 1989). 2' 3'

From the spectra it can be deduced that the
HO OH
glucose is a D- glucopyranose. while the
proton (NMR) and 13CNMR spectra has Fig 6: Compound 1
assisted in ascertaining the molecular Cyclopenta [C] pyran-4-Carboxylic acid, 1-
formula as C17 H26 O12 with molecular weight (β-D glucopyranosyloxy)-1, 4A, 5,6,7,7A
of424[ M]+. The anomeric position of the Hexahydro-4A, 7- dihydroxy-7- methyl-,
glucose moiety as a – β – origin was acertain Methyl Ester, (1S, 4AR,7S, 7AR)
from the coupling constant (7.8Hz) with

Table 4: 13C NMR (100 MHz) and 1HNMR (400MHz) Spectral Data for Compound 1 and
Reference Compound in CD3OD (δ in ppm)
Position δC of Cpd 1 δH of Cpd 1 J (HZ) δC of Ref Cpd δH of Ref Cpd
1 CH 92.7926 5.8 (1H, d, 1.1HZ) 93.0 5.7 (1H, d, 1.1HZ)

3 CH 151.2050 7-5 (1H, S) 151.4 7.4 (1H, S)
4 C 113.8174 - 114.0 -
5 C 70.2667 - 70.6 -
6 CH2 37.4573 1.9 (1H,m) , 37.6 2.0
7 CH2 38.9934 1. 6 (1H,m), 2.05 (1H, 39.6 1.56 (1H,m), 2.05
8 C 77.0040 m) 77.7 (1H, m)
9 CH 60.2769 - 60.5
10 CH3 21.8444 2.5 (1H, brs) 22.0 2.79
11 C 166.6558 1.2 (3H, S) 166.8 1.14 (3H, S)
Ome 50.2635 - 50.4 -
1 CH 98..1872 3.8 (3H, S ) 98..4 3.72
2’ CH 72.9915 4.6 (1H, d, 7.8) 73.2 4.5
3’ CH 76.0267 3.2 ( 1H, dd, 8.0) 76.2 3.17
4’ CH 77.0040 3.3 ( 3H, m) 70.6 3.23
5’ CH 70.2980 3-4 (3H, m) 77.1 3.32
6’ CH2 61.4333 3.4 (3H, m) 61.5 3.38
3.7 (1H, dd, 6.0) 3.65
Key: Ref. Compound. Zuhal Guvenalp, Hilal O., Turesin U., Cavit k., and Omur D ( 2005).
Iridoid (Ipolamiide) Flavonoids and phenylethanoid glycoside from Wiedemannia orientalis. Turk
J. Chem. 391- 400.
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KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PERCEPTION OF TERTIARY EDUCATION

STUDENTS TOWARDS PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS IN GOMBE STATE
MURTALA MUHAMMAD ABDU1* ADAMU D. BOJUDE2, SALIHU ABDULLAHI3,

SHUAIBU SANI4, DANLADI M UMAR5.
1
University Health Services, Gombe State University, Gombe State, Nigeria
2
College of Medical Sciences, Gombe State University, Gombe State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Economics, Faculty of Art and Social Sciences, Gombe State University, Gombe
State, Nigeria
4
Department of Statistics, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, Gombe State, Nigeria.
5
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, Gombe State,
Nigeria.
*Corresponding author: alamin882005@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Knowledge, attitudes and perceptions concerning HIV/AIDS is one of the fundamental steps in the
fight against the illness. Young people such as students are most susceptible to the disease because
they are most sexually active and engage in risky practices due to lack of adequate information.
Therefore, assessing their knowledge, attitudes and perceptions will help in designing a suitable
prevention strategy. The aim of this study is to explore the level of knowledge, attitude and
perception of students in higher institutions of learning towards HIV/AIDS and people living with
HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). Through a cross-sectional study and stratified random sampling, we
administered a pilot-tested standard questionnaire to assess the HIV/AIDS knowledge, attitudes and
perceptions of 356 tertiary education students aged 18-46 years in Gombe State, Nigeria. Data were
analyzed using STATA 10 statistical software. Four hundred students were approached to complete
the questionnaires, 44 did not return their questionnaires. The mean age of the 356 participating
students was 23.09±4.86 years (SD=4.86). The male to female ratio was 2:1. Over 90% of the
students were aware of HIV/AIDS, and mass media (39.6%) and teachers (38.5%) were their major
sources of information about disease. More than half of the students (60.6%) were willing to live
with PLWHA and about two third of the (69.5%) wouldn’t like students living with HIV/AIDS
(SLWHA) to be educated in a separate school and (80%) would want all students to go for annual
mandatory HIV testing. Although, most of the students have satisfactory knowledge about
HIV/AIDS, and positive attitude and perception towards PLWHA, some misconceptions still exist
among the students about the source of acquiring the disease.Educational programs and strategies
involving schools and youth’s networks should be employed to overcome these misconceptions.
Keywords: HIV, Tertiary students, Knowledge, Attitude, Perception, Gombe.
INTRODUCTION discovered by a Venerologist Dr. Robert

Gallo in the United States in 1981 [1].
Acquired Immune-deficiency Syndrome AIDS is a fatal illness which refers to the
(AIDS) is caused by a retrovirus the Human last stage of HIV infection.And it can leadto
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), it was first a complete breakdown in the body's
108
Murtala M.A et al., 2019
immune system, leaving the victim proportion ofwomen and men aged 15-49
susceptible to a host of life-threatening years old in Gombe Statewho heard of HIV
opportunistic infections, neurological were 79.4% and 93.9% respectively while
disorders and malignancies. Since the first the knowledge of preventive measures
cases were diagnosed in North America, it among women and men such as using
has spread speedilyto many countries over condoms and limiting sexual intercourse to
the years and became a global health one uninfected partnerwere 40.1% and
challenge. HIV/AIDS is ranked among the 52.1% respectively[4].
top five leading cause of death among
adolescents and young adults aged 15-24 Knowledge, attitudes and perceptions
years in Africa[2]. The 2018UNAIDS) regarding HIV/AIDS is one of the
global estimate of People Living With fundamental steps in the fight against the
HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) is put at about 40 disease. Adequate knowledge about
million, with about 75% of whom live in the HIV/AIDS is a powerful means of
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).Although promoting positive attitudes and engaging
worldwide statistics indicates an overall in safe practices. Many prevention
waning in AIDS related deaths and new programs have focused on increasing
HIV infections,thanks to the concerted knowledge on transmission so as to
efforts of various stakeholders, the toll of overcome misconceptions that could
HIV/AIDS continues to be harsh in prevent behavioral change towards safe
developing countries particularly those in practices [5]and also reduce the stigma
SSA. Worldwide, unprotected heterosexual against PLWHA. Stigmatizing attitudes
activity is the predominant route of HIV have been shown to be strongly associated
transmission. Other modes of transmission with misconceptions on HIV transmission
include unprotected penetrative sex and are negative attitudes towards people
between men, injection drug use and unsafe living with HIV [6].
blood transfusions and injections. [3] This study issurveyed the level of
Nigeria is a country with high population of Knowledge, Attitude and Perception of
youth with a median age of 18 years, the students fromGombe State tertiary
country contributes about 10% of the global education towards HIV/AIDS and
burden of HIV/AIDS with a prevalence rate PLWHA. Findings of this study will serve
of 4.4% [3].The general as baseline for future HIV preventive
population’sknowledge about HIV/AIDS efforts and further research targeting
among 15-24-yearOld’s(males and College and University students and youths
females)were 34% and 24% in Gombe State.
respectively.And men were more MATERIALS AND METHODS
knowledgeable about condoms use than
women and perceptions of personal risk Study design, sampling and procedure
were found to increase with level of
This cross-sectional study was conducted
education [4].The most recent HIV
among college and undergraduate level
prevalence in Gombe state is 3.6% and
students of tertiary education institutions
according to NDHS 2013 report, the
109 Murtala M.A et al., 2019

with total of more than 20, 000 students’ because a physically challenged person
population between March – May 2017in may not be readily sociable amongst his
Gombe State. The state has three healthy cohorts.
geographical zones namely North, Central The students were approached in their class
and South. We purposely selected 3 rooms; they were informed about the
institutions in Gombe capital city in the purpose of the study and assured that their
Northern zone because it contains the responses would be treated confidentially.
highest number of higher institutions and They were also informed that their
students, and one each from central and participation was entirely voluntary and
Southern zones. The five selected schools that they were free to decline to answer any
were: - Gombe State University, Gombe question that made them feel
(Northern zone), College of Nursing uncomfortable. Further, students were
Gombe (Northern zone); Federal College of briefed about the technical terminologies
Education (Technical) Gombe (Northern used in the questionnaire and were given
zone, NZ); Federal University Kashere guidance on how to fill out the form. The
(Central zone, CZ); College of Health students were selected in the classroom
Technology, Kaltungo (Southern zone, according to the sampling method to
SZ). The minimum sample size was distribute the self-administered
determined using the formula for measure questionnaires over a periodof 15-20
of single proportion; n used by minutes during class break. Written
Z2 (P)(1−P) informed consent was obtained from all the
Durojaiye,2011[7]. n= E2
students. Prior permission to administer the
(1.96)2 (0.8)(1−0.8) questionnaire was obtained from the Heads
n= 0.05 of the involved departments. Approval to
n = 12.29
conduct this research was granted by the
Based on the calculatedaverage level
Nigeria National Open University research
86%of awareness of HIV/AIDS among
committee.
male (93.9%) and female (79.4%) aged 15-
49 years in general population in Gombe Questionnaire
State, 95% confidence level for Z score (Z- The data was collected using structured
score value: 1.96) and 5% (0.05) precision questionnaire following the method of
level, the estimated minimum sample size Kushetet al, 2019[2]. The items were
was approximately 177. Keeping in mind harvested from various standard
the possibility of high non-compliance rate instruments with few modifications and
by respondentsbecause it is a sensitive adapted to suit some uniqueness of the
issue, our aim was to recruit 400 study population. Our ultimate
respondents. To obtain our desired target of questionnaire included questions relating to
400 participants, we decided to recruit 80 HIV knowledge, attitudes and perceptions
students from each school by choosing toward PLWHA and their socio--
every 4th student through systematic demographic information. The
random sampling. Students who were less questionnaire has four parts. Part I focused
than 18 years old and mentally or on the socio- demographic characteristics
physically disabled were excluded. This is

of the respondents, included age, ethnic not (response rate of 89%). The mean age
groups, residence, and religion and history of the 356 respondents was 24±4.864 (SD)
of unprotected sex within the last six (6) years and their median and modal age were
months. Part II contained 11 knowledge- 23 years each. The modal age group
related items, with questions relating to was“21-25” years with a frequency of 172
definition of AIDS, source of knowledge, (48.32%), closely followed by less than or
transmission, and prevention of HIV/AIDS. “equals to 20” years age group with a
Here we included mainlypositively framed frequency of 81 (22.76%) while age groups
questions to assess their knowledge of “36-40” and “41 years and above” have the
HIV/AIDS. Part III comprised 7 questions least frequencies of 6 each (1.68%). Table
on attitudes towards PLWHA, which again 1 below shows the socio-demographic
included both positively and negatively characteristics of the above students.
framed questions. Finally, Part IV
comprised 4 questions about perceptions There were 243 (68.3%) males and 113
related to HIV/AIDS. Before data (31.7%) females. The mean age of males
collection began, the questionnaire was was 24±4.796 (SD) years and the mean age
then piloted on sixteen (16) students of females was 23±5.073 (SD) years. Both
randomly selected in one of the schools sexes have similar age range of 18-46years.
outside the five sampled institutions, to test Furthermore, majority of the students were
for clarity, feasibility and appropriateness single 271(76.12%), followed by the
for the students. married 67(18.80%) and the students with
an unknown marital status have the least
Statistical analyses frequency 2(0.56%). Widows, widowers
and students living with partners were
Data were entered on spread sheet and 5(1.40%),3(0.84%) and 8(2.21%) 4
exported to Stata version 12 (21) for (34.83%) respectively. Fulani students
analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to were the predominant ethnic group
describe demographic characteristics and 124(34.83%), closely followed by Tangale
knowledge, attitude and perceptions about 71(19.94%), Bolewa22(6.118%), Tera
HIV/AIDS. Numbers, percentages, mean 21(5.90%), Hausa 17(4.65%) and other
(±standard deviation, SD), median, tribes 60(16.85%) respectively.The
modeand tables were used to present the students belong to two major religious
data.To assess knowledge, attitude and groups, Islam 244(34.83%) and
perception of the students, we asked them Christianity 107(30.06%). Student with
to answer “yes”, “no” or “do not know” to other religious faiths were 5(1.40%).
the questions.
Most of the students that participated in the
RESULTS survey live on campus 189(53.09%), the
remaining students live at own/family
Socio-demographic characteristics house 99(27.81%), in rented apartment
Four hundred students were approached to 65(18.26%) and unknown residence
complete the questionnaires; 356students 5(0.84%). About tenth of the students
returned their questionnaires while 44 did 46(12.96%) had unprotected sex, while the

remaining 309(87.04%) had no sex or a months:

protected sex within last six (6) months.
Yes 46 12.96
Table 1: Socio-demographic No 309 87.04
Characteristics of Tertiary Educational
Students in Gombe State. Knowledge of HIV/AIDS
Variables Frequency Percentage
(%) Table 2 below illustrates the level of
Sex knowledge of students about HIV/ AIDS.
Male 243 68.30 Almost all the students know the correct
Female 113 31.7 definition of what AIDS stand
Marital Status for329(92.94%). Media and teachers were
Single 243 68.30 the main source of knowledge of
Married 67 18.80 H1V/A1DS 140(39.06%)and 136(38.53%)
Widow 5 1.40 respectively. Parents and Friends accounted
Widower 3 0.84 for 69(19.55%) and 8(2.27%) separately.
Living with 8 2.21 More than half of the students 188(53.71%)
partner agreed AIDS can be treatedwhile
Others 2 0.56 122(35.14%) did not agree. Majority of the
Tribe students 298(83.71%) were aware that HIV
Fulani 124 34.83 cannot be transmitted through social
Bolewa 22 6.18 contacts like sharing clothes, spoons,
Hausa 17 4.65 glasses and shaking hands. Again, majority
Tera 21 5.90 of the students 272(76.84%) believed that
Tangale 58 16.29 unprotected sex, unscreened blood,
Others 60 16.85 occupational exposures and intravenous
Religion drugs use are the major sources of
Islam 244 34.83 transmission of HIV/AIDS.
Christianity 107 30.06 Fifty students (14.08%) said HIV positive
Others 5 1.40 patients can donate blood, while,
Living place 288(81.13%) said they cannot donate
Hostel 189 53.09 blood, and 25(7.06%) do not know. About
residence whether contact with faeces or urine can
Own/family 99 27.81 cause HIV infection 58(16.38%) students
House believed contact with faeces or urine can
Rented 65 18.26 bring about HIV infection, 271(76.55%) do
apartment not believe so, while 25(7.06%) do not
Others 3 0.84 know. On whether HIV can spread from
Had mother-to-child? 291(82.44%) students
unprotected believed that HIV positive mothers can
sex within the infect their babies, 54(15.29%) believed
last six (6) they cannot infect their babies. More than

half of the students 183(52.59%) said HIV while one fifth 80(22.54%) said it cannot
is curable if diagnosed early. On the protect against the disease. And majority of
question whether condom can protect the students 282(80.80%) said that
against HIV/AIDS infection?A total of abstinence can protect against HIV
249(70.14%) correctly said that use of infection. Overall, the students have a good
condoms can protect against HIV infection, knowledge of HIV/AIDS.
Table 2: Knowledge of Students of Tertiary Educational Institutions towards PLWHA
Variable Frequency (%)
What AIDS stand for?
Acquiring information and development system 17 (4.82)

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
Action in-distress syndrome 329 (92.94)
8 (2.26)
What is your source of knowledge of HIV?
Mass media 140 (39.66)
Parents 69 (19.55)
Teachers 136 (38.53)
Friends 8 (2.27)
Yes (%) No (%) Don’t know (%)
Is there treatment available for AIDS? 188 (53.71) 122 (35.14) 40 (11.14)
Can HIV be transmitted through social contacts e.g., 40(11.24) 298(83.71) 18 (5.06)
sharing clothes, spoons, glasses, shaking hands etc?
Major sources of transmission are; unprotected sex 272 (76.84) 62 (17.51) 20 (5.65)
unscreened blood, occupational exposures and
intravenous drugs use?
Can HIV patient donate blood? 50 (14.08) 288 (81.13) 17 (7.06)
Contact with faces, urine, can cause HIV/AIDS? 58 (16.38) 271 (76.55) 25 (7.06)
Can HIV spread from mother to child? 291(82.44) 54(15.29) 8(2.27)
HIV is curable if diagnosed early? 183 (52.59) 122(35.06) 43(12.36)
Condom can protect against HIV AIDS? 249 (70.14) 80(22.54) 26(7.23)
Total abstinence can prevent HIV? 282(80.80) 36(10.32) 31(8.88)

Attitude towards PLWHA (69.39%) of the respondents have positive

perception about HIV, while, almost
Table 3 below presents the attitude of (26.40%) of the students have a negative
students towards HIV/AIDS patients. perception.Majorityof the students
Almost two third of the students 320(90.14%) think that sexual promiscuity
213(60.68%) expressed their willingness to and prostitution are the major causes of
live in the same place with PLWHA while HIV/AIDs.
one third 126(35.89%) were
unwilling.Nearly all the students When the respondents were asked whether
286(80.56%) have sympathytowards sex education should be part of school’s
PLWHA; however, 107(31.19%) hate curriculum?Many; 252 (71 59%) agreed it
having physical contact with them while should be contained in schools’ curriculum
218(63.56%) said they would not mind while 85(25.45%) opposed its inclusion
having physical contact. On whether into schools' curriculum. And on whether,
students with HIV should be educated in sex before marriage should be discouraged?
separate schools? 94(26.40%) agreed, 328(92.39%) agreed, 20 (5.63%) did not
244(69.39%) disagreed, while, 15(4.21%) agree, while 7(1.79%) responded that they
do not know. This indicates that majority don’t know.
Table 3: Attitude of Students towards People living with HIV/AIDS.

Variable Yes (%) No (%) Do not know (%)
Are you willing to live in same 213(60.68) 126(35.89) 12 (3.42)

place with PLWHA?
Do you feel sympathetic towards 286(80.56) 60(16.90) 9(2.54)

people living with HIV/AIDS
Hate contact with people 167(31.19) 218(63.56) 18(5.25)

livingwith HIV/AIDS?
HIV positive students should be 94 (26.40) 247 (69.39) 15(4.21)

educated in separate schools?
Sexual promiscuity 320(90.14) 24(7.04) 11(2.28)

andprostitution are major causes
of HIV/AIDS?
Sex education should be part of 252(71.59) 85(24.15) 15(4.26)

school curricula?
Sex before marriage should 328 (92.39) 20 (5.63) 7(1.97)

bediscouraged?

Perception related to HIV/AIDS. only few 66(18.86%) did not agree. This
means that the majority 73.14% of the
Table 4 below presents the perceptions of the students have negative attitude about the HIV
students towards HIV/AIDS. On the question as a price of immoral life.On whether initial
of whether the respondent is worried about HIV testing should be conducted on all
acquiring HIV in my school? 242(68.75%) students admitted into schools? 310(88.32%)
agreed that they are worried about acquiring agreed, 39(11.11%) disagreed and only
the infection in school, 182(23.29%) 2(0.57%) respondents said they do not know.
disagreed, while 28(7.96%) do not know. On This indicates that majority (88.32%) of the
whether AIDS is the price of immoral life? respondents have a positive perception about
Again majority 256 (73.14%) of the students initial HIV testing in schools and will also
agreed it is the ultimate price of immoral life, agree to annual mandatory HIV screening.
Table 4: Perception of Students related to HIV/AIDS.

Variables Yes (%) No (%) Don’t
know (%)
AIDS is the price of immoral life? 256(73.14) 66(18.86) 28 (8.0)
I worry about acquiring HIV in my 242(68.75) 82(23.29) 28(7.96)
school.
Initial HIV test should be conducted 310(88.32) 39 (11.11) 2 (0.57)
to all students admitted into schools.
All students must go for annual 278(80.85) 54 (15.21) 14 (3.94)
mandatory HIV testing
DISCUSSION knowledge of students. In our study, we

found that the mean age of the students was
Given the current stage of HIV/AIDS 24 (SD±4.864) and their modal age group
epidemic in Nigeria, knowledge, attitudes was 21-25 years accounting for about half of
and perception studies are valuable steps the population 48.32%. This mean age of 24
prior to any intervention to assess the extent years is one year higher than the mean age of
to which individuals or communities are 23 years reported by Durojaiyeet al among
ready to adopt risk-free behaviors [8]. Since University students in Lagos [7] and
the mid-1980s, extensive awareness Opponget al from Ghana [9]. Similarly, the
campaigns on HIV/AIDS have been modal age of our respondents 21-25 years is
conducted locally, nationally and globally, comparable to the national age group 19-24
including in the last two decades by the years reported to be at the highest risk of
Nigerian government through the National HIV/AIDS in Nigeria [4].
Agency for the Control of HIV/AIDS
(NACA) and its development partnerswhich Our study found that 92.40% of the
would have increased the HIV and AIDS responding students were aware of

HIV/AIDs and have defined HIV/AIDS since the Nigerian culture has a more
correctly. This finding is almost similar with conservative, religious and traditional beliefs
a report of about 94% of the proportion of on issues of sexuality, condom usage and
men and women in general population aged marriage [18]. It is also possible that the older
15-49 years who have heard of HIV/AIDS in generation had not received any information
Nigeria [4]. Tertiary education students are on sex education, making it difficult for them
supposed to be more educated and to approach the issue as parents themselves.
enlightened, hence should report a higher Furthermore, residential pattern and family
level of awareness than the general structure might reduce the opportunity to
population. Higher level of awareness of discuss sensitive topics like sex. Parents
HIV/AIDS of about 97% was reported should discuss reproductive and sexual issues
among University students in Southern, with their children and young adults, because
Nigeria[10][11]and Ghana [9]. a strong adult protective shield for young
people has been shown to decrease their risk
Our result suggest that majority of students of HIV infection[19].
receive HIV/AIDS information from both
print and electronic media (e.g. television, Majority of the students demonstrated
radio, newspaper/magazines) and their acceptable level of knowledge of
teachers but few had received same from transmission and prevention of HIV
their parents. Consistent with findings in infection. However, misconceptions about
Nigeria[12, 13], Ghana [14], and other means of transmission such as the belief that
countries [15][16]. Tertiary education infection could be transmitted by social
students, especially, University students in contacts (11.24%)e.g., sharing clothes,
Nigeria appear to rely on both print and spoons, glasses, shaking hands, that
electronic media as the major source of unprotected sex and unscreened bloodare not
HIV/AIDS information. Mass-media the major sources of transmission (17.51%),
campaigns utilizing television radio, posters HIV positive person can donate blood
and billboards have been shown to be more (14.08%), condom (22.54%) and abstinence
effective for addressing specific issues[17]. (10.32%) cannot protect against
They have also been proven to be effective in HIVrespectively were observed among a
increasing knowledge, improving self-worth small proportion of participants. These
to use condoms, influencing social norms, misconceptions could result in risky
increasing the amount of interpersonal behaviors such as unprotected sex, multiple
communication and raising awareness of sexual partners, encouraging receiving blood
health services[17]. Themedia therefore have donation from HIV infected persons etc,
an important role to play in raising which may expose them to infection. These
HIV/AIDS awareness among young adults findings show the need for reinforcement of
including students of higher institutions of educational interventions particularly in the
learning. Discussion of sexual issues between secondary school curriculum.
parents and their children are rare in Nigeria

We observed that (18.80%) of the students elimination of discriminatory attitudes

were married and(12.96%) reported history towards PLWHA.
of having unprotected sex in the last 6 months
which could be from among the married However, other studies by Danjin and
students. Among married couples, Onajole (2009) conducted in secondary
unprotected sexwith faithful partners only schools in Gombe concluded that although,
should be encouraged. HIV/ AIDS awareness among secondary
students is high (98.4%), they perceive the
With respect to attitude towards PLWHA, risk of infection as low (30.8%) [20]. So also
students exhibited mixed attitudes displaying is the work conducted by Durojaiye (2011),
positive attitudes on some of the issues and he asserts that knowledge and awareness of
negative attitudes on others. For example, HIV/ AIDS among tertiary education
only (60.68%) of students were willing to students is high in Lagos, Nigeria. But he said
live in same area with PLWHA, sexual that the riskperception is low with high risk
promiscuity/prostitution (90.14%) and sex sexual behaviour and he concluded that the
before marriage (92.39%) should be failure to perceive HIV/ AIDS as a personal
discouraged because these are high risk risk hasprevented commitment to behaviour
behaviors that increases the risk of people change [7].
getting infected with HIV.Most students
(71.59%) said they would like to see sex Concerning perceptions towards PLWHA,
education included in secondary their responses were generally
schools’curriculum. Discriminatory attitudes positive:worries of acquiring HIV in school
were also present in a considerable (68.75%) is a good perceived risk behaviour
proportion (39.32%) of the studentswho were that will encourage students to adopt risk free
not willing to live with PLWHA including lifestyle and HIV testing should be conducted
about one third (31.19%) who hate body on all admitted students (88.85%), and
contact with PLWHA and (26.76%) who feel annual mandatory HIV testing(80.85%) to be
that students living with HIV (SLWHA) recommended for all students. Few negative
should be educated in a separate school. perceptions still exist amongst the students,
However, a greater majority of students negative perceptions towards PLWHA lead
(80.56%) sympathize with PLWHA and to discrimination and stigmatization.
accepted that HIV positive students PLWHA
CONCLUSION
should not be educated in a separate school
(69.50%). Discriminatory attitudes towards The level of knowledge regarding HIV/AIDS
PLHIV might be an obstacle for the efficient transmission, prevention and the views and
propagation of awareness programs, and feelings of the students towards PLWHA and
voluntary counselling and testing for HIV. SLWHA were satisfactory. Nevertheless,
Therefore, sustained education of young some misconceptions about HIV
people on HIV/AIDS is crucial to the transmission, risky behaviors and
discriminatory attitudes were observed
among the students that call for concern and the questionnaires hopefully encouraged
need tobe addressed promptly. HIV/AIDS students to be honest in their responses.
and sexual and reproductive health education Despite all these limitations, we believe this
should be reinforced in schools to correct the study might be a reasonable source of
misconceptions and to raise the level of information for researchers and
positive attitudes and perceptions towards policymakers.
PLWHA. It will also encourage safe practices
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PERISTALTIC FLOW OF PARTICLE-FLUID SUSPENSION IN A CIRCULAR

CYLINDRICAL TRACT
MUHAMMAD AHMADU BAPPAH
Mathematics Department, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, 217 Gombe, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Peristalsis is a form of fluid transport achieved with the aid of progressive, contraction-expansion
wavelike movements along the walls of the fluid containing tract (channel/pipe/tube). It appears
mostly in biological systems, such as in the ureter, in the intestines and oviducts in the human
body. In the study, a particle-fluid suspension is treated as a two-phase fluid and considered to be
flowing through a circular cylindrical flow tract, under the influence of a long wave peristaltic
flow situation. Two sets of equations, for the fluid phase and the particulate phase, are taken. At
the end when the volume fraction of the particulate phase q is made zero, the results did agree, to
some extent with the case of a single-phase fluid. From this study therefore it implies that, as long
as a Newtonian fluid is assumed, the fluid type may not adversely affect the results, hence may
correspond to the single-phase fluid situation.
Keywords: Contraction, Long wave, Fluid transport, Flow situation, Peristaltic
INTRODUCTION
length of the organ, depending upon their
Peristalsis is a form of fluid flow/transport location and what initiates their action. In
mechanism achieved with the aid of a particular, peristaltic transport mechanism is
progressive contraction – expansion involved in urine transport from kidney to
wavelike situation along the walls of the bladder through the ureter and movement of
fluid-containing tract, in this case, cylindrical chime in the gastro-intestinal tract. The
(tube-like/pipe). This mechanism is known to peristalsis phenomenon can be represented
be one of the major fluid transport processes diagrammatically as figure 1.
in many biological systems. It occurs as Y
involuntary movements of the longitudinal Flow tract wall under peristalsis Mean position of tract wall
and circular muscles, primarily in the

digestive tract, but occasionally in other
hollow tubes of the body, that occur in Center line
progressive wavelike contractions. The X
waves can be short local reflexes, or long

continuous contractions that travel the whole
Figure 1: Peristaltic flow process – 2-dimensional flow

Fig. 1.1: Peristaltic flow process – 2-dimensional flow
tract
120 Muhammad A.B et al., 2019

Li (1970), adopted a long wave phase. The same calculation processes will be
approximation, based on the Zien and followed, in each case, with the hope of
Ostrach, (1969) model, to analyze the getting parallel results as previously
peristaltic pumping of a Newtonian Fluid, in obtained.
a circular cylindrical tube. Essentially, it is
the application of the Zien and Ostrach, MATERIALS AND METHOD
(1969) analysis to the axisymmetric case. The
Problem Formulation
same assumptions that the length of the
peristaltic wave is large compared with mean A viscous incompressible Newtonian fluid,
radius of the tube; and the frequency of the consisting of a fluid matter in which uniform
peristaltic wave is small as compared to the rigid spherical particles are suspended, to
reciprocal of the characteristic time for the form a two-phase fluid, is considered. The
vorticity diffusion – thus making the fluid is assumed to flow through a circular
Reynolds number small; are again adopted. cylindrical tract (in form of a tube or pipe),
The perturbation solutions techniques are with flexible walls, upon which symmetric,
also employed, with closed-form solutions, traveling transverse waves are imposed. The
up to the second order, obtained; and criteria two dimensional set up of the model, is
for backward flow discussed. shown in figure 2.
Other important related studies on this topic λ
of recent years include Srivastava and
Srivastava, (1997); Mekheimer, (1998); R= (Z,
Srivastava, (2002); Srivastava, (2007); and R, U

Z, V
Medhavi et al. (2009). It is noteworthy that Center
all these used a circular cylindrical model, a
while Muhammad, (2010), used the
b
rectangular (channel) model. In this study
however, only the zeroth order solutions will
be presented as these “are more applicable to
Figure 2: A Two-Dimensional Tube Under Peristalsis
physical problems”- Muhammad and Sesay,
(2010). This study aimed at analyzing the
peristaltic transport of a particle-fluid Definition of Parameters
suspension in the same methods as carried
out by Li (1970) for a circular cylindrical (i) Since a two-dimensional axi-
tube. Whereas in the previous study, a single symmetrical circular cylindrical tube/pipe is
phase, incompressible Newtonian fluid was being considered, a cylindrical coordinate
used, in this case, a particle-fluid suspension, system ( R, Z ) is chosen; with the Z-axis in
considered as a Newtonian fluid, is used. The
the direction of wave propagation, hence
suspension is considered as a two-phase
aligned with the centre line of the tract. The
fluid, that is, the fluid phase and the particle
R-axis is in the radial direction, normal to phase is denoted by q , then the volume
fraction of the fluid phase will be (1 − q ) .
the mean position of the tract walls.
(ii) U and V are the velocity
Hence the corresponding effective
components of the fluid phase in the R and
densities will be q p for the particle phase;
Z directions respectively; while U p
and (1 − q )  f for the fluid phase.
and Vp for the particulate phase.
(iv) The effective viscosity of the
(iii) The actual density of the material
constituting the fluid phase is denoted by  f
suspension is denoted by  s (q) . For this
problem, an empirical relation for the
, while that of the particle phase is denoted by
viscosity of the suspension is:
 p . If the volume fraction of the particle
0  1107 
 s (q) = ; Such that: n = 0  070exp 2  49q +
 exp ( −1  69q )  .
1 − nq  T 
Where T is absolute temperature ( K ) , as presented by Charm and Kurland (1974).
0
9 0
The expected drag coefficient will be F0 =  (q) ; such that:
2 l2
4 + 3 ( 8q − 3q )
1
2 2
+ 3q
 (q) = ; 0 is the fluid viscosity; l the radius of a particle.
( 3 − 3q )
2
This relation represents the classical Stoke’s through the function (q) , as
drag for small particle Reynolds obtained by Tam (1969).
number, modified to account for the finite
particulate fractional volume,
tract (pipe or tube), b is the amplitude,  is
Equations of Motion the wavelength, c the wave speed.
For the motion of the suspension, two
The peristaltic motion of the tract walls can
sets of equations, for the fluid phase and the
be represented by:
particulate phase, are considered. The
equations of motion, based on Drew (1979);
 2 
R =  ( Z ,T ) =   a + b sin ( Z − cT ) Srivastava and Srivastava (1984), are as
   follows:
; such that a is the radius of the cylindrical

(a) For the Fluid phase:

 U U U 
(1 − q)  f  +U +V 
 T R Z 
P   2U 1 U U  2U 
= − (1 − q) + S (1 − q)  2 + − 2 + 2  + qF0 (U p − U ) ...(1)
R   R R R R Z 
 V V V 
(1 − q)  f  +U +V 
 T R Z 
P   2V 1 V V  2V 
= − (1 − q) + S (1 − q)  2 + − 2 + 2  + qF0 (Vp − V ) ...(2)
Z  R R R R Z 
 U U V 
Continuity Equation: (1 − q )  + +  = 0. ...(3)
 R R Z 
(b) For the Particle phase:
 U p U p U p  P
q p  +Up + Vp  = −q + qF0 (U − U p ) ...(4)
 T R Z   R
 V V V  P
q  p  p + U p p + Vp p  = − q + qF0 (V − Vp ) ...(5)
  T  R Z  Z
 U p U p Vp 
Continuity Equation: q  + +  = 0. ...(6)
 R R Z 
The boundary conditions that must be the no-slip and impermeability conditions.
satisfied by the fluid phase on the walls are These can be represented by:
2 ca 2
U = 0 on R =  ( Z ,T ) ; and V =  sin ( Z − cT ) on R =  ( Z ,T ) . ...(7)
 
displacement only, U p is not necessary zero
However, for the particle phase, the no-slip
condition may not apply. Thus, even if the on the walls. Hence the boundary conditions
cylinder wall is considered to have transverse on the wall will be :
2 ca 2
V = Vp =  sin ( Z − cT ) on R =  ( Z ,T ) . ...(8)
 

Since the flow is steady and axi-symmetric, we can introduce the stream function, , from
1  1  p 1  1  p
Schlichting (1960), such that: U = , Up = ; and V = − , Vp = −
R Z R Z R R R R
.
Substituting these into the two sets of
respective equations and eliminating the
pressure terms gives the following equations:
(a) For the Fluid phase:

 2  1   2  2 2 1   1  2  
(1 − q)  f  +   −   + − 
 T R Z  R R R 2 R  R R Z 
=  s    + qF0  (  p −  ) . ...(9)
2 2 2
(b) For the Particle phase:

  p 1  p  2  p 2 2 1  p  1  p 2  p 
q  p  2 +   −   +  − R R  Z 
   
p
 
2
 T R Z R R R R 
= qF0  (  −  p ) . ...(10)
2
2
2 2 1 
Where   + 2− .
Z 2
R R R
The boundary conditions on the walls in terms of the stream function will be:

=0
R
  p 2 2
= = ac sin ( Z − cT ) ...(11)
Z Z  
The expression for the axial pressure gradients can be obtained as follows:
(i) For the fluid phase;
We take the axial flow i.e. equation (2), which is expressed as:
1 P  V V V 
(1 − q ) = −(1 − q)  +U +V 
 f Z  T R Z 
  2V 1 V V  2V  qF0
+(1 − q ) s  2 + − + +
R R R 2 Z 2   f
(Vp − V ) ...(12)
 R
Introducing the stream function in equation (12) gives:

1 P 1   2 1   1   2  1   2  
(1 − q ) = −(1 − q)  − + − +
 f Z R  T R R 2 Z R R Z R 2 R R Z R 
1  1  1  2   3  3 
+ (1 − q ) s  − 2 + − +
R  R R R R 2 R 3 Z 2R 
...(13)
qF 1   p  
+ 0  −
 f R  R R 
(ii) For the Particle phase;
Again, we take the axial flow case, i.e. equation (5), which is expressed as:
1 P  V V V 
= −q  p + U p p + V p p  + q 0 (V − V p )
F
q ...(14)
 p Z  T R Z  p
Introducing the stream function into equation (14) gives;
1 P 1   p 1  p  p 1  p  2  1  p   p 
2 2
q = −q  − + − + 
 p Z R  T R R 2 Z R R Z R 2 R R Z R 
F 1    p 
− q 0  −
 p R  R R  ...(15)
implies that when the unit of measurement is
Non-Dimensional Formulations increased q times, the numerical value of the
Another process of modification of the 1
quantity is reduced to times of its former
resultant equations as obtained is the q
introduction of non-dimensional variables. value.
This is a common technique used (mostly in
Physics and Mathematics) to formulate A mathematical description of some physical
quantities (or variables as in this case) whose phenomenon shows that the functional
magnitudes will be independent of the system relationship between the numerical values of
of units being used, based on the following physical quantities is independent of the
axioms; Yavorsky and Detlaf, (1980): choice of the units of measurement of these
quantities. Consequently, all the terms of an
“The numerical value of a physical quantity equation that describe a physical process
A is equal to the ratio of this quantity to its should have the same dimensions, since this
A enables them to be converted to the
unit of measurement [A]. Thus a = .
 A dimensionless form by dividing both sides of
the equation by some constants having the
A physical quantity does not depend upon the same dimensions.”
choice of its unit of measurement. This

The non-dimensional or dimensionless same scale to eliminate the dimensions of

variables are obtained by dividing each such variable. Thus the quantities become:
variable by a ‘characteristic’ variable on the
R Z c U V 
r= ; z = ; t = ; u = ; v = . Hence, we have = ; and the
a   c c a 2c
 (Z ,T )
wave function becomes  ( z , t ) = .
a
This results in the emergence of new parameters:
b a
= (the amplitude ratio);  = (the wave number); and
a 
as c ac
Re = (1 − q ) = (1 − q ) (the suspension Reynolds number)
s 
Substituting these dimensionless parameters into equation (9) gives:
  1   2  2 2 1   1  2  
(1 − q )  2
+  −  + 2 − 
 t r z  r r r r  r r z 
   + qk f  2 ( p − ) . ...(16)
1 1 2 2
=
 Re
For the particle phase, equation (10) becomes:
  p 1  p  2  p 2 2 1  p  1  p 2  p 
q  2 +  −   + −  
t r z  r r 2 r  r r z 
p
 r
= qk p 2 ( −  p ) . ...(17)
Where;
 F0  F0 2 
2
2 1  2 
2
2  1  
kf = ; kp = ;   
2
+ 2− or  + 2 +r  
c f c p z r
2
r r z r
2
r  r r  .
For the axial pressure gradient in dimensionless parameters;
From equation (13) we obtain pressure gradient for the fluid phase as:
a P 1   2 1   1   2 1   2 
(1 − q ) = − −  − + −
r  t r r 2 z r r z r 2 r r zr 
(1 q )
c 2  f z

1 1  1  1  2  3 2  
3
+ − + − −
Re r  r 2 r r r 2 r 3 z 2r 
1   p  
+ q f  − 
r  r r . ...(18)
From equation (15) we obtain for the particle phase:

a P 1    p 1  p  p 1  p  2 1  p   p 
2 2
q 2 =q  − + − 
c  p z r  tr r 2 z r r z r 2 r r zr 
1    p 
− q p  −
r  r r  ...(19)
.
aF0 aF
f = ; p = 0
Where: c f c p
The boundary conditions become:
  
 r = 0 
  at r = 1 +  cos 2 ( z − t ) ; 0    1
  =  p = 2 r sin 2 ( z − t ) 
...(20)
 z z 
Method of Solution solutions for the stream functions  and  p
Following Li’s (1970) method, a long wave are sought for in the power series of δ. Such
approximation, where  << 1, is made. Thus that:
 =  0 +  1 +  2 2 +    ...(21)
 p =  p 0 +  p1 +  2 p 2 +    ...(22)
sides of the respective equations; for up to 
2
Substituting equations (21) and (22) into the

; sequences of equations are obtained as
dimensionless equations previously obtained
follows:
respectively; collecting and equating
coefficients of equal powers of δ on both
(a) For the fluid phase:
Substituting equation (21) into equation (16) gives:

L 0 + q  f D ( p 0 −  0 ) = 0 .
1
...(23)
Re
L 0 + q  f D ( p1 − 1 )
1
Re
  1  0   3 0 3  2 0 3  0  1  0  0 
= (1 − q)  D 0 +  r 3 − r r 2 − r 2 r  − r r D z  . ...(24)
  t r z   
1   2 0    2 ( p 0 −  0 ) 
Re 
L 2
+ 2 D
z 2 
+ q f 
z 2
+ D ( p 2 2 )
 − 
 
  1  1   3 0 3  2 0 3  0 
= (1 − q )  D 0 +  r 3 − r r 2 + r 2 r 
 t r z  
1  0   3 1 3  2 1 3  1  1  1  0 1  0  1 
+ − + − −
r z  r 3 r r 2 r 2 r  r r z 
D D . ...(25)
z r r
(b) For the particle phase:
Substituting equation (22) into equation (17) gives:
q  p D ( 0 −  p 0 ) = 0 . ...(26)
  p 0 1  p 0   3 p 0 3  2 p 0 3  p 0 
q  p D ( 1 − p1 ) = q  D +  − + 2 
 t r z   r 3
r  r 2
r r 
1  p 0  p 0 
− D
z 
. ...(27)
r r
  2 ( 0 −  p 0 ) 
q  p  D ( 2 −  p 2 ) + 
 z 2 
  p 0 1  p1   3 p 0 3  2 p 0 3  p 0 
= q D +  − + 2 
 t r z   r 3
r r 2
r r 
1  p 0    p1 3   p1 3  p1 
3 2
+  − + 2 
r z  r 3 r r 2 r r 
1  p1  p 0 1  p 0  p1 
− D − D
z 
. ...(28)
r r z r r
Where  f and  p are as defined above;

2 1   1    4 2 3 3 2 3 
D 2 − r   ; and L  4 − + −
r r r r  r r  r r r 3 r 2 r 2 r r
Under this expansion therefore, the corresponding boundary conditions become:

At r =  = 1+  cos  ; such that  = 2 ( z − t ) ;
 0  1  2
= = = 0 ; (i)
r r r
 0  p 0
= = 2  r sin  ; (ii) ...(29)
z z
 1  p1
= = 0; (iii)
z z
 2  p 0
= = 0; (iv)
z z
For the Axial Pressure Gradient: coefficients of equal powers of δ on both
sides of the respective equations a long wave
Substituting equations (21) and (22) into the approximation for the axial pressure gradient
dimensionless equations (18) and (19), can be obtained in the form:
respectively; collecting and equating
p p0 p p
= + 1 +2 2 +   . ...(30)
z z z z
(a) For the fluid phase:
From equation (18), substituting equation (21) and comparing with equation (30) gives the
following sequences of equations:
p0 1  1  0 1  2 0 1  3  1  ( p 0 − 0 )
(1 − q ) = − 3 + 2 − − 
z Re  r r r r 2 r r 3 
q . ...(31)
r
f
r
p1 1  2 0 1  0  0 1  0  2 0 1  0  2 0
(1 − q ) = − + −
z r rt r 3 z r r 2 z r 2 r 2 r zr
1  1  1 1  2 1 1  3  1  ( p1 − 1 )
+ − 3 + 2 2 − − 
r r 3 
q . ...(32)
Re  r r r r r
f
r
p2 1  2 1   0  1  1  0 
( ) =
1 − q −  + 
z r rt r 3  z r z r 

1   1  2 0  0  2 1  1   0  2 1  1  2 0 
+ 2 + − +
r  z r 2 z r 2  r 2  r zr r zr 
1  1  2 1  2 2 1  3 2 1  3 2  1  ( p 2 − 2 )
+ − 3 + 2 − − − 
Re  r r r r 2 r r 3 r  2 zr 
q . ...(33)
r
f
r
From equation (19), substituting equation (22) and comparing with equation (30) gives the
following sequences of equations:
p0 1  ( 0 − p 0 )
q = −q  f
z r r ...(34)
 1   1   p 0 1  p 0  p 0 1  p 0   p 0 1  p 0   p 0 
2 2 2
q =q p − + 2 − 2 
z  f  r rt r 3 z r r z r 2 r r zr 
1  ( 1 −  p1 )
−q  f . ...(35)
r r
p2  p  1  2 p1 1   p 0  p1  p1  p 0 
= q  − +
 f  r rt r 3  z r z r 
q
z
1   p1   p 0  p 0   p1 
2 2
+ 2 + 
r  z r 2 z r 2 
1   p 0   p1  p1   p 0  
2 2
− 2 + 
r  r zr r zr  
1  ( 2 − p 2 )
−q  f . ...(36)
r r
investigated for time-averaged flow
RESULTS quantities.
The sequences of the differential equations In this study however, we restrict to the
are solved in stages to obtain values of  zeroth order solutions only. These are the
and  p , and consequently the other flow solutions that represent the limiting case of
parameters; the axial flow velocities, volume δ→0. Since the distance z is measured by a
flux and axial pressure gradient. The various
stages are termed zeroth, first and second
order approximations, with suffixes 0, 1 and scale of wavelength λ, the complete wave
2. The results so obtained are further structure is retained in the boundary
conditions when the limit process δ→0, with

( r, z, t;  , Re ) fixed, is taken. Hence “the
zeroth order solutions represent meaningful
limiting solutions for very long waves”. Li,
(1970). “The zeroth order solutions are more
applicable to physical problems”. (a) For the fluid phase:
Muhammad and Sesay, (2010).
From equation (26), we have q  p D ( 0
−  p 0 ) = 0  D ( 0 −  p 0 ) = 0 . Substituting into
1
equation (23) gives: L 0 = 0 ; or L 0 = 0 ,
Re
 4 2 3 3 2 3  
  4 − + − 0 = 0
 r r r 3 r 2 r 2 r r 
The general solution will thus be:  0 = A( z , t )r + B( z , t )r + C ( z , t )r + E ( z , t )r ,
4 3 2
Where A, B, C , E are constants of integration.

The boundary conditions and the symmetry function in r . Hence B( z , t )  E ( z , t ) = 0 .
conditions would demand that  0 be an even This gives a general solution of the form:
 0 = A1 ( z, t )r 4 + A2 ( z, t )r 2 . ...(37)
Where A1 and A2 which are constants of found to satisfy the following simultaneous
integration which, as presented in Li, (1970), equations:
on applying the boundary conditions, are
A1 A
3 +  2 = 2 sin  (i )
z z ...(38)
2 A1 + A2 = 0
2
(ii )
Solving the simultaneous equations (38) gives:

1 1 2 1 2 
A1 =  C (t ) +  +  cos  +  cos 2   (i)
 
4
4 4 
...(39)
2 1 1 
A2 = − 2  C (t ) +  2 +  cos  +  2 cos 2   (ii)
  4 4 
The arbitrary function of time, C(t), arises related to the volumetric flow, hence will be
from integrating with respect to z . It is determined later.

The instantaneous axial velocity, v0 , can be obtained from equation (37)

 1    v = −4 A1r 2 − 2 A2
 recall : v = − . 0 ...(40)
 r r 
Substituting for A1 and A2 gives:
4  r 
2
1 2 1 2
v0 = 2  C ( t ) +  +  cos  +  cos 2  1 − 2  . ...(41)
  4 4   
To find expression for the axial pressure gradient, we add equations (31) and (34) to obtain:
p0 1  1  0 1  2 0 1  3 
= − + −
z Re  r 3 r r 2 r 2 r r 3 . ...(42)

p0 1
Substituting for  0 as obtained in equation (37) gives:
= − 16 A1 . ...(43)
z Re
p0 1 16  1 1 
 = 4 
C (t ) +  2 +  cos  +  2 cos 2 
z Re   4 4  ...(44)

Starting from equation (26) gives : D ( 0
− p 0 ) = 0 .
 1   1 
 r  (
 0
r  r r 
 −  p0 ) = 0 ; or −
r r
( 0 − p 0 ) = k p . ...(45)
Following the symmetry condition as mentioned earlier, we have:

1
 p0 = 0 − k pr 2 . ...(46)
2
Also, from equation (45);
1  0 1  p 0
− + = k p ; then v0 − v p 0 = k p . Thus: v p 0 = v0 − k p . ...(47)
r r r r
To obtain k p , equation (45) is substituted into equation (34), which gives:
16
kp = − A1 ; ...(48)
Re f
16 1  1 1 
Or k p = − 4 
C (t ) +  2 +  cos  +  2 cos 2  . ...(49)
Re f   4 4 

However, it should be noted that k p is purely Differentiating equation (46) with respect to
z gives:
a function of t only. This can be shown
below:
 p 0  0 k p
= − r;
z z z
k p k p
From boundary conditions (29) (ii);  = 0 , thus = 0.
z z
Integrating with respect to z therefore, gives: To find expression for the instantaneous axial
k p = k p (t ) . Henceforth it will be velocity for the particle phase, we consider
equations (40) and (47), from which we have:
represented as such.
v p 0 = v0 − k p ; hence v p 0 = −4 A1r 2 − 2 A2 − k p ...(50)
The instantaneous volume flow rate, which is Substituting for  p 0 as obtained in equation
usually referred to as volume flux, denoted (46) gives:
by Q0 is defined as:
  1 
Q0 = −2 (1 − q ) 0 + q  0 − k p (t )r 2  
  2  r=η .
 1 
= −2  0 − qk p (t ) r 2 
 2  r=η .
Substituting for  0 as obtained in equation (37) gives:
 1 
Q0 = −2  A1r 4 + A2 r 2 − qk p (t )r 2 
 2  r =η .
 1 
Q0 = −2 2  A1 2 + A2 − qk p (t ) 
Thus:  2 . ...(51)
Substituting for the values of A1 and A2 as obtained in equation (39) gives:

 1 1 
Q0 = 2  C ( t ) +  2 +  cos  +  2 cos 2  + q k p (t ) 2 . ...(52).
 4 4 
Before proceeding to the next stage, let us summarize the zeroth-order flow quantities so far
obtained;

(i) The instantaneous axial velocity for the fluid phase (equation (41)):
4  r 
2
1 2 1 2
v 0 = 2  C ( t ) + ε + εcosβ + ε cos2β  1 - 2  .
η  4 4  η 
(ii) The instantaneous axial velocity for the particle phase (from equation (50)):
16 1  1 2 1 2 
vp0 = v0 - k p (t) ; where k p (t ) = - 4 
C(t) + ε + εcosβ + ε cos2β  .
Reχ f η  4 4 
(iii) The axial pressure gradient, which is common for the whole suspension:
p0 1 16  1 1 
= 4 
C(t) + ε 2 + εcosβ + ε 2cos2β 
z Re η  4 4 
(iv) The instantaneous volume flow rate or volume flux, which is common for the whole
suspension as given in equation (52):
 1 1 
Q0 = 2π  C ( t ) + ε 2 + εcosβ + ε 2cos2β  + qπk p (t)η2 .
 4 4 
It can be noticed that the arbitrary constant of be fluid velocity, such that v0  0 , which is
integration C (t ) is appearing in all the a contrary case.”
expressions. Its value will obviously depend
on the type of study model. From Li, (1970), However, since this study is strictly based on
“it relates the axial pressure gradient to the Li’s (1970) model, “the case of C (t )  C0 , a
instantaneous volume flow rate. For the pure constant, is considered. This
special case, C (t )  0 , the flow is due solely corresponds to the case of imposing a
to peristalsis, because v0 = 0 if  = 0 .” constant volume flux through the tube in
addition to that due to peristalsis.”
Also, from Muhammad and Sesay, (2010),
where the case of pure (natural) peristaltic Time-Averaged Flow Quantities
flow, with no initially applied external
pressure gradient, is strictly being We will need to investigate the behavior of
considered, it is obvious that C (t ) = 0 . This the results of the respective flow quantities
is because, if = 0 , a case of no amplitude, averaged over one period of the wave motion.
By this, we are kind of considering some
then v0 = 0 . On the other hand, if C (t )  0
particular constant volume flux of the flow.
, it implies that there is an applied external The mean flow quantities averaged over one
pressure gradient, which contradicts the period are obtained by integrating with
earlier assumption of a pure peristaltic flow respect to time over one period of wave
from an initially stagnant situation, because it motion.
will imply that even if  = 0 , there will still

Recall that:  = 1 +  cos 2 ( z − t ) .

Hence, by Spiegel, (1968), Zien and Ostrach,
1
cos 2 ( z − t ) 1 2 −2 
dt = 1 − (1 −  ) 
1
(1969), and Li, (1970) methods we have:

1
0
0
  
1
  = (1 −  )
1
dt 2 −
2
.
cos 2 ( z − t )
dt =  (1 −  )
3
0 1 2 −2

1
1
0
2 2
0  2 = 2 ( 2 +  )(1 −  ) .
3
dt 1 2 2 −2
.
cos 2 ( z − t )
5
− 5
3 −
0  3 = 2 ( 2 +  )(1 −  )
dt
1 dt =  (1 −  ) 2

1 2 1 2
2 2
0
3 2
cos 2 ( z − t )
dt =  (1 −  2 ) 2 .
5 −7
( )( )
dt 1

1
2 − 2
7
0  4 2  
1
= 2 + 2
1 − 0
4 2
Thus, v0 , the mean axial velocity for the fluid phase is defined as: v0 = 0 v0 dt .
1
  3 2  2 −2  2
 v0 = 2 1 − (1 −  ) + 1 +   (1 −  ) − (1 −  )  r
3 7 3
2 −2 2 −2
  2  
+C0 (1 −  ) 2 − ( 2 + 3 2 )(1 −  2 )−2 r 2 


3
2 −2
  . ...(53)
The mean axial velocity for the particle phase is defined as: v p 0 = 0 v p 0 dt .
1
1  16 
− 4r  (1 −  ) (8C0 + 2 2 ) ( 2 + 3 2 )
7
2 −2
 v p0 =  2
16   f Re 

 2  
+ ( 8 +  )  2 +  (1 −  ) − ( 2 + 3 )  
2 2 2
 2 
+ (1 −  ) 8C0 − 6 2 (1 +  )  .
3
1 2 −2
...(54)
2

The mean axial pressure gradient for the whole suspension (which is common for both phases) is
p 0 1 p
defined as: = 0 0 dt .
z z
p 0 4 2 2 −2 
=  ( 7 − 2 ) − 2C0 ( 2 + 3 )  (1 −  )  .
7
 2 2
...(55)
z Re 
The mean volume flux for the whole suspension (which is also common for both phases) is defined
Q 0 = 0 Q0 dt .
1
as:
 2  16  2 2 −2 
( )( ) 
1
 Q 0 = −2  C0 +  − q C + 1 +  1 − 
 f Re  0 8
. ...(56)
 4 
The above equation can be re-expressed as:
  1
2 1
2 −2 
(1 −  )  C0 + 4 + q  Re  (1 +  ) (1 −  )  ....(57)
8 2 −2 1 2
Q 0 = −2  1 + q
   f
Re  f 
From which we have:
−1
 2 − 2   Q0 2 2 −2 
C0 = − 1 + 8qS0 (1 −  )   + + qS0 (1 +  ) (1 −  )  .
1 1
2
...(58)
   2 4 
1
Where S0 = .
 f Re
Substituting the value of C0 , the mean axial expressed in terms of the mean flux Q0 , as
velocities and pressure gradients can be follows
  3 2  2 −2  2
u 0 = 2 1 − (1 −  ) + 1 +   (1 −  ) − (1 −  )  r
3 7 3
2 −2 2 −2
  2  

 Q0  2 2 −2  
( )
1
+
 2 4 + qS  2
(1 +  ) 1 −   
2 −2  2 
0
 
(1 −  ) 2 − ( 2 + 3 )(1 −  )  r  . ..(59)
3
2 −2 
− 2
 2 −2 
1 + 8qS0 (1 −  ) 
1


 1 1 2 7 
 2  
− r  (1 −  ) ( 8 +  )  2 +  (1 −  2 ) − ( 2 + 3 2 ) 
2 −2 2
u p0 = 
  Re 4 
 f    2 
  Q0  2 2 −2  

( )
1
 8 +
 2 4 + qS 0
 2
(1 +  ) 1 −    
+ ( 2 + 3 ) 2 −
  

2 2
  2 −2  
1 + 8qS0 (1 −  ) 
1

 
 
  Q0  2 2 −2  
( )( ) 
1
3 
8 +
 2 4 + qS 0
 2
1 +  1 − 
− (1 −  ) 6 (1 +  ) +
1 2 −2 2    . ...(60)
   
1 + 8qS0 (1 −  2 ) 2 
1
2 −
 
  
 
 2  Q0 2 2 −2  
( ) ( )
1
+  + +  2
( +  ) − 
4  
2 2 3  2 4 qS 1 1
 p0  2 
0
 
 ( 7 − 2 ) +  (1 −  )
7
2 −2
= 2
z  2 −2 
1 + 8qS0 (1 −  ) 
1
Re  

 

...(61)
DISCUSSION of the radius of the flow tract (tube/pipe).

This is so, even for the particle phase
Observing the various results obtained for the (equation (50)).
fluid phase of the suspension, the results It is interesting to note that, in all the results
agree with those of Li, (1970), with slight obtained, (equations (41) – (50)); even for the
modification, as would be expected. It is case of time-averaged flow quantities
obvious that the modification arises due to (equations (53) – (57)); except for the volume
the interacting term between the particle and flux, equations (52) and (57); are independent
fluid phases. Equations (41) and (50), of the particle volume fraction, q . It is clear
confirmed the assertion that the axial flow
that if the volume fraction, q , if made zero,
velocity is directly proportional to the square

it becomes a clear case of single-phase fluid. Muhammad, A. B, (2009). “Peristaltic Flow

Hence one can conclude from this study that, of a Particle-Fluid suspension in a
the fluid type, as long as it is regarded as a Rectangular Tract”. Science
Newtonian fluid, does not adversely affect Forum. Journal of Pure and Applied
the outcome of results. That is to say that any Sciences. Vol.12, No.1, pp 19-22.
suspension, as described in this study, may Muhammad, A. B and Sesay, M. S (2012).
conveniently be considered as a uniform “Natural Peristaltic Flows of
single-phase fluid with little effect on the Incompressible Newtonian
flow quantities, the drag effect of the Fluids: A case for A Suitable Flow
suspended particles notwithstanding. Tract”. Science Forum. Journal of
Pure and Applied Sciences. Vol.13,
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Wave Approximation to Peristaltic pp 63-75.

AN ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DRINKING WATER

SOURCES IN KASHERE, GOMBE STATE
*RAYLEIGH DADA ABU1., GRACE UHWACHE OMETERE MICHAEL2AND HENRY

USIOBAIFO AGBEBAKU3
1
Department of Geography, Federal University Kashere, P.M.B. 0182, Gombe State, Nigeria
2
Department of Geography, Gombe State University, P.M.B. 127, Gombe State, Nigeria
3
Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, National Open
University of Nigeria, Abuja
*
Corresponding author: abdaray@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to examine the quality of drinking water sources available to residential
households and the university community in the rapidly growing new federal university town,
Kashere. Data was obtained from water samples collected from 11 (eleven) hand-dug wells and
boreholes within the vicinity of the university campus and residential dwellings. The samples were
analyzed for Temperature, pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Turbidity, Colour, Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Magnesium
(Mg2+), Chloride (Cl-) and Total Hardness. The results were compared with the standards
prescribed by World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water
Quality (NSDWQ). With regards to the physicochemical parameters, the results obtained shows
that the drinking water sources had a reasonably good chemical quality with the exception of EC,
TDS and Mg2+ that were above the WHO and NSDWQ recommended value for drinking water.
To improve the taste and aesthetic properties of the water supply, pre-treatment in the forms of
boiling, filtration, sedimentation and aeration for up to 1-2 days by households are recommended.
Also, good sanitary conditions around the water sources should be encouraged.
Keywords: Contamination, Water, Hand-dug wells, boreholes and Physico-chemical
INTRODUCTION
declared the period of 2005 to 2015 as the
Increasing international discourse on safe International decade for Action on “Water
water supply, sanitation and hygiene for forLife”. Most recently, the UN General
health and development has been Assembly declared safe and clean drinking
continuously emphasized in series of water and sanitation a human right essential
international conferences (UNEP, 1996; to the full enjoyment of life and all other
WaterAid, 2011 and Yohanna et al, 2016). human rights (WHO, 2011). However,
The United Nations General Assembly despite the numerous calls by the
international community on the importance
140 Rayleigh D.A et al., 2019

of water to life, it still remains a scarce different industries, such as tannery, steel
commodity in the developing world. Over plants, battery, industries, thermal power
one billion people today lack access to clean plants and also the indiscriminate use of
water and over 1.2 billion people lack access heavy metal containing fertilizers and
to basic sanitation (Gadgil and Derby, 2003). pesticides in agriculture are some of the main
It is estimated that about 2.7 billion people causes of metal pollution in the aquatic
will face water shortage by 2025 (Obrecht, ecosystem. Drinking water from sources such
2003). Development indices attributes crisis as well, borehole, streams and rivers provide
in the water sector to profound failures in a significant potential exposure to
water governance (UNDP, 2010). Safe and environmental contaminants. It has been
good quality drinking water is essential for estimated that up to 20% of human exposures
the well-being of all people. In Nigeria, most can come from these routes and it is certainly
drinking water sources have been higher for infants whose formula is prepared
contaminated through uncontrolled sewage with water (Shyamala et al, 2008).
disposal into water bodies, increased use of
chemical fertilizer in agricultural practices The study of Yakubu (2013) in Zaria on the
resulted in higher concentration of metal quality of drinking water from hand-dug
pollutant in fresh water reservoir due to water wells reported a high variation in the
run-off, untreated effluent discharge from physicochemical parameters in comparison
industrial activities and open dumping of with the WHO acceptable limit for drinking
refuse into water courses has impacted on the water. Moreover, the results of the study of
health and economic status of the people Isa et al, (2013) on physiochemical and
(Abii and Nwabienvanne, 2007). bacteriological quality of drinking water
Furthermore, Akhtar, et al (2005) reported sources in Maiduguri shows that the
that the rate of water pollution of all types has parameters studied were above the WHO
increased much more as compared to other standards. Since these studies were carried
fields of pollution due to discharge of all sorts out in the same ecological zone with the
of obnoxious matter into it. Also, Adakole present study, it is suspected that drinking
and Abolude (2012) observe that global water sources may be experiencing the same
concern about heavy metals in the level of contamination and degradation given
environment stems from their persistence, the similar nature of human activities around
toxicity and bioaccumulation in the trophic the water sources. Therefore the objective of
chain. Metal contaminants also pose serious this study is to assess the physicochemical
threat to humans through ingestion of metal properties of drinking water sources in
enriched aquatic organisms. Amman, et al Kashere and to compare the parameters with
(2002) are of the view that anthropogenic that of World Health Organization (WHO)
activities like mining, final disposal of treated and Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water
and untreated waste effluents containing Quality (NSDWQ) for drinking water. The
toxic metals as well as metal chelates from study will also provide baseline information
on water quality in the area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
Kashere is located on latitude 9054Ꞌ20ꞋꞋ N -

9054Ꞌ50ꞋꞋN and longitudes1100Ꞌ10ꞋꞋ E -
1101'10ꞋꞋE. It is located at an elevation of 431
meters above sea level with a land mass of
approximately 2,627 km². About 80 percent
of the population is engaged in livestock
rearing and crop production of groundnut,
maize, Guinea corn, beans, benniseed,
Sorghum, Millet and rice. (Fig. 2.1). The
climate over Kashere is described as tropical
continental climate. Temperature is high all
year round with a mean annual air
temperature of 300C. The highest
temperatures are recorded during the dry heat
wave months of between March and May
with maximum air temperature of above
370C. During the rainy season, there is a drop
temperature due to dense cloud cover
between July and August as well as during Figure 2: Map of the study area
the harmattan period of November to
February. Rainfall is highly seasonal due to Collection of water sample and
the oscillation of the inter-tropical determination of physicochemical
convergence zone (ITCZ) which controls the properties
Tropical Maritime and the Tropical
The study was conducted during the warm
Continental air masses of contrasting air
wet season of July, August and September,
moisture and relative humidity over the study
2016. Water samples were collected in
area. The mean annual precipitation is 835
triplicates from hand-dug wells and
mm (Balzerek et al, 2003).
boreholes for each of the study months in
other to improve the reliability of the data
collected. Samples were labeled KW1-6 for
hand-dug wells and KB7-11 for boreholes. A
total of eleven (11) water sources comprising
six hand-dug wells and five boreholes were
used for the study. Table 1 shows the location
and distribution of the sample points.

Table 1: Location of sample points Association (APHA, 1998) were adopted in

Sample Points Location this study for determination of
KW1 Anguwan Wurkun physicochemical parameters. The mean
KW2 Anguwan Tumburu
monthly value of the various
KW3 Anguwan TudunWada
KW4 Anguwan Wambai physicochemical parameters was used to
KW5 Anguwan Yuguda represent their levels of concentration.
KW6 Anguwan Sarki
KB7 Anguwan Gama-Dadi RESULTS
KB8 Anguwan Bubabani
KB9 FUK Campus The physicochemical parameters of
KB10 Anguwan Pawari drinking water from Kashere village
KB11 Anguwan Ubandoma
The mean monthly value of the various
Samples were collected using washed one-
physicochemical analyses of the water
litre plastic bottles soaked in 10% nitric acid
samples are presented in table 2 and shows a
and rinsed with distilled water. Water
mean temperature value of 29.2°C for well
samples collected from each of the sources
water samples and 29.1°C for boreholes.
were taken to the laboratory for analysis
These values are within the mean annual air
within the same day of collection. Standard
temperature value for the study area.
procedures of water and wastewater sample
analysis by the American Public Health
Table 2: Mean values water physico-chemical parameters
Unit/ Temp. pH EC TDS BOD DO Mg2+ Chloride Hardness Colour Turbidity
Parameter 0o C (mg/l) (µs/cm) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (TCU) (NTU)
KW1 27 7.43 5220 2610 4.98 1.5 0.17 38.36 36 - 2.0
KW2 30 6.95 7680 3840 1.34 2.0 0.34 48.00 336 - 4.0
KW3 30 7.10 4480 2240 9.55 1.3 0.39 18.36 480 - 3.0
KW4 28 6.19 2330 1160 8.40 1.5 0.41 09.57 304 - 6.0
KW5 30 7.08 7450 3720 3.60 1.8 0.25 16.15 133 - 3.0
KW6 30 6.94 3290 1645 4.90 2.5 0.24 19.10 270 - 3.0
Mean 29.2 6.95 5075 2536 5.46 1.77 0.3 24.92 260 - 3.5
KB7 26 7.08 2700 1414 4.22 1.5 0.27 17.14 158.4 - 2.0
KB8 30 7.30 9400 4710 6.30 3.0 0.44 18.19 126 - 3.0
KB9 30.5 6.53 887 444 7.01 2.2 0.18 17.22 168 - 4.0
KB10 30 7.55 1943 972 8.02 2.6 0.36 57.28 90 - 4.0
KB11 29 7.62 3530 1770 4.60 3.5 0.29 27.87 120 - 5.0
Mean 29.1 7.22 3692 1862 6.03 2.56 0.3 27.54 133 - 3.6
WHO N/A 6.5- 1400 500 6-9 7.5 N/A 250 500 15 5.0
Rec. Limit 8.5
NSDWQ Ambient 6.5- 1000 500 N/A N/A 0.20 250 150 15 5.0
Rec. Limit 8.5
N/A: Not Available; WHO (2011), NSDWQ (2007)

DISCUSSION used by most of the residential households in

the study area. The results from related
pH is an important indicator of water quality studies on the water quality of shallow hand-
and the extent of its pollution. All the water dug wells conducted by Akungbo (1990),
sources had a pH level within the regulated Ariziki (1991), Gideon (1999), (Folorunsho,
guideline of WHO and NSDWQ. The mean 2010) and Yakubu (2013) also recorded
value for wells and boreholes recorded 6.95 higher values above the WHO acceptable
and 7.22 respectively. Although there is no limits for electrical conductivity (EC) and the
health impact indicated for low or high pH high levels of (EC) observed in the selected
values by the regulated standards, low pH wells were attributed to the indiscriminate
indicates acidity and can become corrosive dumping of refuse from which leachate
and cause damage to metal-based storage percolate to pollute the ground water. Other
containers which eventually lead to metal sources were attributed to the nature of the
leaching. As a consequence, low pH values geologic material developed on the poorly
indirectly affect human health, since heavy weathered crystalline basement complex
metals released into the water containers can rocks, poor drainage and sewage systems,
have adverse consequences on people effluent discharge from industries and
(WHO, 2011). This implies that the water application of fertilizers could also be
sourced from well KW4 will require some responsible for the level of pollution in the
degree of treatment to improve its level of well water.
potability.
The concentration of Total Dissolved Solid
The electrical conductivity (EC) for all (TDS) in water sources is an indication of the
samples was significantly higher than the level of contamination. The TDS values for
WHO and NSDWQ acceptable limit of 1400 the sampled wells and boreholes were
μS/cm 1000 μS/cm respectively. The mean generally higher than 500mg/l recommended
value recorded for wells was 5075 μS/cm and by WHO and NSDWQ acceptable limit for
boreholes recorded 3692 μS/cm. Higher potable water. A mean value of 2536 mg/L
values of EC over time indicate that the water was recorded for hand-dug wells while the
has become increasingly salty and may have mean value for the sampled boreholes was
been contaminated by saline medium, some 1862mg/L. The presence of total dissolved
soluble minerals from weathered bedrocks, solids (TDS) in the water samples as
faecal pollution and leachate that percolate observed in table 2 indicates the presence of
into the ground water sources. The results solutes such as the bicarbonates, sulphates,
also showed that the sampled hand-dug wells and chlorides, calcium, magnesium, sodium,
had higher mean values than the samples phosphates, nitrates and other earth minerals
from boreholes. The results also confirm the in water. Some level of water treatment may
observation made during sample collection be required to increase the potability of the
that most of the hand-dug wells were shallow water.
and were adjoined by the pit latrine system

The mean Biochemical Oxygen Demand The mean recorded value for turbidity was
(BOD) value was 5.46 mg/L for well water 3.5 NTU and 3.6 NTU for well and borehole
sources while the mean value of BOD water respectively. Chloride recorded a mean
concentration for boreholes was 6.03 mg/l. value of 24.94 and 27.54 for well and
All the water sources were within the borehole water respectively while the colour
acceptable limit of the WHO guideline which of the water was clean and clear indicating
ranges 6-9 mg/L except for well KW3 that was low level of impurities.
above the regulated limit with a value of
9.55mg/L. The high level of BOD recorded The mean total hardness value for hand-dug
for well KW3 indicates that the well is well water was 260 mg/L which is above
contaminated and the sources of the NSDWQ limit of 150 mg/L while water from
contamination may have been derived from borehole with a mean concentration of 133
the decomposition of organic waste from mg/L were within the acceptable limit. The
neighborhood refuse dumps and the storm World Health Organization (WHO) standard
runoff from the Maiganga coal mine located for drinking water (2011) classified water
within 11km radius of the settlement with a total hardness of CaCO3 <50 mg/L as
Anguwan TudunWada. The mean value of soft water, 50 to 150 mg/L as moderately
the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was 1.77 mg/L hard water and water hardness above 150
and 2.56 mg/L for wells and boreholes mg/L as hard, therefore it can be concluded
respectively. DO is the measure of the degree that the Studied water sources ranges from
of pollution by organic matter and in moderately to very hard water and thus are
comparison, with the WHO acceptable limits not suitable for domestic use in terms of its
of 7.5 mg/L, it suggests that the water sources hardness and requires some level of treatment
is less polluted by organic matter. in order to attain the required standards.
The mean value of Magnesium (Mg2+) was CONCLUSION

0.3mg/L respectively for the well and
The study revealed that the physicochemical
borehole water sources. The value is slightly
parameter of water quality studied in Kashere
above the NSDWQ of 0.20 mg/L.
particularly Temperature, Turbidity, pH,
Magnesium is one of the commonest
Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Dissolved
elements in the earth’s crust and it is present
Oxygen, Chloride and Colour were found
in all-natural waters. The undesirable effect
mostly within the regulated limits of WHO
of higher value of Mg2+ in drinking water is
and NSDWQ for drinking water quality
its ability to render the water hard. There is
except for Hardness, Electrical Conductivity,
no evidence of adverse health effects
Total Dissolved Solids and Magnesium that
attributed to magnesium in drinking water.
were found to be relatively above the set
The mean turbidity and chloride value for the standards. There is need to apply some level
water sources studied were below the of treatment so as to increase the quality of
acceptable limit of both WHO and NSDWQ. drinking water sources.

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EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD IN CHIRAL MODEL OF GRAPHENE

1
Y. P. YBAKOV, 2*A. B. AHMED, 2J. SAMBO AND 3M .ABDULKADIR
People’s Friendship University of Russia117198 Moscow

1
2
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, P.M.B127, Gombe
Nigeria.
3 Department of Science Lab, Federal Polytechnic Kazaure, Jigawa State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: garkuwaz@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The simplest scalar chiral model of graphene suggested earlier and based on the SU (2) order
parameter is generalized by including 8-spinor field as an additional order parameter for the
description of spin (magnetic) excitation in graphene. As an illustration the interaction of the
graphene layer with the external magnetic field was studied and the result showed the
weakening of the field inside the graphene.
Keywords: Graphene, spin excitation, chiral model, 8-spinor

A.K.Geim, 2005) However, the zero band
INTRODUCTION gap of monolayer graphene limits it’s
further electronic and optoelectronic
Quantum mechanics had many clear
applications (.Zhang & S.S.Lin, 2016).
understandings of phenomena from
astrophysics It also give rise to analogies Graphene made of carbon atoms arranged
with particle physics, including an exotic on a honeycomb lattice with lattice constant
type of tunneling which was predicted by 𝑎 = 1.42𝐴̇. These graphitic materials Fig
the Swedish physicist Oscar Klein. (1) are classified as the allotropes of
Graphene has attracted increasing interest graphene (allotropes are different structural
due to its remarkable properties both modifications of an element in the same
physical and chemical.Graphene allotrope phase of matter, e.g., different solid form).
of carbon was discovered lately due to the
reason that: graphene was expected to be
unstable in the Free State before its
discovery, no experimental tool existed to
detect the one-atom thin material
(graphene).
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 honours

two scientists, who have made the decive
contribution to this development. They are Figure 1: Allotropes of carbon (Karthik
Andre K.Geim and Konstantin S. Paneer Selvam & Surya Prakash Sing,
Novoselov, both at the University of 2014).
Manchester, UK. They have succeeded in The fact that graphene is a gapless
producing,isolating, identifying and semiconductor it cannot be used in pristine
characterizing graphene (K.S.Novoselov & form for Nano-electronic application
148
Ybakov Y.P et al., 2019
(Sivabrata Sahu & G.C.Roout, 2017). The lattice, formed by two interpenetrating
origin of the band structure is simply triangular sublattics, (A and B) (ERJUN
related to the fact that un-hybridized PZ KAN, et al., 2016). The magnetism
overlap with nearest neighbors to form 𝜋 – discovered in graphene-based systems
orbitals spread out in energy and give rise opens the possibility of their spintronics
to band states extending over a range of and other applications
energies (R.Saito, et al., 1998).Every
carbon atom of the graphene lattice uses
three of its four electrons in covalent Mathematical Formulation of the Model
bounding to three other carbon atoms,
while the fourth electron is free to move The s- and p- hybridization effect for the
through the lattice by tunnelling effects.In valence electrons of carbon atoms appear to
summary, graphene is harder than diamond the main property of the electron bonding
but flexible like a piece of iron sheet and a in mono-atomic carbon layers of graphene.
much better conductor of electricity than For realizing this effect the chiral model
other materials. With such properties, (YU.P.Rybakov, 2012) of graphene was
graphene could revolutionize the whole suggested, the unitary SU(2) matrix 𝑉 =
micro- and computer-technology 𝑎0 𝜏0 + 𝑖(𝑎⃗𝜏⃗) being considered as an order
parameter.
The in cooperation of magnetism to the
long list of graphene capabilities has been where 𝜏0 , 𝜏⃗ denote the unit matrix and the
pursued since its first isolation in 2004 Pauli matrices respectively, scalar and
(A.B.Ahmed, et al., 2017) and also in the vector fields 𝑎0 , 𝑎⃗ ; 𝑎02 + 𝑎⃗2 = 1,
case of quantum dots (Yuanyuan Sun, et al., describing s- and p- states of the free
2017) and artificial magnetic fields (Jose valence electron. For the description of spin
Tedeu Arantes, 2018)(Milan Orlita, et al., and quasi-spin excitations in graphene, the
2013)It is also well known that local latter ones corresponding to independent
magnetic moment may persist in excitation modes of the two triangular sub-
condensed-matter systems, giving raise to lattices of graphene, we introduce the two
many different ordered Dirac spinors 𝜓1 ,𝜓2 and consider the
configurations.Graphene, as a metal-free combined spinor field 𝛙 = 𝜉 ⊗ (𝜓1 ⊕
material, contains no magnetic atoms. Its 𝜓2 ), as a new order parameter, where 𝜉
honeycomb structure contains a bipartite stand for the first colomn of V.
TheLagrangian density L of the model,
1  2  2 
L = D   P D  − a j  j  + i 0 a 2   F  (1)
2 2
the Dirac current, 𝛙 = 𝛙+ 𝛾0 and
The Lagrangian in (1) Contain the projector
𝛾𝜇 stands for Dirac matrices.
𝑃 = 𝛾 𝜐 𝑗𝜐 on the positive energy states,
The model contains the two constant
where 𝑗𝜇 = 𝛙𝛾𝜇 𝛙, μ=0,1,2,3, designetes parameters: the exchange energy I per
149 Ybakov Y.P et al., 2019

lattice spacing and some characteristic 𝐴𝜑 = 𝐴, with the intensity of the magnetic
inverse length√𝜆. field being 𝐵𝑧 = 𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝐴)/𝑟, 𝐵𝑟 = −𝜕𝑧 𝐴
and the natural boundary condition at
The interaction with electromagnetic field infinity being imposed: 𝐴(𝑧 → ∞) =
is realized though the extension of the 𝐵0 𝑟/2. The model in question admits the
derivative: 𝐷𝜇 = 𝜕𝜇 − 𝑖𝑒0 𝐴𝜇 𝛤𝑒 , with 𝑒0 > evident symmetry 𝜓1 ⇔ 𝜓2 , 𝛾0 -
0 being the coupling constant and 𝛤𝑒 = invariance 𝛙 ⇒ 𝛾0 𝛙, that permits to
(1 − 𝜏3 )/2 being the charge operator introduce 2-spinor φ by putting 𝜓1 =
chosen in accordance with the natural 𝜓2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑙 (φ, φ), φ= col (v,u).
boundary condition at infinity: 𝑎0 (∞) = 1.
However, the additional interaction term of RESULTS
the Pauli type should be added to take into
Considering the smallness of the radial
account the proper magnetic moments of
magnetic field we assumed that: 𝐵𝑟 ≪ 𝐵𝑧 .
the electrons. Here𝜎𝜇𝜐 = [𝛾𝜇 , 𝛾𝜐 ]/4 ,
In this approximation the new discrete
𝐹𝜇𝜐 = 𝜕𝜇 𝐴𝜐 − 𝜕𝜐 𝐴𝜇 and 𝜇0 > 0 denotes
symmetry holds: φ⇒-𝜎3 𝜑, v ⇒ −𝑣, u ⇒
the Bohr magneton per lattice spacing 𝑢 ∗, 𝑎2,3 ⇒ −𝑎2,3 , that permits to
cubed.
introduce the chiral angle Θ: 𝑎0 =
Let us now consider the case with the
cos Θ,𝑎1 = sin Θ and consider the axially-
orientation of the magnetic field 𝐵0 along symmetric configuration: u = u (r,z), Θ =
the z-axis. Using the cylindrical coordinates Θ (r,z). As a result, the new Lagrangian
r, ϕ, z we introduce the vector potential density takes the form:
1 1
𝐿 = −8𝐼 [𝑅 2 (𝜕⏊ 𝛩)2 + (𝜕⏊ 𝑅)2 + 𝑒02 𝑅 2 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛩] − 8𝜆2 𝑅 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛩 + 8𝜇0 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛩 𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝐴)
4 𝑟
1 1 2 2
− 8𝜋 [𝑟 2 (𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝐴)) + (𝜕𝑧 𝐴) ], (2)
The equations of motion corresponding to
where the new variable for the spin, chiral (2), become
field is introduced: R=u2 and 𝜕⏊ signifies
the differentiation with respect to r and z.
1 1
𝐼 [𝑟 𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝜕𝑟 𝑅) + 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑅 − 4𝑅(𝜕⏊ 𝛩)2 − 4𝑒02 𝑅𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛩] = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛩 [2𝜆2 𝑅 − 𝜇0 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝐴)](3)
2 1
𝐼 [𝑟 𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝑅 2 𝜕𝑟 𝛩) + 2𝜕𝑧 (𝑅 2 𝜕𝑧 𝛩) − 𝑒02 𝑅 2 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛩] = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛩 [𝜆2 𝑅 − 𝜇0 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝐴)](4)
1 1 𝐴
[ 𝜕 (𝑟𝜕𝑟 𝐴) + 𝜕𝑧2 𝐴 − 𝑟 2 ] = 16𝐼𝑒02 𝑅 2 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛩 + 8𝜇0 𝜕𝑟 (𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛩)
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
(5)
Let us now search for solutions to the 0, 𝛼 → 0. Thus, the equation (4) takes the
equations (3), (4), (5) in the domain 𝑧 → ∞, form:
where Θ→0, R=1/4 +ς,A=B0r/2+α, 𝜍 →
1 1
𝐼 [ 𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝜕𝑟 𝛩) + 𝜕𝑧2 𝛩 − 𝑒02 𝐵0 2 𝑟 2 𝛩] = 𝛩[𝜆2 − 4𝜇0 𝐵0 ](6)
𝑟 4
and its solution can be found by separation of variables:
𝛩 = 𝛩0 exp(−𝑣𝑟 2 − 𝜅𝑧), 𝛩0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡,

with the following constant parameters:

𝑒0 𝐵0 𝐵0 𝜆2
𝑣= , 𝜅2 = (𝑒0 𝐼 − 4𝜇0 ) + (7)
4 𝐼 𝐼
Inserting (6) into (3) and (5), one gets the inhomogeneous equations for ς and α :
1 1 1
𝜕 (𝑟𝜕𝑟 𝜍) + 𝜕𝑧2 𝜍 = (𝜕⏊ 𝛩)2 + [4 𝑒02 𝐵0 2 𝑟 2 + 𝐼 [𝜆2 − 4𝜇0 𝐵0 ]] 𝛩2 (8)
𝑟 𝑟
1 𝛼
𝜕 (𝑟𝜕𝑟 𝛼) + 𝜕𝑧2 𝛼 − 𝑟 2 = 2𝜋𝑒0 𝐵0 (𝑒0 𝐼 − 4𝜇0 )𝑟𝛩2 ≡ 𝛿𝑟𝛩2 (9)
𝑟 𝑟
with the solution of the form:

𝜍 = 𝛩02 exp(−2𝑣𝑟 2 − 2𝜅𝑧)𝑁(𝑟); 𝛼 = 𝛿𝛩02 exp(−2𝑣𝑟 2 − 2𝜅𝑧)𝐾 (𝑟) (10)
where the radial function N(r) and K(r) satisfy the following equations:
1 𝜇0 𝜆2
𝑁" + 𝑁′ [𝑟 − 8𝑣𝑟] + 𝑁 [2𝐵0 (𝑒0 − 8 )+4 + 𝑒02 𝐵02 𝑟 2 ] = (11)
𝐼 𝐼
1 2 2 2 2
𝑒0 𝐵0 𝑟 + 𝑒0 𝐵0 + (𝜆2 − 4𝜇0 𝐵0 )
2 𝐼
1 1
𝐾" + 𝐾′ [𝑟 − 8𝑣𝑟] + 𝐾 [4𝜅 2 − 8𝑣 + 16𝑣 2 𝑟 2 − 𝑟 2 ] = 𝑟(12)
The magnetic intensity was estimated to be:

1
𝐵𝑧 = 𝐵0 + 𝑏𝑧 , 𝑏𝑧 = 𝜕𝑟 (𝑟𝛼), 𝐵𝑟 = 𝑏𝑟 = −𝜕𝑧 𝛼
𝑟
Taking into account from (12) at 𝑟 → ∞, 𝐾 ≈ (𝑒02 𝐵02 𝑟)−1 one gets from (10𝑏𝑧 =
− 2𝜋(𝑒0 𝐼 − 4𝜇0 )Θ20 exp(−2𝑣𝑟 2 − 2𝜅𝑧) (13)
4𝜋𝜅
𝑏𝑟 = 𝑒 (𝑒0 𝐼 − 4𝜇0 )Θ20 exp(−2𝑣𝑟 2 − 2𝜅𝑧) (14)
0 𝐵0 𝑟
DISCUSSION magnetic field inside the graphene is

predicted in accordance with equations (13)
In the phenomenological approach to the and (14). With the promising results
study of condensed system such as obtained, graphene can become an ideal
graphene The spin and quasi-spin material for spintronics and other
excitations og graphene layer and the optoelectronic devices. Therefore, it would
interaction with electromagnetic field is be interesting in the future to obtain
realized though the extension of the numerical estimates for the parameters of
derivative and The model in question the model.
admits the evident symmetry𝜓1 ⇔ 𝜓2 ,
𝛾0 - invariance and 𝛙 ⇒ 𝛾0 𝛙, that permits CONCLUSION
us to introduce 2-spinor φ , chiral field and
The s- and p- hybridization effect for the
the magnetic fieldby putting 𝜓1 = 𝜓2 =
valence electrons of carbon atoms appear to
𝑐𝑜𝑙 (φ, φ), φ= col (v,u).
the main property of the electron bonding
From equations (13) and (14) our result
in mono-atomic carbon layers of graphene.
predicts the diamagnetic or paramagnetic
From the results obtained in equations (13)
behavior. It means that the parameter 𝑒0 𝐼 −
and (14) according to the sign of the
4𝜇0 is positive and the weakening of the

multiplier our graphene material reveals Academy of Science of the United

diamagnetic or paramagnetic behavior. In State of America.
view of definitions adopted one has, 𝑒0 = Karthik Paneer Selvam & Surya Prakash
𝑒 𝑒ħ 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ Sing, 2014. Carbon-allotropes:
, 𝜇0 = 2𝑚 3 ,𝐼 = , where the
ħ𝑐 𝑒 𝑐𝑎 𝑎
Synthesis methods, applications
exchange energy is usually adopted as
and future perspective. Carbon
𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ = 2,9𝑒𝑉 and the lattice spacing as
letters 15(4), pp. 219-237.
𝑎 = 3,56. 10−8 𝑐𝑚, with e being the
Milan Orlita, et al., 2013. Graphene in high
absolute value of the electron charge. magnetic fields. ScienceDirect,
Finally the following numerical values 14(1), pp. 78-93.
were obtained: 𝑒0 𝐼 = 2. 103 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠, 𝜇0 = O.Klein, 1929. Z Phys 53.
2. 102 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 . Qinlong Lua, 2010. The elementary
electronic properties og graphene.
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University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
A.B.Ahmed, Yu.P.Rybakov, S.Massou & R.Saito, G.Dresselhaus &
M.Iskandar, 2017. Spin and M.S.Dresselhaus, 1998. The
Magnetic Excitation in Chiral Physical Properties of Carbon
Model of Graphene. Far East Nanotubes. Imerial Collage Press.
Journal of Mathematical Science , S.J.Zhang & S.S.Lin, 2016. Opening the
Volume 102, pp. 399-407. band gap of graphene through
ERJUN KAN, ZHENYU LI & JINLONG silicon doping for the improved
YANG, 2008. MAGNETISM IN performance of graphene/GaAs
GRAPHENE SYSTEM. Hefei hetrojunction solar cell. Nanoscale.
National laboratory for Physical Sivabrata Sahu & G.C.Roout, 2017. Band
Science at Microscale University of Gap Opening in graphene: a short
Science & Technology of China theoretical study. International
Hefei, Anhui, pp. 433-422. Nano Letters, 7(2), pp. 81-89.
Jose Tedeu Arantes, 2018. Artificial YU.P.Rybakov, 2012. On Chiral Model of
Magnetic Field produces exotic Graphene. Solid State phenomena ,
behavior in graphene sheets. Volume 190, pp. 59-62.
Phys.org. Yuanyuan Sun, Yongping Zheng &
K.S.Novoselov & A.K.Geim, 2005. Hongzhe Pan, 2017. Magnetism of
Proceedings of the National graphene quantum dots. npj
Quantum Materials 2.

EVALUATION OF OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR THE REMOVAL OF

SELECTED HEAVY METALS IN TANNERY EFFLUENTS FROM NILEST USING
CARBONISED SWEET DATTOCK SHELLS
1
SALLAU, M.S, 1UBA, S, 1GARBA, Z.N, 1SALISU, A.AA AND 2USMAN, M.A
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,

Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Corresponding author: alsas4real@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The optimum conditions for the adsorption of Ni, Cd, Cr and Pb ions onto modified sweet
dattock shells (Sd) from tannery effluents were investigated and analysed. Three adsorption
variables (pH, adsorbent dosage and contact time) were studied using central composite design
(CCD) a subset of response surface methodology (RSM). The cheap, nontoxic and locally
available adsorbent (sweet dattock shells) was subjected to carbonisation and subsequently the
digestion of the sample was done using a standard method. In RSM study, the individual and
interactive effects of the three critical variables including pH of the solution, Sd dosage and
contact time on the adsorption capacity were optimised. Quadratic models were developed for
both metals percentage removal. The prime adsorption conditions obtained were pH 4, Sd
dosage of 0.8g at 20 mins with desirability of 0.925. These results were statistically significant
and this shows that the conditions obtained could be used for treatment of tannery effluents.
Keywords: Heavy metals, Effluent, Sweet dattock shell, RSM.
INTRODUCTION
effluents which are toxic for human beings.
The major characteristics of developed Presence of these heavy metals in water
countries and primary desires of third world stream and ground water is very serious
countries or developing nations are environmental concern since these metal
industrialisation and urbanisation. This, ions are toxic to life forms; therefore,
though brought development but economic removing them as well as controlling their
solution to its disadvantages has become a level levels in waste water is very crucial
global problem. A high degree of (Kumar and Jena, 2017).
urbanisation and industrialisation have
substantially enhanced the degradation of Biosorption process through utilisation of
aquatic environments through the discharge biomass/ biosorbents in the removal of
of industrial waste water and domestic heavy metal ions from tannery effluents is
wastes. Industries like tannery, one of the most promising alternatives in
electroplating, textiles e.t.c have large substituting conventional methods like
quantities of heavy metal ions in their precipitation, membrane filtration,
electrolyte or liquid extraction, electrolysis
153 Sallau M.S et al., 2019

and reverse osmosis. Sorption methods are elements depends upon the dietary
flexible and easy to operate with much less concentration of the element, absorption of
sludge disposal problems (Garba and Afida, the element by the system, homeostatic
2014; Maksin, et al 2012). Various control of the body for the element and also
adsorbents with local availability, high the species of the animal involved (Yusuf
adsorptive capacity as well as economic and Tekin, 2017).. Heavy metal pollution
suitability are still needed. This prompted has become a serious health concern in
the search in the investigation of the Sd recent years, because of industrial and
shells (Detarium microcarpum) as the new agricultural development.The toxic heavy
and explorable adsorbents. metals of great concern are Cd, Pb and Hg
which are usually associated with harmful
The term heavy metal refers to any metallic effects in humans and animals. It is
chemical element that has a relatively high recognized that heavy metals may exercise
density and is very toxic or poisonous at a definite influence on the control of
low concentrations. A heavy metal is biological functions, affecting hormone
defined as a metal whose density is above system and growth of different body tissues
5gcm-3 or 50 gmol-1. Examples of heavy (Slimani, et al., 2014). Many heavy metals
metals include mercury (Hg), cadmium accumulate in one or more of the body
(Cd), nickel (II), chromium (Cr), thallium organs with differing half-lives. These
(Tl), and lead (Pb). heavy metals apart from acute or chronic
Heavy metals are natural components of the poisoning can be transferred to next
Earth's crust. This cannot be degraded or generation and have potential toxicity from
destroyed. To a small extent they enter our the viewpoint of public health (Baccar, et
bodies via food, drinking water and air. As al., 2013). This research is aimed at
trace elements, some heavy metals (e.g. carrying out the optimization of the
copper, selenium, zinc) are essential to paramount parameters for an effective
maintain the metabolism of the human adsorption of Ni (II), Cd (II), Cr (II) and Pb
body. However, at higher concentrations (II) from tannery effluents of NILEST
they can lead to poisoning of life forms. using Detarium microcarpum. The
Heavy metal poisoning could result, for objectives of this research include to;
instance, from drinking-water i. collect, prepare and characterize
contamination (e.g. lead pipes), high carbonised Detarium microcarpum
ambient air concentrations near emission adsorbent
sources, or intake via the food chain. Heavy ii. collect, digest and determine metal
metal toxicity is one of the major current contents in NILEST tannery
environment health problems and is effluent
potentially dangerous because of bio- iii. carry out adsorption experiment
accumulation through the food chain using response surface
(Maksin, et al 2012) and this can cause methodology
hazardous effects on livestock and human iv. optimize the paramount parameters
health (El Haddad, et al., 2013). In general, in the metal ion adsorption
the hazardous effects of these toxic experiment and develop a model

using response surface microcarpum was analyzed using SEM.

methodology. Surface micrographs of the Native and
v. validate the model by carrying out different Heavy metal treated algal biomass
experiment to confirm the powder were recorded using SEM
optimization parameters obtained apparatus before and after adsorption.
from the model.
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
MATERIALS AND METHODS Analysis
The sample was bought from Samaru To study the mechanism of Cd2+, Cr+6, Pb2+
market Zaria, Kaduna state, it was taken to and Ni2+ removal by biomass Detarium
Department of Botany at the Ahmadu Bello microcarpum, the active chemical groups
University, Zaria, and identified as on the biomass surface before and after
Detarium microcarpum. respective metal sorption were evaluated by
FTIR Spectroscopy. 30mg of finely
Preparation of biosorbents grounded algal biomass was encapsulated
in 300mg of KBr (sigma) in order to prepare
The pericarps were removed and de-
the translucent sample disks used for the
shelled, then the edible part and the shell
FTIR spectra analysis.
was washed off with distilled water, Air
dried for seven consecutive days to Digestion of sample
dehydrate it completely, and then grounded
to smaller forms with mortar and pestle 50 mL of the sample was measured into a
(Musah et al., 2016). beaker, after which 5 mL of conc. HNO3
was added and heated gently, until the
The pre-treated sample was carbonized in a volume reduced to 20–25 mL in a
muffle furnace at a temperature of 300˚C fumehood. This was cooled; 5 mL of
for 4 hrs. The charred material was allowed concentrated HNO3 was added and reheated
to cool to room temperature, soaked in for gentle reflux to occur until digestion is
H3PO4, washed with distilled water until a complete, it was then evaporated to<5 mL
pH of7 was obtained, the sample was then and cooled. After cooling, beaker wall was
ground and sieved using 0.2 mm mesh. The washed down with water, filtered and the
sieved 0.2mm particle size material for filtrate transferred to a 100 mL flask
carbonised sample was weighed and the adjusted to volume using distilled water
particles were then dried in an oven at 25˚C (APHA, 1999).
for 48hrs before being packed in an air tight
sample bags for use (Garba, 2016). Design of Experiment
Characterization of the Biosorbent Central Composite Design (CCD) was used

in designing the experiment with the aid of
Scanning Electron Microscope Design Expert software version 11.0.6
(SEM) Analysis (Stat-Ease, Inc., Minneapolis, MN 55413,
USA). Factors such as contact time,
The effect of metal biosorption on the
adsorbent dose and pH were varied and the
surface properties of the biomass Detarium
response of the experiment was the

extraction efficiency of the metal ions from using 100cm3 conical flask as the reactor.
the collected tannery effluent. The 50cm3 solution of the tannery effluent was
concentrations of the un-extracted heavy measured into the flask. The pH of the
metals were determined using Microwave solution was adjusted to the required value
Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometer throughout the experiment with 0.1M
(MP-AES). NaOH and 0.1M HNO3. These gave only
nitrate ion and sodium ion which are
Sorption Experiment
already in the medium without altering the
The sorption experiment was carried out by chemistry of the ions of interest. An
batch method. The method reported by amount of the adsorbent was transferred
Garba et al., 2016 was adopted. An into each of these conical flasks; Each set
adsorption experiment was carried out in was agitated on the shaker at the different
order to study and evaluate the significance time, the samples were filtered, digested
of variables on the percentage removal of and analysed for residual metals
Ni (II), Cd (II), Cr and Pb (II) according to concentrations. The adsorption efficiency
the pH, time as well as the adsorbent dose or the percentage removals were obtained
as shown in table 1 below. Table 1 shows using the expression below
the whole experimental runs as it was
%𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
generated by the software on the basis of the 𝐶𝑜 −𝐶𝑡
3 optimsed conditions which are pH, × 100 (1)
𝐶𝑜
adsorbent dosage and time.in each of the Where co = initial concentration
four Heavy metals there was certain % Ct= final concentration
removal of metals from the tannery The gram of a particular metal adsorbed per
effluents using using Detarium unit gram of adsorbent otherwise known as
microcarpum as the cheapily and most adsorption capacity after a given time was
available adsorbent. The data presented calculated using the expression below:
Showed various adsorption efficiencies for
(𝐶𝑜 −𝐶𝑡 )𝑉
respective metal ions in the tannery 𝑞𝑡 = (2)
𝑊
effluents using Sd as an adsorbent. Ni
ranges from 87.17 to 99.74, Cd from 88.70
to 98.22, Cr from 87.12 to 99.54 and Pb Where: V= Volume of the solution
from 88.70 to 90.47.
W= Mass of the adsorbent
The experiment was carried out at ambient
temperature (25oC) on a mechanical shaker

Table 1: Experimental runs with responses
Run pH Adsorbent Time (min) Ni Cd Cr removal Pb removal

dose (g) removal removal (%) (%)
(%) (%)
1 6 0.55 24.0908 99.6444 96.2331 99.5417 90.2331
2 6 0.55 14 98.6444 95.9358 98.5417 89.9358
3 4 0.3 20 99.7444 97.4709 99.0834 90.4709
4 6 0.129552 14 99.3424 95.9358 98.5417 89.9358
5 8 0.3 8 93.6203 92.5089 93.5251 88.5089
6 8 0.8 8 93.6203 92.7467 93.0843 88.5089
7 6 0.55 14 98.6324 94.9358 98.5236 89.9358
8 8 0.3 20 94.1763 93.9358 96.0843 89.9358
9 9.36359 0.55 14 87.1763 88.7087 87.1234 88.7087
10 6 0.55 14 98.6203 95.2224 97.5417 89.2224
11 6 0.55 3.90924 99.6324 95.5577 97.5417 89.5577
12 6 0.970448 14 98.6324 96.893 96.0843 89.893
13 4 0.8 8 98.1763 98.2224 99.6251 90.2224
14 8 0.8 20 93.6203 94.2331 93.5417 90.2331
15 2.63641 0.55 14 96.687 97.0333 94.1502 90.0333
16 6 0.55 14 98.6203 95.9845 97.5423 89.9845
17 6 0.55 14 98.1763 95.2224 97.5417 89.2224
18 4 0.3 8 99.7407 98.1094 98.0834 90.1094
19 6 0.55 14 98.7407 95.5577 97.5417 89.5577
20 4 0.8 20 99.6369 98.082 99.0834 90.082
The experiment was carried out at ambient NaOH and 0.1M HNO3. These gave only
temperature (25oC) on a mechanical shaker nitrate ion and sodium ion which are
using 100cm3 conical flask as the reactor. already in the medium without altering the
50cm3 solution of the tannery effluent was chemistry of the ions of interest. An
measured into the flask. The pH of the amount of the adsorbent was transferred
solution was adjusted to the required value into each of these conical flasks; Each set
throughout the experiment with 0.1M was agitated on the shaker at the different

time, the samples were filtered, digested ∊= Random error

and analysed for residual metals
concentrations. The adsorption efficiency Coefficient of Determination (R2) was used
or the percentage removals were obtained to determine the quality of the model as it
using the expression below compared the data from predicted model
with data gotten from experimental runs
%𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = (Anilkumar et al., 2016). Fisher variation
𝐶𝑜 −𝐶𝑡 ratio (F-value) was employed to explain the
× 100 (1)
𝐶𝑜
adequacy and significance of the predicted
Where co = initial concentration
model.
Ct= final concentration
The gram of a particular metal adsorbed per Effects of each factor on adsorption were
unit gram of adsorbent otherwise known as studied and presented in curves, while
adsorption capacity after a given time was effects of interaction between factors on
calculated using the expression below: adsorption were presented in three-
(𝐶𝑜 −𝐶𝑡 )𝑉 dimension (3-D) curves or contour plots (Vilar-dGmet2018).
𝑞𝑡 = (2)
𝑊
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Where: V= Volume of the solution Scanning electron micrograph
W= Mass of the adsorbent The SEM images of the carbonised Sd

before and after adsorption are shown in
Development of Model for Adsorption plates 1 and 2 respectively. Both plates
Process Parameters were found to to be maintained its fibrous
nature with different porosities. The
A quadratic model in form of expression
below was developed for the adsorption of formation of the pore system of the Sd
the metal as it was influenced by the resulted from the rapid emission of species
during carbonisation process and from the
parameters considered during the
development of new micropores induced by
experimental runs;
H3PO4. It was suggested that H3PO4 could
𝑌 = 𝑏𝑜 + ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑏𝑖 𝑥𝑖 + (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑖 )2 + promote both the generation of new
∑𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑖=1 ∑𝑗=𝑖+1 𝑏𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 +∊ (3)
micropores and the enlargement of as-
existing micropores to mesopores
Where: Y = Predicted response (Adeyinka, 2017). Furthermore, the image
(×500 magnification) of the Sd after
𝑏𝑜 = Constant coefficient
adsorption (plate 2) shows metal precipitate
𝑏𝑖 = Linear coefficient appearing as flakes and grain-like structures
on the surface of Sd.
𝑏𝑖𝑖 = Quadratic coefficient
𝑏𝑖𝑗 = Interaction coefficient
𝑥𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑗 = Factors or parameters

considered

FTIR
From the IR spectra of the Sd presented in

fig. 1 there is presence of –OH group which
is attributed to the adsorption at 3276cm-1.
Strong adsorption at 2922cm-1 indicates the
presence of C-H of alkanes while
adsorption at 1606cm-1 portray the presence
of C=C and lower adsorption at 1028cm-1
Plate 1. SEM image of Sd before identified C-O as the functional group in
adsorption the adsorption process(Absorption table,
2014; Spectroscopic tools, 2018).
Adsorption was facilitated by various
functional groups present on the surface of
the Sd ; this is due to the presence of
electronegative atom as well as electron
cloud density at the multiple bonds of
carbons. Hence,there is preferential
adsorption of metal ions which are
Plate 2. SEM image of Sd after adsorption electropositive (Anilkumar., Chitti and
Kavitha, 2016).
Figure 1a: FTIR spectra of the adsorbent after adsorption.

Figure 1b: FTIR spectra of adsorbent before adsorption
Statistical parameters to evaluate the Table 2: gives the Coefficient of

quality of the models Determination (R2) which shows the quality
of the model
The relationship between predicted and
actual values as shown in Table 2 gives the Metal R2
Coefficient of Determination (R2) which
Ni 0.8329
shows the quality of the model as it
compared the data from predicted model Cd 0.8718
with data gotten from experimental runs. Cr 0.9087
The R2 values of all the heavy metals were
high which is a good achievement showing Pb 0.8547
how valid are the models.
Table 3: Optimisation solution
S/N pH Adsorbent Time Ni Cd Cr Pb Desirability

dose removal removal removal removal
1 4.558 0.800 20.000 99.657 97.622 99.307 90.097 0.926
2 4.531 0.800 20.000 99.647 97.632 99.292 90.098 0.926
3 4.591 0.800 20.000 99.667 97.609 99.323 90.095 0.926
4 4.620 0.800 20.000 99.675 97.597 99.337 90.094 0.925
5 4.645 0.800 20.00 99.681 97.586 99.348 90.093 0.925
re- obtained at different set conditions as

The table shows the subsequent optimised compared to Table 1.
values upon which the best % removal were

Model and Statistics of % Metals The LOF value parameter showed the
removed variation of response around the fitted
model; this parameter appears insignificant
The data presented in table 1 showed if the model fits data well. According to the
various adsorption efficiencies for stated standards for the analysis, the high F-
respective metal ions in the tannery values of all the four models are greater
effluents using Sd as an adsorbent. Ni than 0.0001 as presented in Table 2
ranges from 87.17 to 99.74, Cd from 88.70 suggests the statistical significance of the
to 98.22, Cr from 87.12 to 99.54 and Pb models. The p-values of all the models lack
from 88.70 to 90.47. of fit are greater than 0.05 showing they are
The models (in coded forms) for the not significant. It was further confirmed by
respective metal adsorptions are presented the difference in p- values of less than 0.2
in equations(4)-(7) with positive sign(+) of between the adjusted and predicted R2 of
the coefficient indicating the term affecting the lack of Fits (design expert version 11,
adsorption positively while the negative 2018).
sign indicates the adsorption been affected The first five solutions of the optimum
negatively by the term in the model factors predicted by the software for
equations. The main contents of Table 2 maximum adsorption of the four metals
include the results of the analysis of were presented in Table 3. It was further
variance (ANOVA) fitted to the second validated by comparing experimental with
order polynomial equations and the predicted results. High coefficient of
corresponding regression coefficients. determination (R2) ranging from 0.8329 to
Statistical significance and adequacy of the 0.9087 as shown in Table 4 as obtained,
models can be identified via high F, low p- signifying less variation between predicted
value, correlation coefficient (R2) close to and actual values.
1, and the results of lack of Fit (LOF) test.
Ni adsorbed(%) = 98.58-2.30A-0.2506B+0.1494C+0.1395AB-0.1135AC+0.1126BC-
2.39A2+0.1032B2+0.3334C2………………………………………………………………………………………………….(4)
Cd adsorbed(%) = 95.46-2.38A+0.2101B+0.2395C-0.0236AB+0.4615AC+0.0697BC-
0.7885A2+0.4643B2+0.2808C2………………………………………………………………………………………………..(5)
Cr adsorbed(%) = 97.83-2.30A-0.4082B+0.5007C-0.5656AB+0.3198AC-0.4554BC-
2.31A2+0.0473B2+0.4817C2……………………………………………………………………………………………………(6)
Pb adsorbed (%) = 89.64-0.4165A+0.0137B+0.3127C+0.1014AB+0.3365AC-0.0553BC-

0.0843A2+0.1079B2+0.1012C2………………………………………………………………(7)

Table 4: Described how close between the experimental values (actual) to the values
generated by the software (predicted). It actually signifies the validity of the data.
Solution % Ni removal %Cd removal % Cr removal % Pb removal

Actual Predicted Actual Predicted Actual Predicted Actual Predicted
1 99.657 99.657 97.61 97.622 99.875 99.307 90.100 90.097
2 99.540 99.647 97.613 97.632 99.292 99.292 90.100 90.098
3 99.660 99.667 97.601 97.609 99.333 99.323 90.090 90.095
4 99.680 99.675 97.567 97.597 99.297 99.337 90.090 90.094
5 99.800 99.681 97.569 97.586 99.320 99.348 90.090 90.093
Effects of factors on adsorption due to the addition in active sites available

for adsorption (Xu et al., 2017).
pH
This played a vital role in the removal of the Interactive effects on adsorption
individual ion as indicated by fig .2a, b, c conditions
and d. Ni, Cd, Cr and Pb adsorption were
affected mostly by pH as shown by the The interactive effects of pH, adsorbent
steepness of pH curves in fig.2 above, this dosage and time on the adsorption of Ni,
could be due to reduction in solubility as Cd, Cr and Pb, respectively are presented
well as possible precipitation of the metals in fig.3 using 3-D plot as this shows the
(Ahujaet al.,1999 sun et al.,2012). This can interactive and synergistic effects of both
also be as a results of hydrogen ions factors during the adsorption process and
reduction struggling for the available sites pH been the best contributor of metals
as pH increases (Luet al., 2017). These removal.
increase in adsorption with pH agree with
typical cations adsorption behaviour
(Oyetade et al.; 2017).
Contact time 100

98
96
The adsorption efficiencies of the metals
Ni removal (%)
94
92
90
88
increase with time which was attributed to 86
the available sites during the experiment 20 0.8
17 0.7
and enabled the adsorption process as 0.6
14
designed in the matrix. C: Time (min) 11

0.5
0.4 B: Adsorbent dose (g)
8 0.3
Adsorbent dosage
Adsorption efficiencies of all the metals Figure 2a: Effect of Adsorbent Dose and
increase with adsorbent dosages which was Time on Adsorption.

applied to examine the impact of independent

variables, including pH, time and adsorbent
dosage on the removal of Ni, Cd, Cr and Pb
from and to determine the optimum
adsorption condition. The quadratic
100
98
equations developed to model the adsorption
96
of all the four metals on the carbonised Sd
Cd removal (%)
94
92
90 shells were found to be statistically
88
significant.
0.8 8
0.7 7
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MODELING THE DYNAMIC OF KALARE CRIME IN GOMBE METROPOLIS

*
Sa*SANDA AYUBA, ADAMU IBRAHIM, YAHAYA AJIYA, ADAMU ISHAKU, IBRAHIM
GARBA AND ALIYU ABUBAKAR
Department of Mathematics, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria

*
Corresponding Author: sandaayuba@gmail.com Ibrahim,
ABSTRACT
The activities of kalare youth group have put an end to the lives of several innocent people of
Gombe, the state capital of Gombe, Nigeria more than any other kind of crime in the recent history
of the state. In this paper, a mathematical model of kalare crime with two categories of susceptible
class was developed and analyzed. We obtained the existence and uniqueness of solution of the
model equations, the basic reproduction number R0 best on the modification of the work of Umar
(2013). The analysis shows the crime-free equilibrium is locally asymptotically stable whenever
the threshold R0  1 and unstable if R0  1 . The crime present equilibrium of the model exists and
it is found to be unique under certain condition. The numerical simulation carried on three different
scenarios as R0 = 0.27714  1 , R0 = 0.20123  1 and R0 = 0.0694  1 which shows that kalare crime
can be drastically reduce.
Keywords: Crime, Kalare, Dynamic, Gombe, Stability, Population
whenever they are embarking in campaign.

INTRODUCTION As a result of that some jobless youth of
Gombe joined them thereby involving
Kalare is a name of a gang star who is a
themselves in one form of a political violence
hunter from a village called Miya in Bauchi.
or the other, Umar (2013).
Kalare is well known, who usually attends
Short et al (2008) introduced the existence
occasion organize by his fellow hunters
and stability of localized patterns of criminal
anywhere in the northern part of Nigeria.
activity for the two-components reaction-
Sometimes back in 1994 the hunters of Bolari
diffusion model of urban crime, such
district in Gombe, organize an occasion led
patterns, characterized by the concentration
by the District Head of Bolari as Barde, and
of criminal activity in localized spatial
Yan Dawa which they invited kalare, due to
regions, are referred to as hot-spot patterns
his visit their name was changed from Barde,
and they occur in a parameter regime far from
and Yan Dawa to Yan kalare. Yan kalare they
the Turing point associated with the
are known to be hunters and they live in the
bifurcation of spatially uniform solutions.
bush unless during their annual festival until
Nuno et al (2011) proposed and analyzed a
recently in 2003 general election when the
mathematical model of a criminal-prone self-
politician invites them to serve as their guard,
protected society and Sayantani and Arnab
165 Sanda A. et al., 2019

(2017) modified the interaction function compartment, the victim or the relative may
between criminals and guards in the work of go for revenge in the process of doing such
Nuno et al (2011) model and investigated the they may be addicted to it with recruitment
impacts of this modification. The numerical rate constant  1 while the susceptible for
simulation reported that the free-of-criminals uneducated compartment is the class where
steady state becomes asymptotically stable people are capable of being exposed to kalare
when the rate of crime is decreased (that is crime due to contact rate with the kalare
when the value of 𝑘 < 1). crime individuals, these include people who
Compartmental models have been used to have closed relationship with the kalare
study the influence of sociological and crime individual and those that live in the
economic factors on the evolution of same area with the kalare crime individuals
criminality. Such studies will be useful to with the recruitment rate constant  2 . The
determine possible strategies for reducing
crime spread through contact between the
and controlling crime. Criminal behavior and
crime individuals and the susceptible
violence can also be modelled by using
individual, the rate of change of population is
infectious disease model, Hochberg (1991).
proportional to the total number of the
Agent-based model may also be suitable to
contacts, the number of contact between the
investigate spread of criminal behavior
susceptible of educated individual is
(Hochberg (1991); Diekman et al (1990);
proportional to the product of S E and C ,
Van et al (2002); and Adamu et al (2018)).
In this paper, we formulated a model to study this implies there is a contact rate 1 that
the dynamic of this crime and by define the rate at which the susceptible class
incorporating jail and rehabilitation. of educated becomes exposed to kalare
crime, while the number of contact between
MODEL DESCRIPTION the susceptible of uneducated is proportional
to the product of SU and C , which implies
The population is divided into six
compartments; the susceptible of educated S E there is positive contact rate  2 that defined
, the susceptible of uneducated SU , the the rate at which susceptible of uneducated
becomes exposed. The exposed
exposed class E , the crime class C , the jail
compartment, are individual that are expose
class J , the recovery compartment R , and
to kalare crime but do not encourage people
total population N is equal to the sum of the
to practice the kalare crime and they move
compartments. The susceptible of educated
into the crime compartment at rate  with
compartment is the class where people are
the natural death rate of  and death due to
capable of being expose to kalare crime due
to illicit act by the kalare individual onto the the crime at rate d1 after the individual has
susceptible class of educated people that is become addicted with the kalare crime, and
when a kalare gang attack one of their relative they also go to the jail compartment at rate 1
of the susceptible class of the educated The crime class consist of those who practice

kalare crime and capable of influencing other they move to the crime class with rate  4 .
people to join the kalare crime either
willingly or not. A proportion of this class
may experience one of the four outcomes,
they either die as a result of the crime with
rate constant rate d 2 or death induce by
natural course at rate  or they go to the jail
at rate  2 , they also recover at rate  and
eventually move into the recovered
compartment this compartment also has
natural death rate of  , While the jail
compartment consist of those who practice
Figure 1: Compartmental diagram of the
kalare crime and they move into the recovery
model
class with rate 3 and natural death rate  or
Model Equation dE S C S C
= 1 E +  2 U +  R −  E − d1 E −  E − 1 E
dt N N
The Model Equation (3)
Using the schematic diagram, we obtained dC (4)
=  E + 4 J − C −  C − 2C − d2C
dt
the equation for the dynamic of kalare crime
dJ (5)
in Gombe as follows: = 1 E +  2 C −  J − 3 J −  4 J
dt
dS E S C (1)
=  1 −  S E − 1 E
dt N
dR (6)
dSU SU C =  C + 3 J −  R −  R
=  2 −  SU −  2 (2) dt
dt N
Model Assumptions that the crime present equilibrium process
is deterministic.
Base on the model described above the 4. All susceptible individuals are equally
following assumption are made: likely to be crime present individuals
1. In the beginning of the model, the total when they come in contact.
population 𝑁 is the same as the sum of the 5. Those in uneducated class are more
number of susceptible individual, the vulnerable to be infected.
exposed class, the crime class, the jail 6. We assumed that there is an induced
class and the recovery class. death rate as a result of the crime.
2. The population is heterogeneous, that is 7. People in each compartment have equal
the individual that make up the natural death rate of µ.
population can be categorized into
different compartment according to their Model Analysis
epidemiological state.
3. The population size in a compartment is In this section, we obtained equilibrium state,
differentiable with respect to time (t) and the basic reproduction number, the stability

of both crime-free and addiction equilibrium Adamu et al (2018) and we now establish the
point and numerical solution were obtained. proof.
Theorem 1: Let D denote the region 0 ≤
Existence and Uniqueness of Solution 𝑁 ≤ 𝑅, then (1) have a unique solution.
We formulate a theory on the existence and We show that fi , i, j = 1, 2,..., 6 are
x j
uniqueness of solution of model system of
continuous and bounded in D
equations (1)-(6) following the approach of
Proof:
let dS E
= f1 ,
dSU
= f2 ,
dE
= f3 ,
dC
= f4 ,
dJ
= f5 ,
dR
= f6 ,
respectively.
dt dt dt dt dt dt
f1 C f1 f f1 S f f
= − − 1   , =0 1 =0 = 1 E   , 1 = 0 and 1 = 0   (7)
S E N SU E S E N J R
As clearly shown above, the partial derivative The Invariant Region

of the whole system exists, and they are finite Invariant region is the region that makes the
and bounded. Similarly, by theorem 1, the system to be more biologically sense.
model system (1)-(6) has a unique solution.
dN dS E dSU dE dC dJ dR (8)
= + + + + +
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
dN
 1 +  2 −  N (9)
dt
dN
  − N (10)
dt
where  = 1 +  2 . Integrating (10), we have
N
1

( − N e ) 0
− t
(11)
𝜋
At 𝑡 → ∞ the inequality becomes 𝑁≤𝜇 model for this system is uniformly bounded
in the subset of 𝑅+6 the feasible solution of
,which shows that the feasible solution of the
𝜋 the region Ω is positively invariant and
system (1)-(6) as 𝑁 → 𝜇 is the system consist
attracting with respect to system(1) , the
of six possible solutions and the solution invariant region is
 
 = ( S E , SU , E , C , J , R )  R+6 ; N   (12)
 
Proposition 1: Let R+  0 , and  ( A ) be Proof: It suffices to show that for all  .
positive and bounded. Then there exist (See Bonabeau (2002); Rodrigurz and Adrea
 0  0 such that, if 0     0 , then R+ as (2010)).
defined in (12) is throughout  .

Crime Free Equilibrium (CFE) related compartments E , C , J and R , that is

E = C = J = R = 0 .Thus, at equilibrium,
This equilibrium exist in the absence of crime
dS E dSU dC dJ dR (13)
= = = = =0
dt dt dt dt dt
Let E0 be the CFE, and since at CFE, then  − S = 0 , implies S =  and

 
E0 =  , 0, 0, 0, 0  . (14)
 
may become persistent if R0  1 , implying
Basic Reproduction Number R0
that one infected individual will cause more
than one secondary infection. The disease
Applying the method of analyzing local
stability of CFE in Van et al (2002), we may die out in the population if R0  1 ,
calculate the basic reproduction number R0 meaning an infected individual cannot cause
more than one secondary infection.
using next generation matrix operator
In this paper, Kalare crime is considered as
method. The threshold quantity R0 in
transmissible disease and compute R0 at
epidemiological model is use for predicting
CFE.
disease outbreak and control strategies.
The associated matrix F for the new infection
Depending on the value of R0 , the disease
term is
 1 1 +  2 2 
0 
0 0
(15)
 
F = 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
 
 
 A 0 0 − 
 
− B 4 0 .
And V = (16)
 1 2 C 0 
 
 0 − 3 D 
Now, we find the inverse of matrix V by finding,
det ( E0 )= V = ABCD − AD 2 4 − B1 3 − 1 4 − C (17)
−  2 4
 D ( B −  2 4 )  ( C +  2 4 )  ( B 2 +  4 )  ( BC −  2 4 ) 
 
−1 1  D ( C + 1 4 ) ACD − 13 AD 4 +  3  ( C + 1 4 )  . (18)
=
ABD −   ( ( B1 +  2 ) ) 
V
V  D ( E1 +  2 ) AD 2 + 1
 
 B  + C +  2 3 + 1 4 A ( C +  2 3 ) A ( B 3 +  4 ) A ( BC −  2 4 ) 
 1 4
1
We now find FV −1 and let T = ( 1 1 +  2 2 ) (19)


where A = (  + d1 +  + 1 ) , B = (  + d 2 +  +  2 ) , C = (  + 3 +  4 ) (20)
D = ( + )
 TD ( C + 1 4 ) T ( ACD − 13 ) T ( AD 4 + 3 ) T ( ( C + 1 4 ) ) 
 
1 0 0 0 0 . (21)
FV −1 =  
V 0 0 0 0
 
 
 0 0 0 0 
Now from FV −1 −  I , we have
TD ( C + 1 4 ) (22)
 = 0, 0, 0,
V
by definition R0 = max i : i is an eigenvalues of FV −1 , i = 1(1)4 (23)

   +  2 2  D ( C + 1 4 ) (24)
R0 =  1 1 
   V
Table 1. Parameter Description

Parameter Description
 Recruitment rate
1 Rate of moving from educated class into the exposed class
2 Rate of moving from uneducated class into the exposed class

 Rate of moving from exposed class into the crime class
 Rate of moving from crime class into the recovery class
1 Rate of moving from exposed class into the jail class
2 Rate of moving from crime class into the jail class
3 Rate of moving from jail class into the recovery class
4 Rate of moving from jail class into the crime class

 Rate of moving from recovered class into the exposed class
 Natural death rate
d1 Death induced by been exposed to the crime
d2 Death induced by the crime
Tr ( E0 )  0, Det ( E0 )  0 whenever R0  1
Local stability Analysis of crime free and unstable if R0  1 .
equilibrium point
Proof:
The local stability analysis is obtained by
At the E0 we have,
trace method
Lemma1: the crime free equilibrium point is
asymptotically stable if

 − 0 0 E 0 0 
 
 0 − 0 F 0 0 
 0 0 −A G 0   (25)
J E0 = 
 0 0  −B 4 0 
 0 0 1 2 −C 0 
 
 0 0 0  3 − D 
where 1 1      (26)

E= , F = 2 2 ,G = 1 1 + 2 2
N N N N
we get Tr ( E0 ) = − ( 2 + A + B + C + D )  0 and
 ABCD − AD 2 4 − B13 − CDG − C 
Det ( E0 ) =  2  
(27)
− DG1 4 −  23 − 1 4 
Det ( E0 ) =  2 V 1 − R0  (28)
Det ( E0 ) =  2 V 1 − R0   0  R0  1 (29)
hence the crime is stable.
Crime present equilibrium point

Equating the given equations to zero we have
1 2 (30)
S E = , S =
 + 1 U  + 2
where 1 1C  2C  (31)
= , 2 =
N N
(  + 2 ) 11 + (  + 1 ) 2 2 + (  + 1 )(  + 2 )  R (32)
E =
(  + 1 )(  + 2 )(  + d1 +  + 1 )
0 =  E + 4 J − C −  C − 2C − d2C (33)
0 = 1 E + 2 C −  J − 3 J −  4 J (34)
0 =  C + 3 J  −  R −  R (35)
From (32) we obtain R and substitute into simultaneously to obtain the value of E  , C 
(33), and then we solve (33)-(35) and J  independently, where
(1 4 +  C ) DL1 . (36)
C =
 AD ( BC −  2 4 ) − 1 ( B 3 +  4 ) −  ( C +  2 3 ) 
L1 L3  
where, L1 = (  + 1 ) 2 2 + (  + 2 ) 1 1 L2 = (  + 1 ) and L3 = (  + 2 ) .
   +  2 2 
multiplying (36) by  1 1  we have,
  
 1 1 +  2 2    1 1 +  2 2  (1 4 +  C ) DL1 (37)
 C =  
      1 3
L L  AD ( BC −  2 4 ) − 1 ( B 3 +  4 ) −  ( C +  2 3 ) 
 
L2 L3 (38)
 CPE = R0 − Q
L1

L2 L3  L1  (39)
CPE = Q R0 − 1
L1  L2 L3 Q 
 0.30 Estimated
Clearly the crime present equilibrium point
 0.25 Estimated
exist and it is unique for this case if
L1  0.75 Umar
0  R0  . The crime present (2013)
L2 L3Q
equilibrium does not exist if otherwise.  0.15 Estimated
Numerical Simulation
The time plot of figure 2 is a representation Graph of Numerical Simulation

300
of three different scenario, with β1 =0.9 for beta1=0.9
the first scenario, β1 =0.6 for the second beta1=0.6
250 beta1=0
scenario and β1 =0 for the third scenario
Crime Class
respectively, which also depict that the
200
number of individual population of the crime
class decline from 300 to almost 170 and then
150
stabilize for the first scenario, from 300 to
almost 160 and then stabilize for the second
100
scenario and from 300 to almost 130 and then 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
stabilize for the third scenario respectively as Time(year)
time goes on. Figure 2: Graph of crime class against time.
Graph of Numerical Simulation

Table 2: Parameter values 400
beta1=0.9
beta1=0.6
Parameter Value Data beta1=0
Source 350
Exposed Class
 1000 Estimated
 0.019 Estimated 300
 0.66 Umar
(2013)
250
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d 0.1 Estimated Time(year)
Figure 3: Graph of exposed class against

 0.25 Estimated time.
e 0.32 Estimated
The time plot of figure 3 is also a
k 0, 0.2, 0.88 Umar representation of three different scenarios as
(2013) that of figure 2 above which also depict that

the number of individual population of the Graph of Numerical Simulation

500
exposed class decline from 400 to almost 350
for the first scenario, from 400 to almost 330
400
for the second scenario and from 400 to
Recovered Class
almost 255 for the third scenario respectively beta1=0.9
as time goes on. 300 beta1=0.6
beta1=0
Graph of Numerical Simulation
220 200
beta1=0.9
200 beta1=0.6
beta1=0 100
180 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(year)
Jail Class
160
Figure 5: Graph of recovered class against
140 time.
120
The time plot of figure 5 is also a
100 representation of three different scenarios as
80 that of figure 1 above, which also depict that
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(year)
the number of individual population of the
Figure 4: Graph of jail class against time. Recovered class increases from 100 to almost
470 and the stabilize for the first scenario,
The time plot of figure 3 is also a from 100 to almost 440 and then stabilize for
representation of three different scenariosas the second scenario and from 100 to almost
that of figure 2 and 3 above, which also depict 390 and then stabilize for the third scenario
that the number of individual population of respectively as time goes on. This implies
the jail class decline from 200 to almost 150 that, the proposed model can be said to be a
and then stabilize for the first scenario, from good model for kalare crime control.
200 to almost 140 and then stabilize for the
second scenario and from 200 to almost 110 DISCUSSION
and then stabilize for the third scenario
We have formulated a model of kalare crime
respectively as time goes on.
in Gombe with two susceptible classes.
These are the susceptible of educated and
uneducated class with three different scenario
as stated in the graphs above, and investigate
their dynamical behavior depending on the
basic reproduction number of the three
different scenario, for the first scenario we
have R0 = 0.27714  1 and for the second
scenario we have R0 = 0.20123  1 and

finally for the third scenario we have state hot-spoot Patterns for reaction
R0 = 0.0694  1 which implies that all the diffusion models of urban crime,
three scenario are Kalare crime-free. Math. Models, vol. 18, 1249-1267.
Nuno, J.C., Angel, M.H., and Mario, P.
CONCLUSION (2011). Mathematical Model of a
Criminal Prone Society, AIMS
The dynamic of kalare crime was modelled Journals 4.1 193-207.
into six different compartments in order to Sayantani, M., and Arnab, M. (2017). A
determine possible strategies for reducing mathematical model of a criminal-
and controlling crime activities in Gombe. prone society. International journal of
Compartmental models have been used to science and research. Vol. 6, Iss. 3;
study the influence of sociological and ISSN (online): 2319-7064.
economic factors on the evolution of criminal Hochberg, M.E. (1991). Non-linear
behavior and violence in the society. The transmission rates and the dynamics
local stability analysis of crime free of infectious diseases. Journal of
equilibrium point obtained using trace theoretical biology. Vol. 152, no. 3,
method and the crime present equilibrium 301-321.
point using theorem1 is exists and unique for Bonabeau, E. (2002). Agent-based modeling:
L1 Methods and techniques for
0  R0  , where the reproduction
L2 L3Q simulating human systems.
number R0  0 (i.e positive and bounded), Proceedings of the national academy
of sciences. Vol. 99, suppl. 3, pp.
which shows that the kalare crime can be
7280-7287.
control.
Diekman, J., Hesterbeek, P., and Meetz, J.
The numerical simulations of the crime class, (1990). On the definition and the
exposed class, jail class and recovered class computation of the basic reproduction
presented shows that the activity of kalare ratio 𝑅0 in model for infectious
crime in Gombe can stabilize at each scenario diseases in heterogeneous population,
as time goes on. Mathematical Biosciences, vol.28, pp
363-382.
REFERENCES Van, D., Driessche, P., and Wantmough, J.
(2002). Reproduction numbers and
Umar M. (2013). An Assessment of the
sub-threshold endemic equilibria for
activities of Kalare in political
compartmental models of diseases
violence in Gombe State, Nigeria.
transmission, Math. Biosci, vol.188,
International journal of innovative
pp 29-28.
research and development, Vol. 2, pp
Adamu, I., Bashir, S.M., Ayuba, S., and
2278-0211.
Abubakar, M.B. (2018).
Short M., Brantingham P., Bertozzi A., and
Mathematical assessment of social
Tita G. (2008). The stability of steady

media impact on academic Rodriguez, N., and Andrea, B. (2010). Local

performance of students in higher existence and uniqueness of solutions
institution. IOSR Journal of to a PDE model for criminal behavior.
Mathematics (IOSR-JM) Vol. 14, no. Math. Meth. Appl. Sci. Vol. 20, pp.
1 pp 72-79. 1425-1457.
Feroz, S.S., Didong, L., Zhang, X., and Robert, S.C., Chris, C., and Raul, M. (2012).
Zhenhang, G. (2013). Mathematical Global bifurcation of solutions for
modeling in criminology. Malaysian crime modeling equations. Siam. J.
journal of mathematical sciences. Math. Anal. Vol. 44, pp. 1340-1358.
Vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 125-145.

URINATION AS A CASE OF HAGEN-POISEUILLE FLOW
MUHAMMAD AHMADU BAPPAH
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, 127 Gombe. Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The flow of urine in the human urethra is modeled as a natural voluntary flow of incompressible
Newtonian fluid in a cylindrical flow tract (tube or pipe-like), with a view to test the suitability of
Hagn-Poiseulles flow theory to natural flow of fluids in human body. With the assumption of the
cylindrical nature of the urethra and the voluntary nature of urine pumping, the urethral model is
tried. The resultant flow quantities in terms of the axial flow velocity, volume flux, and generated
axial pressure gradient, as obtained by solving the modified Navier-Stokes equations, in particular
the flow speed, tend to agree with some experimental figures obtained in earlier studies. This
shows the possible application of this type of flow to similar physiological situations.
Keywords: Urethra, Urine, Hagen-Poiseuille Flow, Cylindrical Tract, Stricture)
INTRODUCTION women, it ranges between 0.035m to 0.040m,

while in males, it varies from 0.15m to 0.29m.
In this study, the urination process is regarded This is because, in women, it travels a shorter
as practically consisting of four stages, distance to the outside from the internal to the
comprising of storage (in the bladder); external urethral orifice. In case of men, it has
voiding (function of the urethra); control to cover comparatively long distance to reach
situation – voluntary or involuntary (by the the end of the male genital organ.
central nervous system); and the exit of the
urine (the urethral flow tract). However, the The urethral body wall is composed of three
main issue of concern here is the urethra and distinct layers that are continuous with the
its urinary functions. urinary bladder. However, to make the
concept clear, the urethral tube can be divided
Position and Structure of the Urethra into four distinct parts which are named after
their respective location, namely, spongy,
Resembling a tubular structure, the urethra membranous, pre-prostatic and prostatic
develops a connection between the urinary urethra”.
bladder and the genital organs in human
body. It is this canal, through which the Functions of Urethra
transfer of excretory fluids occurs, that is
ultimately emptied out of the body. In women, the urethral tube serves only as
a passage for urine from bladder to outside.
The length of urethra shows considerable For men however, it is involved in dual
variation based on gender differences, i.e. in functions, the transfer of urine out of the

body as well as the ejaculation of seminal comes under reflex (involuntary) situation.
fluid. “The state of the reflex system is dependent
on both a conscious signal from the brain and
“The process of urination is controlled by the firing rate of sensory fibers from the
both voluntary and involuntary actions where bladder and urethra. At low bladder volumes,
the external urethral sphincter is responsible afferent firing is low, resulting in excitation
for the deliberate command over the of the outlet (the sphincter and urethra), and
excretion of urinary fluid. The striated relaxation of the bladder. At high bladder
muscle tissue that forms the external volumes, afferent firing increases, causing a
voluntarily controlled sphincter is conscious sensation of urinary urge”.
responsible for the effective functioning of
this structure” (Wikepedia- 10/10/2017). “The muscles controlling urination process
are controlled by the autonomic and somatic
Urine and Urination (Urine Flow) nervous systems. During the storage phase
the internal urethral sphincter remains tense
This is the flow (by voluntary or involuntary
and the detrusor muscle relaxed by
pumping) of urine from the bladder through
sympathetic stimulation. During micturition,
the urethra to outside the body. It is also
parasympathetic stimulation causes the
known medically as micturition, voiding, or
detrusor muscle to contract and the internal
uresis; and known colloquially by various
urethral sphincter to relax. The external
names including peeing, weeing, or pissing.
urethral sphincter (sphincter urethrae) is
The need to urinate is experienced as an
under somatic control and is consciously
uncomfortable, full feeling. It is highly
relaxed during micturition. It is commonly
correlated with the fullness of the bladder. In
believed that in infants, voiding occurs
many males the feeling of the need to urinate
involuntarily (as a reflex). The ability to
can be sensed at the base of the bladder, even
voluntarily inhibit micturition develops by
though the neural activity associated with a
the age of 2–3 years, as control at higher
full bladder comes from the bladder itself,
levels of the central nervous system develops.
and can be felt there as well. In females the
need to urinate is felt in the lower abdomen Hagen-Poiseuille Flow
region when the bladder is full. When the
bladder becomes too full, the sphincter This is the case of flow of a viscous fluid
muscles will involuntarily relax, allowing through a pipe or tube in one direction along
urine to pass from the bladder. Release of the axis of symmetry. In this study a case of
urine is experienced as a lessening of the incompressible fluid under steady flow is
discomfort. being considered. The study is intended to
analyze the situation of voluntary flow of
In normal situations (healthy conditions) fluid (urine) through the human (male)
urination is voluntary controlled, except in urethra, based on the Hagen-Poiseuille’s
the case of infants and very elderly, where it model with a view to study the case(s) of

some of the clinical conditions that cause model can be applied to describe the flow
disturbances to normal urination. It is processes. In this regards it will be easier to
common to note that some males prefer to consider a very small portion at the mid-
urinate standing while others prefer to urinate section of the urethra, where the effect of
sitting or squatting. Elderly males and others tapering (if there is any) may be minimal.
with urinary problem may prefer sitting Thus, one can take the cross-section of the
down, while in healthy males, no difference urethra at that portion and determine the
is found in the ability to urinate. Thus, the behavior or variation of the quantities there.
mathematical study of urine flow in the The geometry will be as shown below:
urethral tract with a view to determining
some of the clinical conditions that cause
disturbances to normal urination will be of
R
great interest.
Z axis
Major Assumptions
Having assumed the urethra to be cylindrical Figure 1: Diagram showing the Flow in a
based on the fact that “the cylindrical model Straight Cylindrical Pipe or Tube.
will be more suitable for natural studies”
(Muhammad and Sesay 2010), there are some The cylindrical coordinates system is applied
further assumptions that need to be made here since a cylindrical flow tract is assumed.
also, to enable one carry out this study. These Thus the continuity equation will be:
 1  1  
are: -
+ (  rvr ) + (  v ) + (  vz ) = 0.
(i) Urine as produced by the kidneys and t r r r  z
transported to the bladder and finally …(3.1)
expelled outside the body through the urethra
is considered as an ideal Newtonian fluid. Where ρ is the fluid density; μ the fluid
(ii) The urethra can be assumed to be a viscosity; R the radius of the flow tract; r the
cylindrical (tube-like) flow tract, with axi- perpendicular distance from the axis; vz , vr
symmetrical flow. and vθ are the axial, the radial and the swirl
(iii) Flow of urine through the urethra is velocities respectively.
assumed to be steady and laminar (though
may not necessarily be so). (There are no radial and swirl velocities,
implying that: vr = v = 0 ).
Problem Formulation
Since a case of steady flow along the Z-axis
From the above assumptions therefore, the is being considered, the only term that will
two-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations
and the continuity equation, the cylindrical

vz vz = f (r ) .The appropriate N-S equation to

remain in equation (3.1), is =0 ;
z be applied for the flow along the Z -axis will
implying that vz is not a function of z ; hence be (Muhammad 2017):
 vz v v v v 
 + vr z +  z + vz z 
 t r r  z 
p    1   vz   1  2vz  2vz 
=− +  r  + 2 + 2 , …(3.2)
z  r  r r  r   r  z 
2
This becomes:
p  1   vz   p  1   vz  
− + r   = 0 ; or − =   r  . …(3.3)
z  r r  r   z  r r  r  
p dp
Because it is assumed that there is no variation in pressure gradient, (or ) is
z dz
constant. Hence the equation to be tackled therefore becomes:
d  du  1 dp
r  =  r , (by putting vz = u) . …(3.4)
dr  dr   dz
du 1 dp r 2
Integrating equation (3.4) gives: r =  + k1 ,
dr  dz 2
du 1 dp r k1
=  + ,
dr  dz 2 r
1 dp r 2
u=  + k ln r + k2 . …(3.5)
 dz 4 1
The boundary conditions here are: at r = 0 , velocity is finite; at r = R, u = 0 .
Since u is finite it is obvious that the term containing k1 ln r disappears,  k1 = 0 .
Substituting in the second equation gives:
1 dp R 2 R 2 dp
0=  + k2 ;  k2 = −
 dz 4 4 dz
Substituting for k1 and k2 gives:
r 2 dp R 2 dp
(R − r ).
1 dp 2 2
u= − ; or u = − …(3.6)
4 dz 4 dz 4  dz

It is obvious that from this equation the velocity distribution for the flow will be parabolic. This
can be seen more clearly if the equation is expressed as:
1 dp 2   r  
2
u=− R 1 −    . …(3.7)
4 dz   R  
RESULTS (i) The velocity distribution (axial

velocity). This is already expressed as
Urine and Urethra (analytical results) equation (3.7);
(ii) The maximum velocity which is
What are termed solutions and sought for,
expected to occur at r = 0, will be:
are:
1 dp 2
umax = − R . …(4.1)
4  dz
(iii) The average velocity is obtained by summing up all the velocities over a
cross section and dividing by the cross-sectional area. Thus:
2
  ur dr d
R
1 dp 2
uaverage =  0 0
= R . …(4.2)
  r dr d 8 dz
2 R
0 0
(iv) The volume rate of flow (Volume Flux), Q, can then be obtained as the
product of area and average velocity as obtained. Thus:
1 dp
Q=−  R4 . …(4.4)
8 dz
From (3.6) the pressure gradient can be obtained as:
dp 4
− = 2 2 u. …(4.5)
dz ( R − r )
But then under normal circumstances and difference of pressure values at the two ends
based on our intended model, the pressure of the flow tube (pipe) and divide by the total
gradient can be estimated by considering the length of the tube (pipe). Thus:
dp P0 − PL
− = . …(4.6)
dz L
Hence for a physical tube (pipe) equation The Urethral Model
(3.12) can be substituted into equations (3.6)
– (4.6) for correct results. Having obtained the required relations, the
next will be to apply these to the urethra,
having already assumed it to be cylindrical,

based on Muhammad and Sesay (2010) figures can be conveniently substituted in the
model. It can then be assumed that R will be resultant equations to enable the evaluation of
the radius of urethra; L, length of the urethra; other properties.
μ the kinematic viscosity; u the flow velocity; - As stated earlier, the length of urethra
and Po and PL are the pressures at the two shows considerable variation based on
ends of the urethra. Thus, the following gender differences, i.e. in women, it
quantities can be highlighted as follows: ranges between 0.035m to 0.040m, while
in males, it varies from 0.15m to 0.29m -
The urethral physiological dimensions: Inman (2013). In this study therefore the
maximum lengths for both genders will
These are quantities that were determined
be considered. Thus:
experimentally or otherwise, hence the
 LM = 0  29m (maximum) for male urethra
.
LF = 0  04m (maximum) for female urethra
- The male urethra is 8 – 9mm in diameter, -
It had been stated earlier that during
while for the female it is 6mm in diameter urination the bladder empties by the
– Talati J (1989). For this study therefore:muscles contracting to squeeze the urine
out through the urethra, which under
 RM = 4  5  10 m (maximum) for male
−3 normal
urethraconditions, is voluntary
controlled. It is this contraction that
RF = 3  0  10−3 m (maximum) for female urethra
produces a force (pressure) which causes
. the flow of urine from the bladder
- The urine kinematic viscosity is thermo- -
tropic, ranging from 1.0700cSt at 200C through the urethra to the outside of the
(standard deviation = 0.1076); 0.8293cSt body.
0
at 37 C (standard deviation = 0.0851); - “the average flow rate of urine for
0
and 0.6928 at 42 C (standard deviation = females is 15mL/sec, - ages 14 to 45;
0.0247). Considering in this case the while for males is 21mL/sec. the average
supposed normal temperature of the flow rate for females is 18mL/sec. – ages
0
human body is 37 C, the viscosity at that 45 to 65; for males is 12mL/sec. ages 45
temperature will selected: to 65” – Uroflometry: MedlinePlus
  = 8.293  10 cSt . (Notice
−3
Medical Encyclopedia (Jan 30, 2017).
that this is more than that of water). From this data therefore, one can deduce
that the volume flux, Q is such that:
 For male urethra : QM = 21mL / sec. for ages 14 to 45;
= 12mL / sec. for ages 46 to 65.
For female urethra QF = 15mL / sec. for ages 14 to 45;
= 18mL / sec. for ages 46 to 65.

Derived / estimated quantities:

bladder (flow of urine from the bladder to
It is obvious here the quantity that would be outside) i.e. the urination process. It seems
of most importance is the (generated) axial that all the available data listed above, the
pressure gradient from the “contraction pressure gradient may be better obtained
force” that initiates the emptying of the from equation (4.4):
1 dp dp 8
Q=−  R4 ;  − (i.e. pressure gradient ) = Q.
8 dz dz  R4
different results are bound to be obtained (so
Since R (the urethral radius) and Q (the also as in the case of the urethral length).
volume flux) both vary with gender and age, These can be tabulated as follows:
Table 1: Authenticity or otherwise, of our assumption on the Hagen-Poiseuille flow
Male Male Female Female

Age (years) 14 – 45 yrs 46 - 65 15 - 45 46 - 65
Viscosity μ (Pa.s) 8.293×10-3 8.293×10-3 8.293×10-3 8.293×10-3
Radius R (m) 4.5×10-3 4.5×10-3 3.0×10-3 3.0×10-3
Vol. Flux Q (m3/s) 2.1×10-6 1.2×10-6 1.5×10-6 1.8×10-6
Pressure Grad. (Pascal/m) 4.8667×10-2 2.710×10-2 3.9107×10-2 3.6210×10-2
From the above table the authenticity or To test this case therefore, only one case will
otherwise, of our assumption on the Hagen- be considered, i.e. the case of maximum
Poiseuille flow can be ascertained by velocity condition, which will be the
obtaining the corresponding values of the condition of male urethra of the 14-45 years
maximum axial velocities of urine flow, and age group. Hence using equation (4.1) and
comparing with any physically obtained substituting the figures obtained in the table:
figures.
1 dp 2
umax = − R;
4 dz
( ).
1 1 −3 2
 umax = −   4.8667  10 −2
4.5  10
4 8.293  10−6
= 2  9709  10−2 ms −1

This figure seems to agree to some extent Shaum Outline Series in Mathematics
with one experimental figure as postulated by – Mcgraw- Hill, New York.
Nurnberger N. Z Urol Nephrol, (1985), Subba Reddy, M. V., Manoranjan Mishra,
which found “the speed values for small boys Sreenadh, S. and Ramachandra Rao,
to be between 235 to 325 cm/s”. However, A. (2005) – Influence of Lateral
one should not be oblivious of urethral Walls on Peristaltic Flow in a
diameter difference between a child and an Rectangular Duct. Journal of Fluid
adult. Engineering, Vol. 127, pp 824-827.
Yavorsky, B. and Detlaf, A. (1977) –
CONCLUSION Handbook of Physics – MIR
publishers, Moscow, pp 400-
From this study therefore, the simple results 401 (19 . 5 . 3 – Axioms of
so obtained, indicate similarity with some Dimensional Analysis).
experimental results earlier obtained in Yin, F. and Fung, Y. C. (1969) – Peristaltic
similar studies. Hence one can say that the Waves In Circular Cylindrical Tubes.
Hagen-Poiseuille flow can be applied to the Journal of Applied Mechanics 36, pp
study of flow of fluids in other similar 579-587.
physiological situations. The study may be Zien, T. F. and Ostrach, S. (1969) – A long
further extended to investigate some clinical wave approximation to peristaltic
situations that are associated with these types motion – Journal of Biomechanics,
of flows. Vol. 3, PP 63-75.
Inman B.A (2013) – Impact of Temperature
REFERENCES
on urine viscosity; International
Batchelor, G. K. (2006) – An Introduction to Journal of Hyperthermia. 29(3).
Fluid Dynamics (Cambridge Talati J (1989) - Journal of Pakistan Medical
University Press). Association; pp 79-83.
Li, C. H (1970) – Peristaltic Transport in Uroflometry: MedlinePlus Medical
Circular Cylindrical Tubes. Journal Encyclopedia (2017).
of Biomechanics, 3, pp 513-523. Nurnberger N. Z (1985): Normal values of
Muhammad, A. B and Sesay, M. S (2010) – Urine Stream Velocity in Boys.
Natural Peristaltic Flows of International Urology and
Incompressible Newtonian Fluids: A Nephrology Journal: springer.
Case For Suitable Flow Tract.
Science Forum, Journal of Pure
and Applied Sciences, Vol. 13.
Spiegel, Murray S, (1968) – Mathematical
Handbook of Formulas and Tables. P.
77; items 14.386 and 14.389.

AEROMAGNETIC INVESTIGATION OF GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED

WITH GOLD MINERALIZATION ALONG DANJA,
NORTHWESTERN NIGERIA
1*
USMAN A.,1SANI M.A., 2 LAWAL K.M. AND 3MAGAJI S.S.4
Department of Physics Ahmadu Bello University Zaria1,3

Department of Geology Kano State University of Science and Technology Wudil2
Department of Geology Ahmadu Bello University Zaria4
Corresponding author: ahmedusman064@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The discovery of petroleum led to a subsequent shift of the Nigerian economy, leading to a
lack of attention to gold exploration, despite the widespread potentials. Gold production
declined during the Second World War period and never recovered as mines were abandoned
by mostly colonial companies, hence the need to study the aeromagnetic field over the study
area. the interpreted aeromagnetic data delineate structures associated with mineralization of
gold along Danja, North Western Nigeria. This was achieved by first determining depth to
basement and then producing a magnetization map showing susceptibility range across the
entire area of study, and to model the shape, location and depth of structures in the study area.
The anomalies on the aeromagnetic map were defined by fitting a first order polynomial to the
total fields, by the method of least squares to obtain the residual field data. First vertical
derivative and analytic signal anomalies computed, defined distinct pattern of the magnetic
signatures. Euler deconvolution applied produced solutions at different location of the area of
study, this shows that the solution plotted clustered around the region where the geological
structures are located with average depths range of 200.2 m to 2229.1 m, with very few
solutions having depths less than 300 m, the most prominent lineament and all major subtle
lineament have a depth range of 200 m to 600 m. Most of the solutions within the mining site
are between 200.2 m to 618.4 m which shows that the structure is deep seated. The possible
flow of fluid that produced the emplacement of Gold mineralization in the area is believed to
be related to the Kalangai fault which trends NE-SW along Malumfashi in the study area. The
susceptibility values obtained from the magnetization map ranges from -0.000666 to
0.000996SI.
Keyword: Werner Deconvolution; Euler Deconvolution; Analytic Signal; Model;

Magnetization; Vertical derivatives.
associated alluvial occurrences. Officially,
INTRODUCTION recorded gold production in Nigeria started
by 1913 and peaked in the period of 1933.
In the absence of any systematic
The gold production declined during the
exploration and development, the Nigerian
Second World War period and never
gold fields have experienced intense
recovered as mines were abandoned by
artisanal workings which target both the
mostly colonial companies. In Northern
primary gold-quartz reefs and their
184 Usman A et al., 2019
Nigeria, the most prominent occurrences government Area of Katsina State, Nigeria.
are found at Maru, Anka, Malele, Tsohon- It lies within the Northern Nigerian
Birnin Gwari, Kwaga and Gurmana (Garba, Basement complex between longitudes
2000; 2002). The discovery of petroleum 0070 00‫׀‬E – 0070 35‫ ׀‬E and latitudes 110
led to a subsequent shift of the Nigerian 27‫׀‬N – 110 31‫׀‬N. An area of approximately
economy, leading to a lack of attention to 12000 Sq Km of Precambrian to lower
gold exploration, despite the widespread Paleozoic rocks around Zaria in Northern
potentials. This development has prompted Nigeria the
a need to map out regional structural Geological Survey of Nigeria degree sheet
features which might serve as the conduits 21, was mapped for the first time (McCurry,
for the mineralizing gold fluids in areas 1970). Reconnaissance techniques of
where such mines were abandoned. As a photo-geological interpretation and
result, this research was aimed to delineate selected field traverses were used to
structures responsible for the emplacement compile four geological maps in the scale
of gold mineralization in Rafin Gora, of of 1:100,000, it lies within the Northern
Katsina state Northwest Nigeria, and other Nigerian Basement Complex between
possible mineralization zones across the longitudes 0070 00‫׀‬E - 0080 00‫׀‬E and
entire study area. In this study, aero- latitudes 11000‫׀‬N – 120 00‫׀‬N (Figure 1). The
magnetic geophysical method was used due Rafin Gora Mine is located in Tandama
to the large extent of the study area and its Village of Danja Local Government Area
ability to estimate the depth to basement, of Katsina State, it is accessible via the
faulting, hydrothermal alteration and Bakori and Danja roads.
geologic mapping. Magnetic method have
been successfully applied to locate buried Data acquisition
faults in south eastern Cameroun Four High Resolution Aeromagnetic data o
(Theophile et al., 2012), it is also applied in f Funtua (sheet 78), Malumfashi (sheet 79,
geothermal exploration and in the Maska (sheet 101) and Zaria (sheet 102), w
investigation of unexposed granitic plutons, hich lies from longitude 0070 00‫׀‬E - 0080 0
unexposed ring complex (Raimi et al., 0‫׀‬E to latitude 110 00‫׀‬N – 120 00‫׀‬N. This da
2014) and investigation of subsurface ta which covers the entire study area were p
continuity of a particular rock unit (Bello, urchased from Nigerian Geologic Survey A
2015) to mention a few. gency, which are on a scale of 1:100,000. T
Location and geology of the study area his data was collected at a flight altitude of
80m, along NE-SW flight lines spaced app
The study area is situated in Rafin Gora, roximately 500m apart.
Tandama Village of Danja Local

Figure: 1: Geological Map of the study area showing geological Features Courtesy (NGSA)
MATERIALS AND METHODS Upward continuation of residual field
Data enhancement This is a mathematical technique that

projects data taken at a particular elevation
Enhancement of magnetic data is very to a higher elevation. It is a filtering
important in the study of structural features technique that removes noise caused by
because it enhances the edges of anomalies. high frequency (i.e. short wavelength)
The first vertical derivative (FVD) is given anomalies which usually arise from near
as: surface cultural features in the survey area
∂𝑀
𝐹𝑉𝐷 = , (1) (Mekonnen, 2004). The upward continued
∂𝑧
ΔF (the total field magnetic anomaly) at
Where M is the potential field higher level (z = - h) is given by:
anomaly. The vertical derivative was
computed from the upward continued data. 𝛥𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, −ℎ) =
h 𝛥𝐹(𝑥,𝑦,0)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
This is very important to this research as it ∬ ((𝑥−𝑥 0 )2 +(𝑦−𝑦 0 )2 +ℎ2 )
(2)
2𝜋
brings out the lineaments of interest more
obvious.
The empirical formula (Henderson, 1960)
gives the field at an elevation h, above the
plane of the observed field (z = 0) in terms

of the average value ΔF at the point (x, y, only a little prior knowledge about the
o). magnetic source geometry, and more
importantly, it requires no information
The Analytic Signal Technique about the magnetization vector (Thompson,
1982; Reid et al., 1990). Euler
The analytic signal is a complex function
deconvolution is based on Euler’s
formed through a combination of the
homogeneity equation. Thompson (1982)
horizontal and vertical derivatives of the
showed that Euler’s homogeneity relation
magnetic anomaly. In 3D, the analytic
could be written in the form:
signal of the magnetic anomaly field T is
defined as: 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕T
(x – x0) + (y – y0) + (z – z0) = N(B -T),
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕z
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 (5 )
A(x, y, z) = 𝑥̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑖 𝜕𝑧 𝑧̂
𝜕𝑥
(3) Where B is the regional value of the total
magnetic field and x0,y0, and z0 is the
Where x̂ , ŷ and ẑ are unit vectors in the position of the magnetic source, which
T produces the total magnetic field T
x, y and z directions, respectively is
z measured at x,y,z. N is called structural
the vertical derivative of the magnetic index. For each position of the moving
T T window, an over-estimated system of linear
anomaly field intensity, and are
x y equations are solved for the position and
depth of the sources (Thompson, 1982;
the horizontal derivatives of the magnetic
Reid et al., 1990).
anomaly field intensity.(Blakely, 1995).
The amplitude of the analytic signal in 3D 2D Forward Modeling

is given by:
2
A model, particularly as it concerns earth
 T   T   T 
2 2
A( x, y, z ) =   +  +   sciences and Physics, can be described as a

 y
 x     z  geological representation of geophysical
(4) data. In order to create or predict a geologic
model for an area, measurements are taken
Depth estimation of magnetic source so that a set of desired parameters such as
using Euler deconvolution method location or size of a body or distribution of
physical properties might be inferred. After
To obtain the approximate depth to the
these parameters have been inferred, the
source of the anomalies, Euler
goal therefore is to arrive at a representative
deconvolution method was applied to the
model which is a best estimate of the
upward continued data. This technique
parameters in question. The Oasis montaj
provides automatic estimates of source
GM-SYS (5.1) module, which is based on
location and depth. Therefore, Euler
the algorithm described by Won and Beris
deconvolution is both a boundary finder
(1987), and Rasmussen and Pedersen
and depth estimation method. Euler
(1979), was used for this research.
deconvolution is commonly employed in
magnetic interpretation because it requires

Magnetization (Susceptibility) Map field intensity H. The susceptibility map

filter includes a downward continuation to
The magnetic susceptibility is a measure of the source depth. Because a downward
the magnetic properties of a material. The continuation filter magnitude increases
susceptibility indicates whether a material with wavenumber, it tends to also amplify
is attracted into or repelled out of a high-wavenumber noise in the data. To
magnetic field, and is simply the degree of prevent this noise arising from
magnetization. Mathematically it is the susceptibility map filter, an optimum depth
ratio of magnetization I (magnetic moment filter was applied to help remove high wave
per unit volume) to the applied magnetizing number that is considered noise in the data.
RESULTS
Figure 2: Showing the Total Magnetic Intensity Map of the Area

Figure 3: Regional Magnetic Field Map Figure 4: Residual contour map
Figure 5: Residual Magnetic Intensity grid

Figure 6: The first vertical derivative map Figure 7: The upward continued map
Figure 8: Analytic Signal map of the area.

Figure 9: Plot of Euler depth solution.
Figure 10: A map of profile BB1 (Modeled profile).

Figure 11: Modeled field of profile BB1, showing calculated and

Observed magnetic field readings with depth in km
Figure 12: Magnetization map of the study area.

DISCUSSION The analytic signal maps
Regional and Residual Separation of The analytic signal map produced gives
Magnetic Anomalies distinct pattern of structural and magnetic
signatures in the area. the result obtained
Magnetic data interpretation usually shows very clearly the orientation of the
commences with some procedure that Kalangai fault which cut across Malumfashi
separates the smooth, presumable deep- in the study area, this shows that the
seated regional effects from the observed mineralization might be as a result of the
field so as to obtain the residual effects, continuity of the Kalangai fault in the study
which are the anomalies of geological area. McCurry (1970) Kalangai fault is
interest. The regional magnetic fields are poorly exposed along its southern end, and is
large features which generally show up as marked by quartz ridges and is probably an
trends and continue smoothly over very ancient fault which has reactivated several
considerable areas, and they are caused by times during the Pan African orogeny. Figure
deeper homogeneity of the earth’s crust 8 shows the computed analytic signal map of
(Nettleton, 1976). The regional magnetic the study area.
field contour map is shown in figure 4 the
magnetic field intensity values in figure 4 Euler depth estimation
show the trend from NW-SE direction, the
In this work, we applied the Euler method on
residual magnetic intensity map is illustrated
the Residual Magnetic Intensity grid using
in figure 5, this was done using SURFER 12
the Euler 3D extension module of the Oasis
and Oasis Montaj software.
Montaj software. The best clustering solution
Data enhancement was obtained by selecting a structural index
of one (i.e. SI = 1) and the depth estimates
First vertical derivatives were used in this from the Euler analysis which are presented
research to enhance the upward continued as “Elevation” in the database was plotted on
field data, the first vertical derivative map is the first vertical derivative shaded relief map
shown in figure 6 which shows the response for effective correlation (Figure 9). shows
of the target structures. The residual field was that the solution plotted clustered around the
upward continued to 150m which is about region where the geological structures
one third the inter profile spacing used in (lineaments) are located on the first vertical
collecting the data. This helps remove noise derivative shaded relief map with average
caused by high frequency shallow anomaly. depths range of 200.2 m to 2229.1 m, with
The upward continued field map is shown in very few solutions having depths less than
figure 7. 300 m, the most prominent lineament and all
major subtle lineament have a depth range of
200 m to 600 m Most of the solutions within
the mining site are between 200.2 m to 618.4

m which shows that the structure is deep Zaria. Are also regions of high
seated. magnetization. Regions of negative magnetic
susceptibilty around the southern part of the
Modeling study area around Maska and some part of
Zaria with low Magnetization.
Profile (BB1) Figure 10 is the modeled
profile; it is a 150-km section of a flight line. CONCLUSION
The choice of this profile is based on
observations from Figure 10 which depicts The aeromagnetic data proved valuable in the
that profile (BB1) is perpendicular to a major delineation of most of the structures in the
lineament trending NW-SE along the area and estimating the depth to basement of
southern part of the study area at a distance the magnetic body. The depth estimate,
of 36-km, the strike of mineralization zone in magnetic susceptibility and dip of the source
the study area at a distance of 73-km, and body obtained from the model are 217.8m, -
perpendicular to other two minor lineament 24.9 degrees and 0.0004238SI respectively.
trending NW-SE along the northeastern part The magnetization map of the entire study
at a distance of 97.4-km and 125.4-km area showing areas of high and low magnetic
respectively as shown in Figure (3.9). The susceptibility was also produced. The
depth estimate, magnetic susceptibility and susceptibility values obtained from the
dip of the source body obtained from profile magnetization map ranges from -0.000666 to
(BB1) are 217.8m, -24.9 degrees and 0.000996SI.
0.0004238SI respectively. Furthermore, a
rock sample collected from the mining site REFERENCE
was measured and found to have a magnetic
Hall M. Jr. (1959),” The Theory of Groups”
susceptibility of 0.02 SI. These parameters
Macmillan Company New York.
were used as guide to produce a 2D forward
Garba, I. (2000 & 2002). The variety and the
model Figure 11 of the area.
possible origin of Nigerian gold
Magnetization Map mineralization: Okolom-Dogondaji
and Waya veins as case study. Journal
The map figure 12 revealed that there were of African earth sciences, 981-986.
three major magnetic regions in the area, Henderson., (1960) Models of Interpreting
these are regions of positive magnetic Aeromagnetic Data. Geophysics,Vol
susceptibility which could be due to the rock 26, pp 132- 143.
rich in ferromagnetic minerals, and are Ku, C.C., and Sharp, J.A. (1983). Werner
predominantly found around Malumfashi. deconvolution for automated
Region of intermediate (medium to high interpretation and its refinement
magnetization) which are found to be lying using Marquardt’s inverse modeling:
over Funtua, Gusau and Dutsenma. Geophysics, 28, 754-774.
Concordant lenses of mafic rocks
northeastern part of the study area around
McCurry, P., (1970) The geology of degree deconvolution. Geophysics, 55, 80-
sheet 21 (Zaria) [MSc thesis] Zaria, 90.
Nigeria, Ahmadu Bello University. Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldard, R.E. Sherriff
Mekonnen, T. K. (2004). Interpretation and and D.A. Keys, (1990) Applied
Geodatabase of Dukes using Geophysics. 2nd edition, Cambridge
Aeromagnetic data of Zimbabwe and University Press, Cambridge, GB,
Mozambique. M. Sc. Thesis, 860.
International Institute for Theophile N., Feumoe A. N., Eliezer M. and
Geoinformation science and Earth Fairhead J. D. (2012). Aeromagnetic
Observation, Enschede, the Data Interpretation to Locate Buried
Netherlands. Faults in South East
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and structures. Geophysics 19 (1): 1 63.
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An Interpretation of Structures from assisted depth estimates from
the Aeromagnetic Field over a Region magnetic data: Geophysics, 47; 31–
in the Nigerian Younger Granite 37.
Province. International Journal of Won, I.J. and Bevis M. (1987) computing the
Geoscience, 5, 313-323. gravitational and magnetic anomalies
Reid, A.B., J.M. Allsop, H. Granser, A.J. due to a Polygon, algorithms and
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dimensions using Euler

STUDIES ON FISHES SPECIES DIVERSITY OF RIVER HADEJIA JIGAWA STATE

NIGERIA
YOLA, I. A. AND B. MUHAMMAD
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences

Bayero University, Kano-Nigeria.
Email: yolai2006@yahoo.co.uk
ABSTRACT
The aim of the research was to study the abundance and diversity of fish in river Hadejia. The
study was carried out from April to September, 2016. The fishing sites were Marke, Dingare and
Hadejia-barrage. Data collection was done on monthly basis taking length and weight of fishes,
using standard procedure and key for identification. Two hundred and twenty-five (225) fishes
were sampled comprising twenty (20) genera belonging to fourteen (14) families. The families
identified included: Bagridae, Centropomidae,Characidae,Cichlidae,
Citharidae, Lariidae, Cyprinidae, Malapturidae, Mochochidae, Lepidoserinidae, Mormyridae,
Osteoglossidae, Polypteridae, and Shilbeidae. The family Mormyridae has the highest genera.
River Hadejia has high diversity of fishes as indicate by the Shannon wiener diversity index of
2.93 and the population evenness of average 0.98 in all the landing sites as well as Menhinick
richness of average 2.35, these can be confirmed as the twenty-two species of commercial
importance were recorded.
Keywords: River Hadejia, fish species diversity, morphometric features
INTRODUCTION Fish occupy almost all major aquatic habitats

(Helfman et al., 2009), they are among the
Inland water bodies have support rich and most abundant class of vertebrates. Fish
diversified assemblage of fishes and thus exhibit enormous diversity of size, shape and
critically important to the people as source of biology in the habitats they occupy. Inland
protein and perennial means of livelihood. fish can play critical roles in the function of
Inland fishes comprise approximately 40% of their ecosystems (Dudgeon et al., 2006).
all fish species and 20% of vertebrate species The diversity and distribution of fish species
(Helfman et al.,2009). However, the are determined by biotic and abiotic factors
challenges in finding fishes in developing (Schlosser, 1987) operating on a range of
countries and remote areas, suggest that spatial scales (Tonn, 1990). At the global
inland fishes are more diverse than the scale, river (surface area of the drainage basin
reported estimate. Additionally, 65% of the and mean annual river discharge) and energy
inland habitat is classified as moderately or availability (net primary production) are the
highly threatened by anthropogenic stressors most important factors influencing patterns
(Vorosmarty et al., 2010).
196 Yola I.A and Muhammad B, 2019

of fish species richness (Oberdorff et al., Komadugu-Yobe River is seasonal with high
1995; Guegan et al., 1998). Climate (Hughes flows after the rainy season and low or zero
et al., 1987) along with historical factors such flows during dry season. Virtually all of the
as speciation rates and dispersal, regulate the rivers lose flow as they approach Lake Chad
importance of local- scale factors (Oberdorff as a result of evaporation, transpiration and
et al. , 1995). principally infiltration. There is no doubt that
On a local scale, species richness is related to the ground water recharge comes mainly
biological factors like interspecific from the inundation of the swamps (Fadama)
competition (Ross et al., 1985), predation and floodplain rather than from the river
(Moyle & Vondracek, 1985) and physical channels themselves (NHI, 2015).
factors like habitat diversity (Bhat, 2004),
water chemistry (Rahel, 1986), temperature, MATERIALS AND METHODS
flow regime and channel morphology (Bhat,
Study Area
2004). Thus the patterns observed in local
Jigawa state is situated in the north-western
communities are probably determined by
part of Nigeria between the latitudes 11.00°
both local mechanisms as well as large scale
North to 13.00°North and longitudes 8.00°
processes (Tonn, 1990).
East to 10.15°East (12°00ˈN
Biodiversity of inland fishes at both species
9°45ˈE/12.000°N 9.750°E). Hadejia is one of
and population levels also confers important
the local governments of Jigawa State. It is
benefits. When people rely upon functioning
located at 12.45°North latitude and
ecosystem for their basic needs, natural
10.04°East longitude (12°27ˈN 10°2ˈE) and
disasters and other disturbances to those
337 meters elevation above the sea level. It
ecosystems can be devastating. Natural
lies on the northern bank of a river known as
ecosystems that recover quickly from such
river Hadejia.
disturbances have resilience. Ecosystems
River Hadejia is a part of the Yobe river basin
high species richness exhibit increased
in northern Nigeria (Goes, 2001). It is a
resilience (Downing & Leibold,2010).
seasonal stream that flows through
Highlighting the importance of a diverse
northeastward through Jigawa state.
inland fishes community.
A barrage has been constructed to provide a
The Hadejia-Nguru wetlands are
short-term storage of water to irrigate the
exceptionally productive area in northern
Hadejia valley irrigation project. The
Nigeria formed by the Hadejia and Kano
hadejia- barrage landing site is located in the
rivers flowing in from the west, and Jama’are
middle reach of Hadejia River at Auyo local
River flowing in from south. The Hadejia
government.
wetland is a home of people most of whom
Average sunshine for the area is 8 hours
primarily make their living from flood-
while temperature is highest in April/May
recessional agriculture, grazing and fishing
(ranging between 32° C and 40° C).
which is dependent on a strong seasonal
Temperature is lowest in December and
rainfall regime. The natural flow regime of
January ranging between 12° C and 17° C).

Figure 1: Map of river Hadejia showing the study areas
Sampling Technique Relative abundance of the fish species was

also calculated. Descriptive statistics (mean
Preliminary survey of the landing sites was and standard deviation) and one-way anova
carried out, sampling of fishes’ diversity were used to analyze the data on
from the study area was conducted on morphometric features of the fish species.
monthly basis for the period of six months
(from April to September,2016), through RESULTS
direct observation and record of the fish
species, fishers and fishing gears used. Three The result of the study indicates that the total
landing sites were selected; they are Marke number of the fish sampled were 225 out of
(site 1), Dingare (site 2) and hadejia –barrage which 86 were from site 1 (Marke), 65 from
(site 3). At each site, three fishermen were site 2 (Dingare) and 74 from site 3 (Hadejia-
identified based on the type of fishing gears barrage). Fourteen families were identified
they are using. Fish species were collected from the three landing sites including the
from fishers for identification using keys by following: Bagridae, Centropomidae,
Reed et al., (1967). Characidae, Cichlidae, Citharinidae,
Clariidae, Malapturidae, Mochochidae,
Statistical Analysis Lepidoserinidae, Mormyridae,
Osteoglossidae, Polypteridae and Shilbeidae.
Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H) was Table 1: The highest catch was observed in
used to evaluate species diversity and the month of June, July, August and
evenness (E). Menhinick richness index (D) September.
was used to evaluate the species richness.

Table 1: List of fish families identified in three different landing sites of river Hadejia
SN FISH FAMILY GENUS SPECIES ENGLISH NAME LOCAL

NAME
1 BARIGADE Bagrus Bagrus spp. Silver Catfish Ragon ruwa
2 CENTROPOMIDAE Lates Lates niloticus Nile Perch Giwar ruwa
3 CHARACIDAE Alestes Alestesbaremose Silver sides Saro
Alestes nurse Silver sides Kawara
Hydrocynus Hydrocynus spp. Tiger fish Tsage
4 CICHLIDAE Hemichromis Hemichromis spp. Jewel fish Kulkula
Tilapia Tilapia spp. Mango fish Karfasa
5 CITHARINIDAE Distichodus Distichodus spp. Grass eater Kausa
6 CLARIIDAE Clarias Clarias spp. Mud fish Tarwada
7 CYPRINIDAE Labeo Labeo spp. African carp Burdo
8 MALAPTURIDAE Malapterurus Malapterurus Electric fish Minjirya
electricus
9 MOCHOCHIDAE Synodontis Synodontis spp. Cat fish Kurungu
10 LEPIDOSERINIDAE Protopterus Protopterus spp. African Lungfish Gaiwa
11 MORMYRIDAE Gnathonemus Gnathonemus abadii Trunk Fish Tatari
Gnathonemus Gnathonemus niger Mormyrid Dagari
Hyperopisus Hyperopisus spp. Mormyrid Kanzai
Marcusenius Marcusenius spp. Mormyrid Faya
Mormyrops Mormyrops spp. Mormyrid Milgi
Mormyrus Mormyrus spp. Elephant-Snout Fish Sawayya
12 OSTEOGLOSSIDAE Heterotis Heterotis niloticus Bargi
13 POLYPTERIDAE Polypterus Polypterus spp. Sailfins Of Bichirs Gartsa
14 SHILBEIDAE Shilbe Shilbe mystus Butter Fish Lulu
Table 2: Diversity of fish species in river Table 2 indicates the diversity index
Hadejia calculated from the study sites. Site 3
(Hadejia-barrage) has the highest number of
Sampled Marke Dingare H-
species with 22, followed by site 1 (Marke)
stations barrage
No. of 6 6 6 with 21 and site 2 (Dingare) has the least
sampling number of species 18. Shannon-Wiener
No. of species 21 18 22 diversity index, diversity was maximum in
No.of 86 65 74 site 3 (Hadejia-barrage) with value of 3.02,
individuals
followed by site 1 (Marke) with value of 3.00
Menhinick 2.27 2.23 2.56
richness index and site 2 (Dingare) had the least value 2.77.
(D) Evenness was highest in site 1, with value of
Shannon 3.00 2.77 3.02 0.99, followed by site 3, with value of 0.98
wiener and site 2 has the least value of 0.96.
diversity index
Menhinick richness index was highest in site
(H)
Evenness (E) 0.99 0.96 0.98 3 with value of 2.56, followed by site 1 with

value of 2.27, and site 2 has the least richness sampled sites with the exception of Alestes
value of 2.23. baremose, Hydrocynus Sp, Marcusenius sp.,
Heterotis niloticus that were not found in site
Table 3 presents the distribution of the fish 2 (Dingare), and Hemichromis species in site
species in the sampled sites. All the fish 1 (Marke) during the period of the study.
species were well distributed in all the
Table 3: Fish Distribution per Landing sites
Species Marke (%) Dingare (%) H-barrage (%) Total (%)
Alestesbaremose 2 (0.89) - (-) 1(0.44) 3(1.33)

Alestes nurse 5 (2.22) 2 (0.89) 3(1.33) 10(4.44)
Bagrus spp. 7 (3.11) 5 (2.22) 5(2.22) 17(7.56)
Clarias spp. 6 (2.67) 6 (2.67) 3(1.33) 15(6.67)
Distichodusspp. 4 (1.78) 2 (0.89) 5(2.22) 11(4.89)
Gnathonemu sabadii 5 (2.22) 3 (1.33) 2(0.89) 10(4.44)
Gnathonemus niger 2(0.89) 1 (0.44) 2(0.89) 5(2.22)
Hemichromis spp. - (-) 1 (0.44) 1(0.44) 2(0.89)
Heterotis niloticus 5 (2.22) -(-) 3(1.33) 8(3.56)
Hydrocynus spp. 1(0.44) -(-) 2(0.89) 3(1.33)
Hyperopisus spp. 4 (1.78) 4 (1.78) 2(0.89) 10(4.44)
Labeo spp. 4 (1.78) 3 (1.33) 4(1.78) 11(4.89)
Lates niloticus 6 (2.67) 5 (2.22) 5(2.22) 16(7.11)
Malapterurus 6 (2.67) 2 (0.89) 4(1.78) 12(5.33)
electricus
Marcusenius spp. 3 (1.33) - (-) 2(0.89) 5(2.22)
Mormyrops spp. 4 (1.78) 3 (1.33) 4(0.89) 11(4.89)
Mormyrus spp. 4 (1.78) 5 (2.22) 4(0.89) 13(5.78)
Polypterus spp. 3 (1.33) 1 (0.44) 2(0.89) 6(2.67)
Protopterus spp. 1 (0.44) 3 (1.33) 2(0.89) 6(2.67)
Shilbe mystus 4 (1.78) 1 (0.44) 4(1.78) 9(4)
Synodontis spp. 4(1.78) 8 (3.56) 6(2.67) 18(8)

Tilapia spp. 6 (2.67) 10 (4.44) 8(3.56) 24(10.67)
Total 86(38.23) 65(28.86) 64(32.89) 225(100)
The genus Tilapia and Synodontis constituted 10.67%, and 8.00%, followed by Bagrus sp
the dominant fish genera with percentage of with 7.56%, and Lates niloticus constituting
Yola I.A and Muhammad B, 2019

200
of 7.11%. Other species identified were The higher occurrence of the Characidae
Clarias sp. with 6.67%, Mormyrus sp., could also be due to abundance of smaller
5.78%, Malapterurus electricus 5.33%, fishes, insects and worms on which they feed
Distichodus, sp., Labeo sp. and Mormyrops on being a predator, (Hydrocynus sp.,) and
sp., having 4.89% each, Alestes nurse, the Alestes are numerous in rivers and
Gnathonemusabadii sp. and Hyperopisus sp. ubiquitous throughout the region and they
recording 4.44% each, Shilbe 4%, Heterotis leave near the surface and reputed to feed on
sp. 3.56%, Polypterus sp., and Protopterus plankton, insects, larvae, water beetles, snails
sp. 2.67%, Gnathonemus niger and and plants.
Marcusenius sp., 2.22%, each Alestes
baremose and Hydrocynus sp similarly The family Cichlidae and Mochochidae are
records of 1.33%. the next second most abundant due to the
high number of their species, this agreed with
DISCUSSION the work of Meye and Ikomi (2012) on river
Orogodo, Niger Delta and Adams et al.,
The results obtained has shown that family (2015) on river Hadejia that recorded
Mormyridae and Characidae constituted the Cichlidae as the most abundant fish family.
dominant fish families in the river, thus the The work is also similar to the result of work
result agreed with the other studies conducted done by Odo and Nwani (2008) on Anambra
on a number of rivers in Nigeria (Odo and river basin that found Mochochidae among
Nwami,2008). This work agrees with the the most dominant fish family.
work of Wuraola and Adetola (2011) on Oni
River and that recorded Mormyridae as the The abundance of Cichlidae could be
dominant fish family and the work of Odo associated with it being highly prolific and
and Nwani (2008) on Anambra river basin especially when the habitat provides suitable
that also recorded Characidae and shelter, breeding and feeding grounds for
Mochochidae as the dominant fish families. them, and their ability to utilize wide range of
The dominance of the Mormyrids may be due foods at the lower trophic level as herbivores,
to the features that the environments possess high fecundity, prolific nature, hardiness,
which includes the presence of typha grass easy to grow and parental care. Other
which makes the fish thrive better because it important families by number were Bagridae,
conforms to their basic ecological and Centropomidae, and Clariidae.
biological requirements. They also feed on
worms and detritus which occur more at the Features between the three landing sites this
bottom. Mormyrids are typical bottom variation between the three landing sites
dwellers, and the majority of the species are could be as a result of differences in the
most common in deep water around fallen availability of food or differences of surface
trees where the current is not swift. area, stage of maturity and sex. The nature of
substratum as well as variation in dietary
items, have been observed to influence

morphometric features of species population. resilience in aquatic food webs.

According to Turan et al (2005), Omoniyi Freshwater Bioliology 55, 2123-
and Agbon (2008) distinct environmental 2137.
structure causes the high morphometric Goes, B.J.M. (2001), Effect of damming the
variation and plasticity which response to hadejia river in semiarid northern
differences in environmental condition such Nigeria Regional management of
as food abundance and temperature. water resources Proceeding of a
symposium held during the sixth
It can be concluded that River Hadejia has IAHS. Scientific assembly at
high diversity of fishes with fourteen families Maastricht. The Netherlands, July,
as indicate by the Shannon wiener diversity 2001.Published no. 268, 2001.
index of 2.93 and the population evenness of Guegan J. F., Sovan L. and Oberdoff T.
average 0.98 in all the three landing sites as (1998). Energy availability and
well as menhinick richness of average 2.35, habitat heterogeneity predict global
these can be confirmed as the twenty-two riverine fish diversity Nature 391,
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recorded. Helfman G., Collette B. B., Facey D. E., and
Bowe B. W. (2009). The diversity of
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fauna and diversity in river Hadejia Longitudinal changes in fish
Jigawa State, International Journal of assemblages and waterquality in the
Current Research In Science 1(3) 33- Willamette River, Oregun-trans Am.
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Bhat A. (2004). A diversity and composition Meye, J. A. and Ikomi, R. B. (2012).
of freshwater fishes in river systems Seasonal fish abundance and fishing
of central western Ghats, India. gear efficiency in river Orogodo,
Environmental biology of fishes. 68, Niger Delta,Nigeria. World Journal
25-38. of Fish and Marine Sciences 4 (2):
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C., and Sullivan C.A, (2006). Fresh Persistence and structure of fish
water biodiversity: importance, assemblage in a small california
threats, status and conservation stream. Ecological society of America
challenges, biological reviews 66: 11-13
81:163-182 National heritage institute global dam re-
Downing A. L. and Leibold M. A. (2010). operation initiative (NHI), (2015)
Species richness facilitates ecosystem Nigeria-Hadejia..

Oberdeff. T., Guegan J.F and Huguency B. environmental change-AM.

(1995). Global scale patterns of fish Nat.126:24-40
species richeness in rivers-Ecography Schlosser, I.J. (1987). The role of predation
18:345-352 in age and size related habitat by the
Odo G. E., and Nwami, J. E. (2008). The fish stream fishes 68(3) 651-695.
fauna of Anambra river basin, Shannon C.E and Weiner W. (1963). T he
Nigeria: species abundance and mathematical theory of
morphometry. Revision of Biology of communication. University ofIllinois
Tropics. (INT).57 (1-2):177-86 press, Urbana, 117p.
Omoniyi I. T. and Agbon A. O. (2008): Tonn W. M. (1990). Climate change anf fish
Morphometric variation in communities: A conceptual
Sarotherodon melanotheron from framework. Trans. Am. Fish society
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south-western Nigeria. West African Turan C., Sukran Y., FundaT., Emel O. and
Journal of Applied Ecology 12: 01-05 Ihsan A. (2005). Morphometric
Rahel F.J. (1986). Biogeographic influence comparison of African catfish,
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northern Wisconsin lakes with Turkey. Folia zoology. 54 (1-2): 165-
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Aquatic Sciences 43:124-134 P. M. (2010). Global threats to human
Reed, W., Burchad, J., Hopson, A. J., water security and river biodiversity
Jennies, J. and Yaro, I. (1967). Fish nature. 467, 555-561. Doi:
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Ross S.T., Matthews W.J. and Echelle A.A. Oni river, Ogun state, Nigeria.
(1985). Persistence of stream fish International Journal of Agricultural
assemblages: effects of Management & Development, 1
(3):107-113.

DIVERSITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF FISH SPECIES IN GOMBE ABBA

RIVER, GOMBE STATE, NIGERIA
HASSAN, S.K.; ISAH, Z. AND SANI, A.A.
Department of Biological Sciences, Gombe State University, Gombe.

Corresponding author: suybakimaan@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The Diversity and Relative Abundance of Fish Species in Gombe Abba River was conducted
between April and June, 2018. Fish samples were collected bi-weekly at the selected landing sites
from the local fishermen as soon as they returned from their catch. The fish samples were stored
in sampling bucket and were transported to the laboratory, Biological Sciences Department,
Gombe State University for identification, using Field Guide to Nigerian fresh water fishes
(Babatunde and Raji, 2004). The study revealed eight (8) species representing eight (8) families
with the following percentages, Mormyrus rume, 23.16% as the most abundant fish fauna in the
river, followed by Oreochromis niloticus, 21.05%; Barlius niloticus, 18.42%; Clarias lazera,
11.05%; Alestes leuciscus, 9.21%; Schilbe mystus, 7.90%; Nannocharax spp, 5.26% and
Marcusenius spp having the least abundant of the total fish species identified (3.95%). The result
revealed few species composition compared to other rivers. This may be due to fishing pressure,
differences in physico-chemical parameters, seasonal preferential and some of the species are
carnivores (e.g. Marcusenius spp). Therefore, a detailed and longer research should be undertaken
on this river to elucidate the fish species diversity and abundance.
Keyword: Diversity, relative abundance, fish species, Gombe Abba, river
INTRODUCTION depend on a cereal-based food to meet their

dietary needs. The protein is first class,
Nigeria is blessed with abundant natural inexpensive and its composition and
water bodies with abundant fish resources. In consumption is desirable (Moses, 1990).
many developing Countries like Nigeria, fish Riverine ecosystems have suffered from
accounts for a high proportion of animal intrinsic human intervention such as sewage,
protein intake of the population (Lima et.al, runoff from farmland, cities, and factory
2006). Fish provide at least 40% of dietary effluents, industrial waste and the build-up of
animal protein of people living in the sediment resulting in habitat loss and
developing world. Fish also supply highly degradation and as a consequence, many fish
digestible protein and is a rich source of species have become highly endangered,
minerals, fatty acids and water-soluble particularly in rivers where heavy demand is
vitamins, (Lima et.al, 2006). The high value placed on fresh waters. Nigerian freshwater
of nutrition in fish is particularly important bodies are the richest in West Africa in terms
for lower income groups that might otherwise
204 Hassan S.K et at., 2019
of fish abudance (Meye and Ikomi, 2008). longitude 110° 25’ 52’’E. It forms part of the
The fish resource apart from being a major tributary of River Gongola (Maigari et.al,
source of high-quality animal protein for 2006).
man, provide several socio-economic values
as resources of job opportunities and raw Sample collection
material for some industrial activities as well Fish samples were collected twice a week for
as recreational purposes (Yakub, 2012). the period of three months from May-July at
Today the fish diversity and associated the selected landing sites from the local
habitats management is becoming a great fishermen as soon as they returned from their
challenge (Meye Ikomi, 2008). Conversation catch. The fish samples were stored in
measures to mitigate the impact of pressures sampling bucket and were transported to
have largely been slow and inadequate and as Biological Sciences Department Laboratory,
a result of the species are declining rapidly Gombe State University for identification.
(Williams, 2012). In Nigeria, fish resources Sample identification
are on the decline due to over exploitation
and inadequate management of coastal as The fish samples were identified in the
well as riverine water bodies (Lawson and laboratory up to the species levels with the
Olusanya, 2010). aid of field guide to Nigerian fresh water
fishes (Babatunde and Raji, 2004).
Gombe Abba river is a source of drinking
water and irrigation to Gombe Abba village, RESULTS
a lot of fishing activities are carried out in the
The study reveals eight (8) species
river, there are no information on the
representing eight (8) families, as shown in
diversity and relative abundance of species
(Table 1).
from the river, hence, the need for this
research. The objectives were to identify Table 1: Fish Species Identified In Gombe
various fish species and to determine the Abba River
most abundant fish species in the river. The
result of this study will provide baseline Family Species identified
information on the river. Bagridae Barlius niloticus
Characidae Alestes leuciscus
MTERIALS AND METHODS Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus
Study area Citharinadae Citharinus citharus
Claridae Clarias lazera
Gombe Abba River is located in Dukku Local Mochokidae Marcusenius spp
Government Area of Gombe state in the Mormyridae Mormyrus rume
North Eastern part of Nigeria. The River is Schilbedae Schilbe mystus
about 100 kilometers to the East of Gombe
town with latitude 100° 17’ 17N and

Table two (2) shows the percentage 9.21%, Schilbe mystus with 7.90%,
composition of fish species identified in the Nannocharax spp, 5.26%, Marcusenius spp
river. The percentages are Mormyrus rume 3.95%, and having the least abundance of the
23.16% and is the most abundant fish fauna total fish species identified. Whereas, the
in the river, followed by Oreochromis monthly composition of fish species
niloticus 21.05%, Barlius niloticus 18.42% identified in Gombe Abba river as shown
Clarias lazera 11.05%, Aleutes leuciscus below in table 3.
Table 2: Percentage Composition / Abundance of Fish Species Identified in Gombe Abba River
Fish species Number identified Percentage (%)

Barlius niloticus 70 18.42
Alestes leuciscus 35 9.21
Oreochromis niloticus 80 21.05
Nannocharax spp 20 5.26
Clarias lazera 42 11.05
Marcusenius spp 15 3.95
Mormyrus rume 88 23.16
Schilbe mystus 30 7.90
Total 380 100%
Table 3: Monthly Fish Species Abundance Identified in Gombe Abba River
Fish species 1st Month 2nd Month 3rd Month Total

Barlius niloticus 30 25 15 70
Alestes leuciscus 15 12 8 35
Oreochromis niloticus 35 30 15 80
Nannocharax spp 10 7 3 20
Clarias lazera 20 15 7 42
Marcusenius spp 10 5 0 15
Mormyrus rume 40 25 23 88
Schilbe mystus 10 15 5 30
DISCUSSION identified (Oguzie, 1982). River Delimi Jos,

where seven (7) genera were identified,
The River has a total of eight (8) species and (Bahat, 2005). (Anthony et.al, 1986)
eight (8) families, this coincides with other recorded four (4) species in Auree reservoir
water bodies where similar studies had been near Plateau state. Few composition and
carried out; for instance, in Gubi reservoir of abundance of fish species in Gombe Abba
Bauchi State, seven (7) family were river can be attributed to fishing pressure,

seasonal preferential, differences in physico- Babatunde, D.O and Raji, A. (2004): Field
chemical parameters and certain species are guide to Nigeria freshwater fishes.
carnivorous (e.g Marcusenius spp), this goes Federal College of Freshwater
with the work of other tropical water bodies Fisheries Technology. New Bussa
which have been variously attributed to Nigeria. 104pp.
several factors but principally depth, water Bahat, J.W. (2005): Limnological and trace
temperature (Holden and Reed, 1972) water element studies in relation to primary
transparency, availability of food and productivity in two marine lakes.
migratory behavior of some of the fishes M.Sc. Thesis. University of Jos,
(Bahat, 2005). Nigeria, 205pp.
Holden, M. and Reed, W. (1972): West
The dominance of the members of Mormyus African Fresh Water Fish. Pp 4-29.
rume having 23.16% being the most Lawson, O.E. and O.M. Olusanya (2010):
abundant fish species in the river goes to Fish diversity in three tributaries of
confirm that under uncontrolled conditions in River Ore,South West, Nigeria.
most Nigerian Inland waters, Mormyus rume World Journal of fish and marine
always dominate (Siddiqui and Rahel, 2007; science. 2 (6): 524-531
Yakub 2012; and Moses 2009). Lima, E.T., Juniour A. and Hans, J. (2006):
CONCLUSION Freshwater fishery biology. W.C
Brown Company, Dubuque, IA.,
The result of the study shows few species USA, pp131-135, 159-166.
composition compared to other rivers. This is Maigari A.U., Ekanem E.O., Garba I.H.,
probably due to fishing pressure, seasonal Harami A., and Akan J.C. (2016).
preferential, differences in physico-chemical Health Risk Assessment for Exposure
parameters and some certain species are to Some Selected Heavy Metals via
carnivores (e.g Marcusenius spp). There is a Drinking Water from Dadinkowa
need for a longer research on this river to Dam and River Gombe Abba in
elucidate the fish stock and develop Gombe State, Northeast Nigeria.
appropriate conservation and management World Journal of Analytical
strategies for the fishes and fisheries. Chemistry. Vol.4, No. 1, pp 1-5.
Meye, J. A. and Ikomi, R. B. (2008): A study
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on the fish fauna of Urie Creek at
Anthony, A. O., Enerience G., and Ufodike, Igbide Niger Delta. The Zoologist,
E.B.C (1986): Studies on the fish 6:69-80.
fauna of Auree reservoir Plateau Moses, B. S. (1990): Distribution, ecology
State. Nigeria Journal of Applied and fisheries potential of Nigerian
Fisheries and Hydrobiology, volume Wetlands, In : E. V I Apkala and D.
1. Pp15-16.s U. O Okali (Ed) Nigerian Wet Land
UNESCO/MAB Portharcourt 35-46

Oguzie, F. (1982): Aspect of feeding Williams N.V. (2012); The Seasonal

behavior and a chemotrypsin in the Distribution of the Teleost, Fish
cichlid sarotherodon niloticus Fauna in Lagos Harbour, Creek and
(Trewavas) in Gubi Reservoir Bauchi Lagoon in Relation to Salt Tolerance.
state. M.Sc. Thesis zoology M.Sc. Thesis. University College,
department. Uni-Jos Nigeria. Pp30. North Wales, Bangor. 64p
Siddiqui, A. Q. and Rahel, F.J (2007): Yakub, A. S. (2012): A Survey of Fish fauna
Reproductive biology, length-weight of lower Ogun Rivers at Ishasi, Ogun
relationship and relative condition of State, Western Nigeria. Continental
Tilapia leucosticte, Naivasha, Kenya J. Fisheries and Aquatic Science 6(2):
J. Fish Biol., 10:251-260. 1-7.

STABILITY OF GRAPHENE SURFACE AN APPLICATION OF CHIRAL MODEL

1
Y.P. RYBAKOV 2A.B. AHMED, 2J. SAMBO AND 3ABDULKADIR MAGAJI
1
Department of Physics, Peoples Friendship University of Russia.
2
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science,Gombe State University,P.M.B127, GombeNigeria.
3
Hussaini Adamu Federal Polytechnic Kazaure Jigawa Department of Science Lab
Corresponding Author: garkuwaz@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
A suspended sheet of pure graphene a layer of carbon atoms bonded together in a honeycomb
lattice is the most two-dimensional system imaginable. Graphene sheet have for long been known
to exist in disguised from graphite (stacked graphene layers) it was generally believed that an
extended graphene sheet would not be stable against the effect of thermal and other fluctuations.
Furthermore, it was believed that even if they were stable, it would be impossible to isolate them
so that their properties could be studied systematically. Based on this the chiral model was
suggested, the ideal graphene plane were determined by the kink-like solution. The corrugation of
the graphene surface was described in the form of ripple and rings. Thus, our graphene plane
reviles the tendency of bending.
Keywords: Graphene, Chiral Model, Ripple, Kink
INTRODUCTION
Graphene (fig.1) has attracted great interest

in condensed matter physics since its
discovery due to its novel electronic
structures. It is fundamentally one single
layer of graphite; a layer of sp2 bonded
carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb
(hexagonal) lattice. As predicted by
P.R.Wallace, 1947 a suspended sheet of pure Figure 1: Graphene plane (Novoselov,
graphene, a layer of carbon atoms bonded 2005).
together in a honeycomb lattice is the most
two-dimensional system imaginable. It was Since after the discovery that graphene could
first described by P.R Wallace, before it was be reproducibly found on a silicon dioxide
discovered in 2004 by K.S.Nevoselov and wafer, deluge of experiments immediately
A.K.Geim(Novoselov, et al., 2004). followed, and renewed interest has led to
numerous of theoretical predictions and
209
Ybakov Y.P et al., 2019
exotic experiments utilizing graphene’s enhance the carbon to carbon bonds in

unique properties. graphene. (Fasolino, et al., 2007)
The stability of two dimensional (2D) layers In graphene three electrons participate in sp2
has been a subject of a long-standing bonds. These three bonds are realized in a
theoretical debate. According to Mermin plane with regular 120 angles between them.
Wagner theorem, long wavelength Each bond is covalently shared with a
fluctuations destroy the long-range order of neighboring atom in a 𝜎 bond, giving
two dimensional crystals (Mermin, 1968). graphene its hexagonal structure and its
However the discovery of graphene, the first robustness. In the hybridized sp-state the
truly 2D crystal (Novoselov, 2005) and carbon atom possess four valence electron,
recent experimental observation of ripples in one of them being “free” in graphene lattice
suspended grapheme (Meyer, 2007) has and all others forming sp-bonds with the
raised the issues especially neighbors (YU.P.Rybakov, 2012).
important.Understanding the mechanism of
the stability of graphene is crucial for In this phenomenological approach to the
understanding the electronic transport in this study of graphene stability, the chiral model
material that is attracting much interest was considered. It appears naturally to
owing to its unusual Dirac spectrum and introduce scalar 𝑎0 and 3-vector a fields
electronic properties. corresponding to the s-orbital and the p-
orbital states of the “free” electron
Carbon atom possess 6 electrons; 2 in the respectively. These two fields can be
inner shell and 4 in the outer shell, the 4 outer combined into the unitary matrix 𝑈 ∈ 𝑆𝑈(2)
shell electrons in an individual carbon atom considered as the order parameter of the
are available for chemical bonding, but in model adopted. In the first approximation we
graphene, each atom is connected to 3 other considered the static 1D configuration
carbon atom on the 2D plane, living 1 corresponding to the ideal graphene plane,
electron freely available in the third the normal being oriented along the 𝑧-axis.
dimension for electronic conduction (Jean- The order parameter has the form:𝑈 =
Noel, et al., 2008). These highly-mobile exp(𝑖𝜓𝜏3 ) , 𝜓 = 𝜓(𝑧).
electrons are called the pi(𝜋) electrons and
are located above and below the graphene MATERIALS AND METHOD
sheet. This pi orbital’s overlap and help to
Lagrangian density of the Model
1 1
ℒ = − 2 𝐼𝜓′2 − 2 𝜆2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜓 (1)
with the mass term. We introduce the
The Lagrangian in (1) corresponds to the constant model parameters 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆, if one
sigma-model approach in the field theory compare the Lagrangian density with that of

the Landau-Lifshits theory corresponding to 2001) one interpret the parameter 𝐼 in (1) as
the quasi-classical long-wave approximation the exchange energy per spacing.
to the Heisenberg magnetic model
(A.M.Kosevich, et al., 1988), (Jimenez, et al., The equation of motion from the Lagrangian
in (1) yield:
2𝐼𝜓 ′′ − 𝜆2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜓 = 0 (2)
The solution to equation (2) satisfying the boundary conditions
𝜓(−∞) = 0 , 𝜓(+∞) = 𝜋
This has the well-known kink-like form:
𝜓0 (𝑧) = 2 arctan exp(𝑧⁄ℓ) (3)
If we consider the case of small perturbation One finds for the perturbations 𝜉 =
to the solution (3) in the vicinity of the ideal 𝛿𝑎3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎± = 𝑎1 ± 𝑖𝑎2 the following
graphene plane, i.e. for small 𝑧. Lagrangian density holds:
𝜓0 (0) = 𝜋⁄2,
 = 0, ( -  )a
-2
+ =0
1 1
ℒ = 2 𝐼(𝑧 −2 𝜕𝜇 𝜉𝜕 𝜇 𝜉 + 𝜕𝜇 𝑎+ 𝜕𝜇 𝑎− ) − 2 𝜆2 𝑎+ 𝑎− (4)
The equations for static perturbations read:
𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 (𝑧 −2 𝜕𝜇 𝜉) + ∆⊥ 𝜉 = 0, (∆ − ℓ−2 )𝑎+ = 0 (5)

ideal monolayer graphene plane 𝑧 = 0, one
Where ∆⊥ = 𝜕𝑥2 + 𝜕𝑦2 . The Cartesian easily finds the excitations of the periodic
coordinates 𝑥 , 𝑦 being the coordinates of the form:
𝜉 = 𝜉0 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑘 2 𝑧 2 /2)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥, 𝑎+ = 𝐴+ 𝑒 𝑘̅𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐾𝑥, 𝐾 2 = 𝑘̅ 2 − 𝜆2⁄𝐼 (6)
Where 𝑘̅ ℓ > 1.
the ideal graphene plane initially mentioned
RESULTS by N.D.Mermin and H.Wagner for the case
of mag netic (Wagner, 2012). To explore
By considering the exponential increase in 𝑧
further, there exist also the ring excitations of
of the equation (6) signifies the instability of
the axially-symmetric form:

𝜉 = 𝜉0 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑘 2 𝑧 2 /2)𝑗0 (𝑘𝜌) ,, 𝑎+ = reveals the anisotropic character of graphene

𝐴+ 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝜑 , 𝑒 𝑘̅𝑧 𝑗𝑚 (𝑘𝜌) and has to branches: The first one concerns
(7) the transverse 𝑎3 -perturbations and has the
photon-like behavior. The second one
Where 𝑗𝑚 the Bessel is function of the 𝑚 − 𝑡ℎ concerns the longitudinal 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 -
order, 𝑚 = 0,1,2, … .. and 𝜌, 𝜑 are the polar perturbations and has the “massive”
coordinates in the graphene plane. Thus, our behavior. Thus, our graphene plane reviles
monolayer graphene plane reviles the the tendency of bending.
tendency of bending.
REFERENCES
DISCUSSION
A.Fasolino, J.H.Los & Katsnelson, 2007.
The chiral model proposed permit one to Volume Vol.6.
describe the ripples structure of the real A.M.Kosevich, B.A.Ivanov & A.S.Kovalev,
monolayer graphene surface. In view of 1988. Nonlinear Magnetization
equation (5) it should be understood that the Waves;Dynamical and Topological
dispersion curve reveals the anisotropic Solitons.
nature and has two branches. The first one Jean-Noel, F. & Mark, O. G., 2008.
concerns the transverse a3- perturbations and Introduction to the Physics of
has the photon like behavior. The second one graphene, s.l.: Lecture Notes .
concerns the longitudinal a1- and a2 Jimenez, R. & Yu.P.Rybakov, 2001. Applied
perturbation and has the massive behavior as Nonlinear Dynamics. Volume Vol.9.
stated in equation (7) above illustrating the Mermin, N. D., 1968. Crystalline order in
Mermin-Wagner instability of the 2- two dimensions. Volume 176.
dimensional configuration Meyer, J. C. e. a., 2007. The structure of
suspended graphene membrane.
CONCLUSION Novoselov, K. S., 2005. Two-dimensional
atomic crystals.
The hybridize sp-states of valence electrons
Novoselov, K. S. et al., 2004. Room-
in the carbon atom was described by SU (2)
temperature electric field effect and
matrix considered as the order parameter.
carrier type inversion in graphene
The chiral model of graphene base on this
films.
order parameter was suggested in the long-
P.R.Wallace, 1947. The Band Theory of
wave approximation, the proposed chiral
Graphene. Issue 71622.
model of graphene permits one to describe
YU.P.Rybakov, 2012. On Chiral model of
the ripple structure of the real graphene
graphene. solid State phenomena,
surface illustrating the Mermin-Wagner
Volume 6, pp. 76-80.
instability of the 2D configuration. Also, in
view of equation (5) the dispersion curve

BIODIESEL PRODUCTION FROM THORN APPLE (DATURA METEL) SEEDS OIL

USING NAOH AS CATALYST
CHIKA MUHAMMAD1 *, AHMAD UBA2, MUHAMMAD MUKTAR1, MUK OTARU

ADAMS OPOTU1, FRANCIS AGADA1, ABUBAKAR UMAR MUHAMMAD1, YAHAYA
ALHASSAN3, ABUBAKAR USMAN ADAMU4 AND ABDULLAHI B. AHMED5
1
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Usmanu Danfodiyo
University, Sokoto, Nigeria.
2
Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo
University, Sokoto, Nigeria.
3
Petrochemicals and Allied Department, National Research Institute for Chemical
Technology, Zaria, Nigeria.
4
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, Nigeria.
5
Department of Physics Gombe State University, Nigeria.
*
Corresponding author: aausmasee@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The oil used in this work was extracted from the seeds of Datura metel commonly called Thorn
apple, Devils weed. 650ml of the oil extract was obtained by using soxhlet extraction and n-hexane
as solvent the physico-chemical properties of the oil were evaluated. Two-step Transesterification
of the oil in the presence of NaOH as catalyst was done by varying catalyst concentration as 1 %,
2 % of the weight of the oil with 6:1 and 9:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil at constant reaction
temperature (60 0C) and time (120 mins). The biodiesel yields maximally (80 %) at 1 % catalyst
(NaOH) concentration with 6:1 molar ratio of the methanol to oil. Acid value, Free Fatty acid,
saponification value, iodine value and the moisture content of the biodiesel produced were 4.21
mg KOH/g, 2.10 %, 56.1 mg KOH/g, 22.84 g I2/100g and 3.0 % respectively. The cetane number,
higher heating value and flash point were determined given at 138.451, 49.09 KJ/Kg, and 146 0C
which are in agreement with the ASTM standard for determining biodiesel properties suitable for
diesel engines. The 14.3 % yield of the oil from Datura metel seeds makes it a good feedstock for
biodiesel production, hence a viable source of renewable energy for future use.
Keywords: Biodiesel, Catalyst, Cetene Number, Transesterification, Renewable Energy
INTRODUCTION among scientific community and researchers

to search for an alternative source of energy
The scarcity of fossil diesel, ever increasing
(Rafel et al.,2011). Climate change is real
population and the demand for energy,
and it is happening in an unprecedented rate
increasing cost of petroleum fuel, strict
and decades ahead of what the scientific
emission norms, climate change and global
community projected. The fossil based liquid
environmental problem has renewed interest
213 Chika M. et al., 2019

fuel is majorly used in transportation and Homogeneous catalysis

agricultural sectors in any developing or
developed countries. People and their ever- (Karmakar et al. (2010) reported that,
increasing thirst for energy have brought homogeneous process leads to higher yields,
devastating consequences of global warming, especially if the content of free fatty acids
climate change and other environmental (FFAs) in the used feedstock is less than 1 %,
problems. Presently energy, environment and when compared to the heterogeneous
sustainability are the hot topics to discuss catalytic trans-esterification.
about across the globe (Ma, and Hanna,
Chemical Reaction in Biodiesel
1999). Petroleum based fuels are finite and
Production
distributed across certain regions of the
world. Transportation and agricultural sector Alcohol reacts with fatty acid to form the
are the two main consumers of finite reserved mono-alkyl ester (biodiesel) and crude
Petro-diesel (Agarwal, 2007; and Demirbas, glycerol. The reaction between the biolipid
2007). The concept of using vegetable oil in (fat and oil) and the alcohol is a reversible
diesel engine is not new. In 1911 Dr. Rudolf reaction so excess alcohol must be added to
Diesel used peanut oil to energize one of his ensure complete conversion (Dorado et al.,
diesel engines due to its similar properties 2003). The overall transesterification
with the fossil diesel. He encouraged using reaction is given by three consecutive and
various vegetable oils in diesel engines. Not reversible equations as shown below.
only Dr. Diesel but Henry Ford has similar
kind of vision. In 1925 he hailed biofuel as The Plant
the “fuel of the future” after he had
Datura metel L. belongs to the family
successfully run his model T ford with bio-
Solanceae, and is commonly called Thorn
ethanol (Mahmud et al., 2007).
Apple in English, in Nigeria, it is locally
Biodiesel is a renewable clean bio-fuel, called: Zakami in Hausa, Apikan/Gegemu in
which is defined chemically as a mixture of Yoruba and Myaramuo in Igbo (Abdullah et
methyl esters with long-chain fatty acids. al., 2003).
Typically, it is produced from the catalytic
In Nigeria, especially in the northern part,
Transesterification of vegetable oils and
Datura is found growing as a weed on
animal fats with alcohol, using either acid or
abandoned farmlands and on dumpsites. The
basic catalysts (Da Silva et al., 2011).
leaves and seeds of the plant are used for
Usually, methanol is the preferred alcohol for
several purposes and in several ways special
the production of biodiesel due to its low cost
for its psychoactive activities, thus making
and industrial availability (Leung et al.,
the plant parts to be abused by the youths who
2008).
are more prone to dangers of smoking and
drug abuse (Katuma et al., 2010).

The first step is the conversion of triglyceride monoglyceride to glycerol, yielding one
to diglyceride, followed by conversion of methyl ester molecule per molecule at each
diglyceride to monoglyceride and from step (George et al., 2009).
.
Figure 1: Datura metel plant flower and seed pod
MATERIALS AND METHODS The thorn apple seeds (Datura metel) were
removed from the pods by mechanical
Sample and Treatment means. The seeds were subjected to sun
The sample of Thorn apple seeds (Datura drying for three days. Then the sample was
metel) was obtained from Gbodoya, Afijio grinded to powdered form using pestle and
Local Government Area, Awe, Oyo State, mortar and then sieved in order to increase
Nigeria. the surface area for optimum oil extraction.

The powdered sample was weighed using Table 1: The Process Variables and their
electrical weighing balance in the laboratory, Levels
all necessary precautions been observed. Factor Lower level Upper level
Temperature (0C) 60 70
Extraction of oil using soxhlet apparatus
Time (min) 120 120
A medium sized of the soxhlet apparatus was
properly set up with 70 g of the sample in a Methanol to Oil 6:1 9:1
thimble and 150 cm3 of the n-hexane solvent ratio (w/w)
was put in a round bottomed flask assembled Catalyst (%) 1 2
on a heating mantle. The heating mantle was
set at 60 0C such that the solvent boiled
gently. The vapour passing through the Double Step Transesterification Reaction
vapour tube condensed by the condenser and of Thorn Apple (Datura metel) Seed Oil
the condensed hot solvent fell into the
The Datura metel seed oil was divided into
thimble in the soxhlet which eventually
four portions labeled A, B, C, & D and each
siphoned over into the round bottomed flask.
portion was esterified using different masses
As the process continued, oil was extracted.
of sulfated zirconia catalyst, saying 1.0 g and
The process was repeated until complete
2.0 g. Oil (10 g) each portion was reacted
extraction was affected. The extract was
with methanol in the ratio 6:1, and 9:1 of
heated to recover the solvent and pure oil was
methanol/oil (w/w), 1 %, and 2 % catalyst by
obtained (Barnwal and Sharma, 2005). The
weight of the oil. The mixture was then
properties the extracted oil is shown in table
placed on a water bath and heated at a
2.
constant temperature of 60 0C for the reaction
Experimental Design time of 120 minutes with continuous stirring.
The content was transferred into a separating
Response surface (Box-Bechnken) statistical funnel and allowed to settle for 24 hours. This
experimental design was used to design the permits the glycerin to settle down since it is
optimization. Two independent variables denser than ester (biodiesel). The glycerin
namely reaction catalyst (NaOH) was removed from the separating funnel
concentration and amount of methanol/oil at while biodiesel was obtained (Asokan and
constant reaction temperature and time were Vijayan, 2014).
selected for investigation. Table 3 shows the
lower and upper of factors employed based The esterified oil with lowest acid value was
on literature survey (Indhumathi et al., 2014). transesterified using sodium hydroxide
Each run was completely randomized to catalyst, the reacting mixture forms two
obtain a total of two runs. The experiment layers or phases: the upper layer containing
was design using MINITAB 17 statistical liquid and the bottom layer. The liquid phase
software. was recovered by decantation and it forms
216
Chika M. et al., 2019
two layers that was separated using Measuring cylinder was placed on weighing
separating funnel. The top layer is biodiesel, balance, and weighing balance was calibrated
while the bottom layer is the glycerin. The to zero (0), biodiesel was poured inside the
biodiesel separation was carried out using measuring cylinder up to 7 cm3 and mass of
separation funnel as the glycerin was drained the biodiesel was measured. This was done
down, which was first collected through the for each biodiesel produced. The procedure
outlet while the biodiesel remained inside the was repeated 3 times for both the sample and
separation funnel (Sokoto et al.,2011). blank. This was repeated for each sample.
The percentage of biodiesel produced was The density of biodiesel can be calculated
calculated using the equation below using the following equation (Almustapha et
% 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 al.,2009).
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑀
= × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑖𝑙 Density (D) = … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑉
Where M = mass of the biodiesel (gram)
Physico-Chemical Properties of the
V = volume of biodiesel in (cm3)
Biodiesel Produced
Determination of Iodine Value
Determination of Acid Value
Exactly 3 g of biodiesel sample was weighed
Exactly 2 g of biodiesel was poured into a
into a conical flask, 5 cm3 of 5 % HCl was
beaker and 1 drop of phenolphthalein was
added and the mixture was stirred until the
added, the beaker was placed into water bath
biodiesel sample formed homogeneous
heated at 60 0C for 1 minute, 0.1 M solution
mixture. 25 cm3 of iodine solution was added
KOH was titrated into the beaker till the color
and the mixture stirred for 5 minutes. The
change to pink. (Mukhtar and Dabai 2016).
mixture was titrated with 0.1 M Na2S2O3
The procedure was repeated three (3) times
solution until a pale straw colour was
for both the sample and blank. This was
obtained. At this point, 1 cm3 of starch
repeated for both samples
indicator was added to give blue-black colour
Acid value of KOH of the sample can be
and titration continues until a colorless end
calculated using the equation.
point was reached. The same procedure for
(𝐴 − 𝐵) × 𝑁 × 56.1
𝐴𝑉 = … … (𝑖) blank titration was done. It was repeated one
𝑊
Where A = Volume, ml of standard alkali more time for the biodiesel sample to
used in titration. calculate the average titre.
B = Volume, ml of standard alkali The iodine value was determined using the
used in titrating the blank. equation below
N = normality of standard alkali Iodine value
W = mass, grams of sample. (𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ) × 𝑀 × 126.9
= … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑊
Determination of Density Where:
217
126.9 = molecular weight of iodine Flash point

M = morality of Na2S2O3
Va = titre value of Na2S2O3 (sample) The flash point was determined according to
Vb = titre value Chika
of NaM. Set O
al., 2019 ASTM D-93 method. The sample was placed
2 2 3 (blank
titration) in the test cup to the prescribed mark in the
W = weight of biodiesel sample. interior of the cup. The cup was mounted on
to its position on the tester. Bunsen burner
Determination of Saponification Value was used to supply heat to the apparatus at
rate of 1 0C per minute with constant stirring.
Exactly 1 g of phenolphthalein indicator was A small test flame was directed into the cup
dissolved in 100 cm3 of methanol and 4 g of intermittently. The flash point was taken as
KOH was dissolved in volumetric flask to the temperature using thermometer when the
prepare 0.1 M of KOH. 1.0 g of biodiesel was test flame caused the vapor above the sample
poured into a beaker and 1 drop of to ignite (Indhumathi et al., 2014).
phenolphthalein was added, the beaker was
placed into water bath heated at 60 0C for 60 GC-MS Analysis of Datura metel Biodiesel
minutes, 0.1 M solution of NaOH was then Produced
titrated into the beaker containing mixture.
The colour changed to pink and produced The oil composition and methyl ester content
some soap bubbles ((STCAM, 2013). This were assayed using a GC-MS machine in
can be calculated using the equation below: Multi-Users Laboratory of Ahmadu Bello
𝑁(𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑥56.1 University (A.B.U), Zaria, Kaduna State
SV = … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑣) Nigeria.
𝑊
Where, B = volume of titrate, cm3 of blank The GC-MS was equipped with an Econo-
A = volume of titrate, cm3 of sample cap EC-WAX capillary column (30.0 min
N = normality of standard alkali length x 250 μm in diameter x 0.25 μm in film
This was repeated for each biodiesel produce. thickness). The GC oven was maintained at
50 0C for 3 minutes, then heated to 210 0C at
Determination of Kinematic Viscosity a rate of 10 0C per minute and held at 210 0C
for 9 minutes. The front inlet temperature of
Exactly 20 cm3 of oil was taken into the the oven was 225 0C (split less-model). The
sample container. The spindle to be used was carrier gas was helium with a flow rate of 12
mounted to the machine and the spindle cm3/min. The FAME analysis of Datura
number was selected from the machine. The metel biodiesel produced was carried out by
revolution per minute was also selected. The injecting 1.0 μL of a sample of biodiesel.
machine reading was automatically shown on
the screen (Ajiwe et al.,2006).
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶 × 𝑡 … … … … . . (𝑣)

RESULTS
Table 2: Physicochemical parameters of Datura metel oil
S/N Parameter Unit Result
1 Oil yield % 14.3

2 Moisture content % 2.5
3 Density g/cm3 0.80
4 Acid value mg KOH/g 13.75
5 Free fatty acid mg KOH/g 4.88
6 Iodine value mg I2/100g 88.83
7 Saponification mg KOH/g 182.3
value
8 Viscosity mm2/s 256
Table 3: Quality parameters of bodiesel produced from Datura metel seed oil
S/N Parameter Units Result Limits
1 Yield % 80.0 -
2 Moisture Cont. (V) % 3.0 0.50max
3 Density g/cm3 0.88 0.90max
4 Acid value mgKOH/g 2.0 0.50max
5 FFA mgKOH/g 2.15 -
6 Viscosity mm2/s 150 -
7 Saponification mgKOH/g 56.1 -

value
8 Iodine value mgI2/g 22.84 120max

0
9 Flash point C 146 -
10 Cetane number - 138.451 47min
11 Higher Heating KJ/Kg 49.09 47min

Value
Table 4. Effect of reaction conditions on the biodiesel of Datura metel seed oil.

219
Sample Catalyst MeOH/Oil Temperature Time Biodiesel

conc. (%) molar ratio (0C) (min) yield (%)
A 1 9:1 60 120 67.2
B 2 9:1 60 60 57.5
C 1 6:1 60 120 80.0
D 2 6:1 60 60 42.3
Table 5: GC-MS Result of the biodiesel fuel produced from Datura metel seeds oil.
S/N Saturated methyl ester Quality Area % composition
1 Methyl tetradecanoate 98 0.11
2 Hexanoic acid, methyl ester 99 50.55
Unsaturated methyl ester
3 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester 99 3.18
4 9-Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester 91 0.28
5 10,13-Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester 99 3.08
6 7-Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester 99 30.21
Total FAME Content 87.41
Table 6: GC-MS Result showing Non-methyl esters
S/N Non-methyl ester compounds Quality Area %
1 n-Hexanoic acid 90 3.26
2 9, 17-Octadecadienal, (Z)- 97 2.19
3 2-Methyl Z, Z-3,13-Octadecadienol 44 4.83
4 9,12-Octadecanoic acid (Z, Z)- 56 2.31
Total 12.59

220
Figure 2: Chromatogram of the GC-MS analysis of the biodiesel produced from Datura metel
Seed Oil.
DISCUSSION The seed oil showed low oil yield related to
Jatropha (30 to 40 %) and Castor seed oil
From Table 2 above, the oil obtained from the (33.2 %). The moisture content of the oil
extracted Datura metel seeds was bright obtained from Datura metel seeds was found
yellow in colour, it was viscous at room to be 2.5 % while that of the Datura metel
temperature. The percentage of oil yield was biodiesel was 3.0 %. From a similar work
14.3 %, and when compared with the done on Jatropha, it was observed that
percentage yield of oil in Datura stramonium Jatropha seed oil contains 0.2 %
(10.3-23.2 %) the result falls within the range (Abdulmalik, 2009).
as reported by (Babagana et al.,2011).
This research work shows that the density of
Babagana et al.(2011) Reported that the oil the oil was 0.89 gcm-3and that of the biodiesel
yield from seeds of Balanitea egyptiaca was produced was 0.87gcm-3. The density of
34.52 %, while Jatropha contains 30 to 40 % biodiesel obtained from NaOH ethanolysis of
oil that can be easily expressed for processing Lageneria sincereria seed oil was 0.80 gcm-
and refinement to produce biodiesel (Akpan 3
, and the values are within the ASTM limits
et al., 2006). The percentage oil content of of biodiesel (Gerpen et al., 2004). The lower
castor seeds was found to be 33.2 % of the density of the methyl biodiesel produced on
total weight of 155.30 g (Akpan et al.,2006). this research may be due to its degree of

unsaturation or chain length (Javidialesaadi estimated to be 88.83 mgI2/100g. Iodine

and Raeissi (2013); Sexena etal., 2013). The value of the biodiesel produced from Datura
result in Table 3 showed that the oil contains metel seed oil was found to be 22.84
acid value of 13.75 mg KOH/g carried out by mgI2/100g. The saponification value
titration method. obtained in the oil sample used in this work
by titration method was found to be 182.33
The free fatty acid is one of the key mgKOH/g as shown in appendix 1. But the
parameters affecting the yield of biodiesel in saponification value for biodiesel produced
transesterification process. The free fatty acid from Datura metel seed oil was found to be
in the Datura metel oil sample investigated 56.1mgKOH/g which is lower than that of the
by titration method was estimated to be 6.88 Gingerbread plum seed oil biodiesel 84.20
mgKOH/g as against 14.1 mgKOH/g of mgKOH/g (Mukhtar and Dabai 2016). Flash
Datura stramonium oil sample (Koria and point is an important parameter used to
Thangaraj, 2010). The biodiesel production determine fuel quality and is the temperature
process depends on the amount of the free at which fuel will ignite when exposed to
fatty acid in the oil to be processed. flame. Biodiesel usually has high flash point
Successful alkaline transesterification (more than 150 0C) flash point than
requires a free fatty acid value lower than 3 petroleum diesel (55-66 0C) (Atabani et al.,
% (Freedman and Pryde (1982); Liu (1994); 2013). The flash point value (146 0C) was
Mittelbach et al.(1992)). One step base obtained in this research work and agrees
catalyzed transesterification is applied to closely with 144 0C of the Lageneraria
feedstock containing free fatty acid level up sinceraria seed oil biodiesel done by
to 3 %. The oil should not contain more than (Mukhtar et al., 2014) which is in agreement
1 % FFA for alkaline catalyzed with ASTM standard (130 0C min).
transesterification reactions. If the FFA level
exceeds this amount, the formation of soap Kinematic Viscosity
will inhibit the separation of the ester from
the glycerin and also reduces the ester Kinematic viscosity is the resistance to flow
conversion rate. In this study, Datura metel of a liquid under gravity. It is an important
oil was subjected to two steps process, a property that represents the flow
combination of sterification using sulfated characteristics of the fuel (Bello et al., 2009).
zirconia followed by base (sodium Viscosity is one of the properties that
hydroxide) transesterification as free fatty determines free flow of fluid (liquid) and is
acid level is greater than 3 %. The biodiesel an indicator used in fuel quality. The
from Datura metel seed oil in this work has viscosity value of Datura metel seed oil was
FFA of 2.10 mgKOH/g. 256mm2/s and that of the biodiesel from
datura oil was 150mm2/s. The difference in
The iodine value of the oil sample was the values may be attributed to the fact that
investigated by titration method which was

some components were removed during best results were obtained at catalyst (NaOH)
biodiesel production (Akpan et al., 2006). concentration of 1.0 % in the MeOH/Oil
molar ratio of 7:1 of the weight of the oil. It
Higher Heating Value has been reported that alkaline catalyst
The result 47.47 MJ/kg obtained as presented concentration greater than 1.5% of oil weight
in Table 3 is higher than 29.88 MJ/kg leads to the production of large amount of
reported for Hevea brasiliensis (Mukhtar and soap (Vincente et al.,1998). The soap can
Dabai, 2016). Fuel having higher heating prevent separation of the biodiesel from the
value gives higher power out and it small glycerin fraction (Demirbas, 2003).
quantity will cover long distance drive GC-MS Analysis
(Gulum and Bilgin, 2015).
The GC-MS analysis of the Datura metel
Influence of Concentration of Catalyst and biodiesel shows that saturated methyl ester
Molar ratio of Methanol to Oil on containing methyl tetradecanoate of 0.11 %
Biodiesel Production. and hexanoic acid. The unsaturated methyl
The effect of reaction condition was esters in the biodiesel sample included 9, 12-
investigated in the production of biodiesel Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester; 9-
yield from the Datura metel seed oil using Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester; 10, 13-
NaOH as catalyst. Table 4 indicated that Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester and 7-
varied concentration of catalyst used at 1.0 % Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester at
to 2.0 % in the MeOH/Oil molar ratio (w/w) percentage composition of 3.18 %, 0.28 %,
of the oil at 60 0C temperature for reaction 3.08 % and 30.21 % respectively (Table 7).
time of 120 minutes. The process yielded This brings together the total FAME content
67.2 % for sample ‘A’, 57.5 % for sample ‘B’ of 87.41 % presents in the biodiesel of
in 9:1 molar ratio of MeOH/Oil at 1.0 % for Datura metel seed oil. Other fatty acids
‘A’, and 2.0 % for ‘B’ respectively. While present were non-methyl esters having 12.59
samples ‘C’ and ‘D’ yielded 80.0 % and 42.3 % chemical composition.
% in 6:1 at 1.0 % and 2.0 %. It was observed The composition of saturated methyl ester
that best yield (80.0 %) of the product was (50.66 %) can be traced to the amount of acid
obtained at 1.0 % catalyst concentration value of 12.90mg KOH/g in Datura metel
(w/w) of the oil in the 6:1 molar ratio of biodiesel fuel. The unsaturated methyl ester
MeOH: Oil (w/w). Increase in the catalyst of 36.75 % obtained from the GC-MS
concentration and MeOH/Oil molar ratio indicates that FAME depends on its number
more than 1.0 % and 6:1 respectively resulted of double bonds as well as polyunsaturated
in the lower product yield. fatty acids when related to the iodine value,
In a similar study of Datura stramonium seed which permits it to undergo oxidation than
oil (Koria and Thangaraj 2010) reported that the fatty acids (non-methyl ester) having
single bonds. It can be deduced that Thorn
223
Apple (Datura metel) seed oil methyl ester Engines.Progress in Energy and
will exhibit good shelf life in terms of storage Combustion Science,33: 233-271.
(Dwivedi and Sharma, (2014). Ajiwe, VIE, Mbonu, SO, and Enukorah,
EAO, (2006), Biofuel from Irringia
CONCLUSION gabonesia Seed Oil and Its Methyl
The results from the study reveals that Esters, NASEF International
appreciable amount of the oil can be Conference, 2008, Awka, Nigeria,
extracted from the seeds of Datura metel. Awka Solar Energy Society of
Physico-chemical properties of the biodiesel Nigeria, 266-270.
obtained conform to ASTM standard. The Akpan, UG, Jimoh, A, and Muhammed, AD,
biodiesel production from a non-edible oil (2006), Extraction, Characterization
source, Datura metel was investigated and and modification of Castor seed oil,
optimization of the production process was Leonardo Journal of Sciences, 8: 43-
carried out to determine the required catalyst 52.
concentration and methanol to oil molar ratio Almustapha, MN, Hassan, LG, Ismaila, A,
at constant temperature and time for Galadima, A, and Ladan, MM,
maximum yield of biodiesel. The two steps (2009), Comparative Analysis of
alkaline catalyzed transesterification process Biodiesel from Jatropha curcas Seed
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reaction time of 120 minutes at a reaction Effective Conversion of Kapok Seed
temperature of 60 0C. (Ceibapentandra) Oil into Biodiesel
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227
A STUDY OF THE PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS IN THE LEAF FRACTIONS

OF COMBRETUM MOLLE (R.Br. Ex.G.Don) BY GC- MS ANALYSIS
D. KULAWE1*, S.P. BAKO2, D.N. IORTSUUN3, H.I. INABO4 AND J. S. HENA5

1
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, Gombe,
Nigeria
2
Department of Botany, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
3
Department of Botany, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
4
Department of Microbiology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
5
Nigeria. Marine Environment Management Unit, Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety
Agency, Abuja Office, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The aqueous, n-butanol and the ethyl-acetate fractions of the leaf of Combretum molle were
analyzed for their phytochemical content using Gas chromatography –mass spectrometry (GC-
MS). Ethanol was used as solvent for extraction, after which differential fractionization was
carried out using distilled water, ethyl acetate and n-butanol. Aqueous, ethyl-acetate and n-
butanol fractions of the leaf of C. molle were screened for secondary chemicals. GC-MS revealed
the presence of 17 compounds in the n-butanol leaf fraction, 15 compounds in the ethyl-acetate
leaf fraction and 11 compounds in the aqueous leaf fraction.
Key words: Combretum molle, Gas chromatography mass spectrometry, Plant fractions
INTRODUCTION
than just food and genetic reservoirs.
Traditional medicine has remained the most Medicinal plants have been used for centuries
affordable and easily accessible source of to treat a wide variety of ailments (Vaidya
treatment in the primary health care system and Devasagayam, 2007). The presence of
of resource poor communities and local secondary metabolites in plants has been
therapy is the only means of medical associated in most of their therapeutic
treatment for such communities (Yinger and activities (Ogunleye and Ibitoye, 2003).
Yewhalaw, 2007). According to Alaribe Herbal medicines are now considered a part
(2008) about 80% of Nigerian homes, of Complementary and Alternative medicine
maintain some sort of private family (CAM) and are gaining popularity due to
traditional medicine practitioner. Existing their potent antioxidant activity, minimal side
data and contemporary researchers seem to effects and economic viability (Auddy et al.,
authenticate the assumption for general 2003). Active principles from natural sources
health improvement of the masses by have contributed significantly to the
traditional healers. Plants have broader uses
228 Kulawe D. et al., 2019

development of new drugs from medicinal Differential Fractionation of the Ethanol

plants (Cox and Balick, 1994). Extract of C. molle in Different Solvents
MATERIALS AND METHODS The dried ethanol extract obtained from both
the roots and leaf of C. molle (50 g) were each
Source and preparation of plant materials suspended in 1 litre of distilled water and
The plant materials were collected from partitioned in sequence with ethyl acetate (1
neighboring communities near ABU dam, in litre), and n-butanol (1 litre). The different
Samaru, Zaria (latitude 11.07o N, longitude solvent fractions were concentrated on a
7.73o E and altitude 613meters), Nigeria. water bath at 100o C so as to obtain the dry
These were brought and identified by a extract after which was stored at -20ºC.
Taxonomist with voucher number 900191 at Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
the Herbarium unit of the Department of (GC-MS)
Biological Sciences, Ahmadu Bello
University Zaria. The plant parts were air- N-butanol fraction, ethyl acetate, and
dried for two weeks at room temperature aqueous fractions from the stem and roots of
(25oC) in the laboratory and then ground to C. molle was subjected to gas
powder. chromatography – mass spectrometry
analysis, (GCMS-QP2010 PLUS
Extraction procedures SHIMADZI, JAPAN) Column of
The ground plant parts were extracted at the 0.25diametre and 30mm length was used at
Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of column oven temperature of 60oC and an
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello injection temperature of 250oC and a pressure
University Zaria, following the methods of of 100.2 kPa, a column flow of 1.61mL/min
Sofowora (2006). and a total flow of 6.2 ml/ min. Content
identified was compared with the database of
Preparation of Ethanol Extraction of C. the NIST library. Compounds with close
molle similarity index where identified and
recorded.
Approximately 800 g of the dried leaves and
roots of C. molle were extracted with 10 litres RESULTS
of 80% (v/v) ethanol by maceration at (25oC)
for 3days. The total The mixture then is The chromatograms of the fractions of C.
strained and filtered. The filtrate was molle were obtained from the gas
concentrated to dryness on a water bath at chromatography – mass spectrometry
100o C so as to obtain the dry extract after analysis with the following peaks
which was stored at -20ºC for further studies. respectively as can be seen in Figure 1, 2 and
3. Tributyl-acetyl citrate had the highest peak
of 99 while 1-hydroxy-2-methylbenzene had

the least mass peak of 32 for the n-butanol Hexadecenoic acid and Phthalic acid) and
leaf fraction. 5-Cholestene had the highest hydrocarbons (such as 1-hydroxy-2,3-
peak of 136 while 1H-Pyrrole had the least dimethylbenzene and 1-dodecene). GC MS
mass peak of 21 for the ethyl-acetate leaf result of ethyl-acetate fraction of the leaf of
fraction. Octadecanoic acid had the highest C. molle was shown in Table 2 shows a total
peak of 146 while cyclopropane had the least of fifteen compounds comprising of various
mass peak of 49 for the aqueous leaf fraction. fatty acids (such as pentadecanoic acid and
Phytol is a key acyclic diterpene alcohol that 11-octadecanoic acid) and hydrocarbons
is a precursor for vitamins E and K. It is used (such as 1H-Pyrrole and Tridecane). GC MS
along with simple sugar or corn syrup as a result of aqueous fraction of the leaf of C.
hardener in candies. molle of Table 3 shows a total of eleven
compounds comprising of various fatty acids
Table 1 shown the GC MS result of n-butanol (such as 9,12, octadecanoic acid and 9,12,15,
fraction of the leaf of C. molle. Total of octadecanoic acid) and hydrocarbons (such
seventeen compounds comprising of various as cyclopropane and 2,4, Decadienol).
fatty acids (such as Octadecanoic acid,
Figure 1: GC-MS Chromatogram of N-butanol leaf fraction of Combretum molle

Figure 2: GC-MS Chromatogram of Ethyl-acetate leaf fraction of Combretum molle
Figure 3: GC-MS Chromatogram of the Aqueous leaf fraction of Combretum molle

Table 1: GC MS result of n-butanol fraction of the leaf of C. molle.
Line Compound Name Formula Mol. weight Retention Similarity

time (Min.) index(%)
1. 1-hydroxy-2-methylbenzene C7H8O 108 5.108 90
2. 1-hydroxy-2,3-dimethylbenzene C8H10O 122 6.400 86
3. 1-dodecene C12H24 168 9.492 95
4. Tridecanoic acid C14H28O2 228 11.125 91
5. Phthalic acid C14H14O4 246 12.000 76
6. 1-hexadecene C16H32 224 14.425 95
7. Pentadecanoic acid C17H34O2 270 16.667 93
8. 1,2benzenedicarboxylic acid C16H22O4 278 17.433 77
9. 1-pentadecene C15H30 210 18.075 95
10. 11-Octadecanoic acid C19H36O2 296 19.808 92
11. Octadecanoic acid C19H38O2 298 20.167 91
12. 1-propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid C18H30O6 342 20.617 78
13. Acetic acid C20H40O2 312 21.250 93
14. Tributyl acetylcitrate C20H34O8 402 21.867 88
15. Hexadecanoic acid C37H74NO8P 691 22.275 86
16 4,8,12,16-Tetramethyl C21H40O2 324 22.925 87
heptadecan-4-olide
17. Hexadecanoic acid C19H34O4 330 24.392 89
Table 2: GC MS result of ethyl-acetate fraction of the leaf of C. molle.
Line Compound Name Formula Mol. Retention Similarity

weight time (Min.) index(%)
1. 1H-Pyrrole C4H6N2O 98 5.542 74
2. 2-Tridecene C13H26 182 11.983 94
3. Hexadecene C16H34 226 12.075 96
4. 1-Pentadecene C15H30 210 14.425 95
5. Pentadecanoic acid C17H34O2 270 16.675 93
6. 1-Hexadecene C16H32 224 18.083 95
7. 11-Octadecanoic acid C19H36O2 296 19.817 92
9. 1-Tetracosanol C24H50O 354 21.100 95
10. Tridecane C13H28 184 21.175 88
12. 1-Iodo-2-methylnonane C10H21I 268 23.117 78
13. Eicosane C20H42 282 23.392 94
14. 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid C25H40O6 436 24.342 85
15. 5-cholestene-3-ol C28H48O 400 27.225 80

Table 3: GC MS result of aqueous fraction of the leaf of C. molle.
Line Compound Name Formula Mol. Retention Similarity

weight time (Min.) index(%)
1. Cyclopropane C7H12 198 7.725 88
2. 2,4,Decadienol C10H6O 158 8.133 87
3. Benzene methanol C10H14O 150 8.383 81
5. 9,12,octadecanoic acid C19H34O4 294 19.925 95
6. 9,12,15,octadecanoic acid C19H34O2 292 20.033 91
7. 9-Hexadecanoic acid C16H32O2 254 20.975 92
9. Decane C11H24 156 22.483 81
10. 9,12,octadecadienoylchloride C18H31ClO 284 24.292 90
11. 11-Octadecanoic acid C19H36O 280 26.358 88
DISCUSSION compounds and is recommended as a plant of

phyto-pharmaceutical importance. Further
Muthezilan et al. (2012) reported that the main subjects are required to explore the potential
components of 9, 12 octadecadienoic acid has compounds responsible for the biological
potential antioxidant and anticancer activities. activity from C. molle for application in drug
Linolenic acid is known for its potential delivery, nutritional or pharmaceutical
antibacterial, antifungal, anti-arthritic and studies.
anti-inflammatory activities. Homo-γ-
linolenic acid has gained importance due to its REERENCES
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Ogunleye, D.S. and Ibitoye, S.F. (2003). knowledge and use by local healers in
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O.W. and Ashamu, E.A. (2012).

EVALUATION OF ANTICONVULSANT ACTIVITY OF ETHANOL LEAF EXTRACT

OF FICUS SYCOMORUS LINN IN PENTYLENETETRAZOLE AND STRYCHNINE
INDUCED SEIZURES IN MICE
*MOH’D A.S.; ELON I.R.; MIDALA T.A.S.; MILAGAWANDA H.H AND TIMOTHY S.Y
1
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Maiduguri,
Maiduguri, Nigeria
2
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gombe
State University, Gombe State, Nigeria
3
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Maiduguri,
Maiduguri, Nigeria
Coorresponding Author: sadmo007@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Epilepsy is a chronic and often progressive disorder characterized by the occurrence of epileptic
seizures, affecting about 50 million people worldwide. The prescribed synthetic drugs for the
treatment of epilepsy are associated with severe side effects and addiction liabilities upon long
term uses. Thus, researchers around the globe are searching for newer, effective and safer drugs
from natural resources. Ficus sycomorus Linn. (Moraceae) is used traditionally in Northern
Nigeria for the management of epilepsy without any scientific validation. The aim of this study is
to evaluate the phytochemical constituents and the anticonvulsant activity of the ethanol leaf
extract of F. sycomorus L. in mice. The basic phytochemical screening was carried out based on
some standard procedures, while Lorke’s method was used to determine the lethal dose that kills
50% of laboratory animals. Pentylenetetrazole and strychnine were used to induce seizures in mice
for the anticonvulsant screening.The plant extract revealed the presence of tannins, saponins,
carbohydrates, alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids and cardiac glycosides. The
intraperitoneal LD50 in mice was estimated to be >2900 mg/kg body weight. The plant extract at
the highest tested dose protected the animals from death against the chemically induced seizures
by pentylenetetrazole and strychnine while the time for onset of convulsion was dose dependent.
An extremely significant difference (p<0.05) in the mean onset of convulsion was observed at
highest dose of the extract against PTZ and strychnine when compared to the control and the mice
were protected from death by the extract. However, the extract showed better activity against
strychnine induced seizures. The data suggest that the ethanol leaf extract of F. sycomorus, at the
tested doses and under the experimental conditions reported, contains many phytochemical
constituents that may be responsible for the anticonvulsant activity. Thus, justifying the
ethnomedical use of this plant extract in the management of epilepsy as claimed by the traditional
medicine practitioners.
Keywords: Anticonvulsant, Ethanol, Leaves, Ficus sycomorus, Pentylenetetrazole, Strychnine
Moh’d A.S. et al., 2019
235
INTRODUCTION (Joy et al., 1998). One of such plants that

holds great therapeutic potential is Ficus
Epilepsy is a chronic disorder characterized sycomorus (F. sycomorus). The plant belongs
by the periodic and unpredictable occurrence to the family Moraceae. It is commonly
of epileptic seizures, which are caused by an known among the Hausa people of Northern
abnormal discharge of cerebral neurons. Nigeria as Farin Baure. The roots, bark and
Many different types of seizures can be leaves of this plant are traditionally used for
identified because of their clinical the treatment of epilepsy, diarrhoea,
phenomena (Löscher, 1998). It is one of the dysentery, painful urination and vaginal
most common diseases of the brain, affecting infections (Abubakar et al., 2015).
at least 50 million persons globally (Scheuer
and Pedley, 1990). Seizures are The in vitro antimicrobial screening of the
fundamentally divided into two major methanol root bark extract of F. sycomorus
groups: partial and generalized. Partial (focal, revealed that the extract exhibited varying
local) seizures are those in which clinical or activity against Enterococcus faecalis,
electrographic evidence exists to suggest that Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Shigella
the attacks have a localized onset in the brain, dysenteriae and Candida albicans (Abubakar
usually in a portion of one hemisphere, while et al., 2015), while its leaves possess
generalized seizures are those in which antidiabetic, anti-oxidant (70% methanol
evidence for a localized onset is lacking extract), antitumor and antibacterial activities
(CCTILE, 2003). (Mousa, 1994). Also, aqueous extract of stem
bark exhibits sedative and muscular activities
The practice of using plants to treat and (Sandabe et al., 2003; 2006).
prevent diseases started since prehistoric
times and flourishes today as the primary The current therapy of epilepsy with modern
form of medicine especially on the African anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) is associated
continent. Humankind for millennia has used with dose-related side effects, chronic
medicinal plants, and their use is as old as toxicity and approximately 30% of the
humanity itself. The range of species used patients continue to have seizures with
and their scope for healing is vast (Butler, current antiepileptic drug therapy. Therefore,
2004). It was reported by the World Health there is a need for new AEDs (especially
Organization (WHO) that over 80% of the from plants) with greater efficacy and novel
world’s population depend mainly on plants mechanisms of action to serve as alternative
and plant extracts for health care (WHO, therapy for the treatment of resistant
2002). It has been estimated that over epilepsy.
250,000 higher plant species occur on earth,
more than 80,000 species are reported to have
at least some medicinal values, and around
5,000 species have specific therapeutic value

236
MATERIALS AND METHODS libitum. All experiments performed in this

work were carried out in accordance with the
Plant material National Institute of Health guide for the care
The plant was collected in Maiduguri City, and use of laboratory animals.
Borno State, Nigeria. It was identified and Preliminary phytochemical screening
authenticated by a Taxonomist, Prof. S.S
Sanusi of the Biological Sciences The leaf extract of Ficus sycomorus were
Department, University of Maiduguri prepared in suitable forms for the screening
of alkaloids, anthraquinones, tannins,
Preparation of Extract saponins, cardiac and cyanogenetic
The leaves of F. sycomorus were carefully glycosides, flavonoids, and carbohydrates
plugged from the tree. It was then air-dried using the standard laboratory procedures
and ground into powder using mortar and described by Harbone (1991), Trease &
pestle. The powdered plant material was Evans (1989, 2002) and Sofowora (1993,
weighed accurately (500 g) and was 2008).
macerated with 500 mL of 95% ethanol in a Acute toxicity tests of ethanol leave extract
glass container with intermittent shaking for of F. sycomorus
48 hours. The filtrate was concentrated using
rotary evaporator and was dried over a water Acute toxicity study for ethanol extract of F.
bath at 45°C. sycomorus leaves was carried out by using
the modified Lorke’s method (1983). The
Drugs study was conducted in two phases. In the
Valproic acid, pentylenetetrazole, strychnine, first phase three groups of rats were
DMSO, and 95% ethanol which were all administered the extract at respective oral
obtained from the Department of doses of 10 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 1000
Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of mg/kg. The animals were observed for signs
Pharmacy, University of Maiduguri. of toxicity and possible mortality for 24
hours. In the second phase, another two
Animals groups of three rats each were administered
doses of 1600 mg/kg and 2900 mg/kg
Swiss albino mice of both sexes, weighing
respectively. They were also observed for
18-25 g were obtained from the Animal
signs of toxicity and mortality, the LD50 will
House of the Department of Pharmacology
then be determined by the square root of the
and Therapeutics, Gombe State University,
dose that killed and the dose that did not kill.
Gombe state, Nigeria. They were housed
under standard conditions of temperature (25
± 2oC), light/dark cycles, fed with standard
diet (Growers Mesh), and given water ad
237 Moh’d A.S. et al., 2019

Experimental groups incidence of seizures. An episode of tonic

extension of the hind limbs or clonic spasm,
Acute convulsive groups (pilot study) which persisted for a minimum of 30 s, was
The first of two groups of (n=3) mice each considered as a threshold convulsion. Lack of
were treated with a single convulsive dose of threshold convulsion during 30 min of
Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) 25, 50 and 75 observation was considered as protection.
mg/kg, (i.p). Only the dose of 50 mg/kg and Strychnine induced-seizure test in mice
75 mg/kg initiated an onset of convulsion
with sudden death respectively. Similarly the The same protocol was carried out as in the
second group (n=3) were given with PTZ-induced seizures, twenty-five mice were
strychnine 2.5, 5, and 7.5 mg/kg without also randomly divided into five groups of five
valproic acid. The onset of convulsions and mice (n=5) each weighing between 18-25 g.
mortality was only seen with 5 and 7.5 mg/kg The mice in the first group received 10 ml/kg
strychnine respectively. Hence, only doses of normal saline i.p. while the mice in the
50 mg/kg PTZ and 5 mg/kg strychnine were second group received 5 mg/kg strychnine.
used to induce convulsion in this experiment. The third, fourth, and fifth groups were given
i.p. doses of 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg of the
Kindling groups ethanol extract of F. sycomorus respectively.
Pentylenetetrazole induced-seizure test in Thirty minutes later, mice in all the groups
mice were administered with freshly prepared
solution of PTZ at a dose of 50 mg/kg body
The method of Swinyard et al (1952) was weight i.p. The mice were observed for 30
employed to induce convulsion using PTZ in minutes for the onset and incidence of
mice. Twenty-five mice were randomly seizures.
divided into five groups of five mice (n=5)
each weighing between 18-25 g. The mice in Statistical analysis
the first group received 10 ml/kg normal Results were expressed as mean ± standard
saline intraperitoneally, while the mice in the error of the mean (S.E.M) and analyzed using
second group received 200 mg/kg Valproic Computer software GraphPadlnStat® @
acid intraperitoneally as a standard positive USA; 2003. The significant difference
control. The third, fourth, and fifth groups between mean was determined using student
were administered doses of 250, 500 and T-test. Values of p<0.05 were considered
1000 mg/kg of the ethanol extracts of F. significant.
sycomorus respectively. Thirty minutes later, RESULTS
mice in all the groups were administered with
freshly prepared solution of PTZ at a dose of Preliminary phytochemical screening
50 mg/kg body weight (i.p). The mice were
observed for 30 min for the onset and Preliminary phytochemical constituents
identified in the ethanol leaf extract of F.
238 Moh’d A.S. et al., 2019

sycomorus include: carbohydrates, saponins, Saponin glycosides

cardiac glycosides, cyanogenetic glycosides,
flavonoids, tannins and alkaloids. However, Frothing test +
the Borntrager test showed a negative result Steroids and triterpenoids test +
which depicts the absence of anthraquinones
(Table 1). Cyanogenetic glycosides
Table 1: Phytochemistry of ethanol leaf
Guignard test +
extract of F. sycomorus L
Anthraquinones
Phytoconstituents Results
Borntragers test -
Alkaloids
+ = present, - = absent
Dragendroff’s reagent +
Acute toxicity
Mayer’s reagent +
The acute toxicity of the ethanol leaf extract
Carbohydrates
of F. sycomorus in mice was found to be
Molish test + greater than 2900 mg/kg intraperitoneally.
However, neither neurobehavioral effects nor
Fehling’s test + death were observed (Table 2).
Barfoed test for monosaccharide + Table 2: Acute toxicity study of ethanol leaf
Flavonoids extract of F. sycomorus L
Phase Dose(mg/kg) Observation

Shinodas test +
Phase1 10 -
Ferric chloride test +
100 -
Tannins
1000 -
Ferric chloride test +
Phase 2 1600 -
Cardiac glycosides 2900 -
Buchard test for glycosides + 5000 X
Salkwoski test for steroidal + LD50 = >2900 mg/kg

nucleus
-= no death, x = not administered
Keller kilani test +

239
Effect of ethanol leaf extract of F. FSE (500 6.20±1.24 60

sycomorus in pentylenetetrazole induced mg/kg)
convulsion in mice FSE (1000 11.40±1.03*** 100
mg/kg)
The ethanol leaf extract of F. sycomorus was
able to increase onset of convulsion, and NS = Normal saline, VA = Valproic acid,
increase percentage protection from death. FSE = Ficus sycomorus extract, * = p<0.05
The activity of F. sycomorus ethanol leaf (significant), ** = p<0.01 (highly
extract in pentylenetetrazole induced significant), *** = p<0.001 (extremely
convulsion was found to be dose dependent. significant), p>0.05 = not significant
The anticonvulsant activity of the extract at
1000 mg/kg was found to be statistically Effect of ethanol leaf extract of F.
significantly higher than the control sycomorus L in strychnine induced
(p<0.001), and protected 100% of the convulsion in mice
animals from death. Furthermore, Valproic The ethanol leaf extract of F. sycomorus was
acid used as positive control also protected also able to increase onset of convulsion and
100% of the animals (mice) from death. In also increase protection from death. In
contrast, the extract at 250 mg/kg and 500 strychnine induced convulsion, the activity of
mg/kg were not found to be statistically the ethanol leaf extract of F. sycomorus was
significantly higher than the control and also dose dependent. The tested doses of the
could protect only 20% and 60% of the mice extract at 500 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg were
respectively (Table 3). found to be statistically significantly higher
Table 3: Effects of different doses of than the control (p<0.05 and p<0.001
ethanol leaf extract of F. sycomorus L on respectively). Valproic acid used as positive
pentylenetetrazole induced convulsion in control also protected 100% of the mice.
mice However, the tested dose of the extract at 250
mg/kg was found to be not statistically
Treatment Mean onset of Percentage significantly higher than the control and
clonic protection protected 60% of the mice (Table 4).
convulsion from death
(mins) (%) Table 4: Effects of different doses of
NS (10 4.00±0.45 0 ethanol leaf extract of F. sycomorus L. on
ml/kg) strychnine induced convulsion in mice
VA (200 - 100 Treatment Mean onset of Percentage

mg/kg) clonic protection
convulsion(mins) from death
FSE (250 4.20±0.58 20 (%)
mg/kg)
NS (2mg/kg) 6.40±0.51 20
240
VA - 100 of appetite, restlessness and generalized

(200mg/kg) weakness. The reason for the disagreement
FSE 7.20±0.73 60 may be due to the differences in the solvent
(250mg/kg) systems or in the parts of the plant used. In
the present study leaves were used instead of
FSE 8.40±0.51* 80
(500mg/kg)
the root bark used by Abubakar and his
colleagues (2015).
FSE 19.40±1.63*** 100
(1000mg/kg) PTZ is a well-known convulsant, and the
chemically induced seizure using PTZ test
NS = Normal saline, VA = Valproic acid,
usually identifies compounds that raise
FSE = Ficus sycomorus extract, * =
seizure threshold in the brain. PTZ has been
p<0.05(significant), ** = p<0.01(highly
shown to interact with GABA
significant), *** = p<0.001(extremely
neurotransmitter and GABAA receptor
significant), p>0.05 = not significant
complex (De Deyn et al., 1992). The ethanol
DISCUSSION leaf extract of F. sycomorus did not protect
the animals against the chemically induced
The different phytochemical constituents convulsion of PTZ, but increases the latency
identified in the ethanol leaf extract of F. time to onset of seizure. This finding
sycomorus are considered as important indicates that the extract may not contain
biological active compounds of plant origin. compounds that can raise seizure threshold in
That may be responsible for the the brain as previously reported by White et
anticonvulsant activity of the plant extract. al (1998). Furthermore, the highest tested
This study is in agreement with the study on dose of the leaf extract of F. sycomorus
anticonvulsant activity reported by Abubakar conferred 100% protection from death to the
and his colleagues (2015) where similar animals treated with a convulsive dose of
phytoconstituents were obtained. PTZ. The ability of the extract to increase the
latency time to onset of a seizure in the PTZ
Rang et al (2001) reported that acute toxicity
test suggested a possible interaction of the
test gives a clue on the range of doses that
extract with GABAnergic neurotransmission.
could be toxic to the animals, and can also be
This finding is in contrast to a similar test
used to estimate the therapeutic doses of
conducted on F. abutilifolia, which failed to
drugs and xenobiotics The acute toxicity
show anticonvulsant activity against PTZ
study of the ethanol leaf extract of F.
(Danmalam et al., 2012), and this may be due
sycomorus showed that the plant is relatively
to differences in chemical constituents
less toxic at the doses <2900 mg/kg.
between the two Ficus species.
However, this study disagrees with the report
of Abubakar et al (2015) where the methanol The effects of ethanol leaf extract of F.
root bark extract caused toxicity such as loss sycomorus on strychnine induced seizures in
241
mice was found to increase the latency time integration in to orthodox medicine that may
of onset of seizures and reduced number of be affordable for people in local
convulsions and also protected the mice from communities.
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243
DIPLOCHORY IN NORTHERN NIGERIA: YOU CAN’T PREDICT DISPERSAL OF

SEED BY ITS FRUIT SIZE
BABALE ALIYU1*, , ABUBAKAR Z.A1, ISMAIL MOHAMMED1, HARUNA SAIDU1 AND

ILIYA MUSA2
1
Department of Biological Sciences, Gombe State University, P.M.B. 127, Tudan Wada Street,
Gombe, Gombe State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Geography, Gombe State University, P.M.B. 127, Tudun Wada Street, Gombe,
Nigeria.
Corresponding authoraliyubabale64@gmail.com or aliyubabale@gsu.edu.ng
ABSTRACT
Diplochory is well known to contribute to the regeneration of Neotropical forests, particularly in

the context of frugivore decline. However, this phenomenon in Old World woodlands is virtually
unknown. Here we contribute to our understanding of diplochory in woodland habitats
experiencing frugivore loss by investigating for the first time the interaction of habitat and seed
type on secondary dispersal by rodents. Moreover, our study combines information on degraded
woodland (habitat), organism (Scatterhoarding rodent) and large seeded species dispersed by
frugivores. We established seed ‘dumps’ to simulate frugivore dispersed seed in each of three
woodland - habitats Yankari Game Reserve, Kanawa woodland, and Nafada degraded woodland.
We quantify how degradation and seed size interact to affect the balance between predation and
dispersal. We distinguish between burial and cached seed. Bayesian statistics was used to compare
predation rates and proportion of seed i) buried and ii) cached in each habitat, large and small
seeded species were used. Infra-red cameras were established to identify predators and/or seed
dispersers. Seed fate differed markedly among habitats. Seed predation rates were highest in
degraded woodland habitats than in Reserve habitat (YGR->NFD) P = 0.94, however, the
probability of being predated was higher for the large seeded species than for the small seeded
species. The probability of scatterhoarded seed being buried was markedly higher than being
cached. Almost all seeds were predated and dispersed by the African pouched rat, Cricetomys
gambianus. In this study we demonstrate the importance of diplochory in Old World woodlands
and quantify the role of scatterhoarding with respect to habitat and seed size in the context of
habitat degradation. Seed predation is markedly higher in degraded habitats particularly for small
seeded species. Seed burial is more common than caching across all habitats and dispersal is
markedly higher in Reserve than disturbed or degraded woodland. Our findings should stimulate
a new area of research into Old World plant-animal mutualisms.
Keywords: Woodland habitats, rodents, diplochory, seed dispersal, scatterhoarding, conditional

mutualisms
244 Babale A. et al., 2019

INTRODUCTION tree species will lose recruitment to high

levels of seed predation and seedling
Tropical woodland are facing a seed dispersal competition under the parent tree (Janzen
crisis (McConkey et al. 2012) as dispersal 1969; Janzen 1970; Connell 1971; Harms et
networks are destroyed through al. 2000; Chapman, Goldson & Beck 2010).
anthropogenic drivers such as habitat Tree species with large fruit are most at risk
degradation, fragmentation and hunting. because they depend on large bodied
Such changes affect woodland composition frugivores for dispersal (Schupp 1993) and
and structure (Peres et al. 2003; Nuñez-Iturri the larger bodied frugivores are more
& Howe 2007; Wright et al. 2007; vulnerable to the effects of reduced habitat
Vanthomme, Bellé & Forget 2010) for size, habitat degradation and hunting than are
example, regenerating woodlands tend to small bodied frugivores (Corlett 2007;
have a higher proportion of wind dispersed Wright et al. 2007). However, while
species than their ancestral populations predictions about the potential consequences
(Vanthomme, Bellé & Forget 2010). of frugivore loss on seed dispersal are
Anderson et al. (2011) provide evidence for possible, particularly in the case of large
the decline in native bird species in New seeded tree species, (McConkey &
Zealand having already led to insufficient Brockelman 2011), the actual effect of
seed dispersal and vastly reduced recruitment frugivore decline on any given plant species
of native tree species, which the authors depends on the interaction of multiple factors
suggest could trigger a cascade of (Galetti et al. 2006) because plant-frugivore
extinctions. Until recently such negative networks are often nested within wider
effects of years of inadequate dispersal have interaction networks which may build
been masked by the long generation time of resilience into the system (Gilbert 1980).
woodland tree species (Guimaraes, Galetti &
Jordano 2008) but insufficient seed dispersal The loss of primary frugivores does not
is now recognised as the major threat to the necessarily lead to extinction because seed
future of many types of woodland (Schupp may be secondarily dispersed by abiotic
1993; McConkey et al. 2012). means such as water or gravity, or by
scatterhoarding animals (Vander Wall 1990;
Up to 70% of tropical woodland tree species Forget 1996; Vander Wall, Kuhn & Gworek
produce fleshy fruits which have evolved for 2005). Scatterhoarding refers to an animal
dispersal by animals (Corlett 2007; behaviour whereby seed is collected during
McConkey et al. 2012). This dependence of periods of abundance and stored for later
trees with fleshy fruits on animals for consumption in scattered caches with just one
dispersal makes them particularly vulnerable or a few seed in each (Vander Wall 1990). In
to frugivore decline and extinction (Corlett the case of rodents, scatterhoarding can be
2011; Fleming & John Kress 2011). Without seen as a conditional mutualism (Bronstein
animal dispersers many tropical woodland 1994), in that an animal’s behaviour will

depend on the environment. When food is Wall 1990; McConkey & Brockelman 2011).
scarce they will act as predators but when How this behaviour varies with a) seed
food is abundant they may store some seed characteristics and b) habitat in terms of
and act as mutualists, such that their increasing degradation was determined.
contribution to the seed dispersal mutualism
varies along a predation-mutualism gradient One large seeded (> 20 mm in diameter) and
(Theimer 2005). This behaviour will depend one small seeded (<10 mm) tree species with
on the relative abundance of seed versey different palatability to rodents were chosen.
scatterhoarder density and the advantage to a We investigate the fate of these seeds over
seed of being cached verse left on the forest three woodland habitats (i.e. from Reserve
floor (Jorge & Howe 2009). habitat through woodland slightly degraded
to extremely degraded one) was investigated.
Despite the potential importance of Ihuma et al. (2011), report that
scatterhoarding to seed dispersal in tropical forest/woodland degradation is accompanied
woodland it has rarely been quantified. While by frugivore loss in Africa.
several cases have been described in the
Neotropics 1. To address the question of how seed
size may affect seed fate in terms of
(Forget & Milleron 1991; Forget 1992; predation vs dispersal was hypothesise
Forget 1993), only a few investigations cite that predation rates will be markedly
the probability of seed fate in terms of higher in Detarium microcarpum
predation verse caching and/or burying (Feer (Guill. & Perr.) a large seeded than
& Forget 2002; Jorge & Howe 2009). Diospyrous mesfiliformis (Hochst. ex
Moreover in Africa scatterhoarding by A. DC.) a small seeded species.
rodents has only been described in few
instances (Nyiramana et al. 2011; Aliyu et al. 2. Consequently, it was hypothesised
2014) and quantification of seed fate by that caching and burying rates (seed
secondary dispersal has rarely been dispersal) combined will be higher for
attempted (Midgley, Gallaher & Kruger . small seeded species.
2012). 3. Seed dispersal Network will be less
The overall aim in this study is to determine strong in degraded/disturbed habitats
the extent to which secondary seed dispersal because in such habitats there are
by rodents is affected by habitat degradation. fewer fruiting trees and less frugivores
To do this the extent to which seeds than in the Game Reserve woodland,
deposited by frugivores onto the forest floor such that rates of seed predation by
are then secondarily moved (i.e. diplochory rodents will increase. This will be
sensu) (Vander Wall & Longland 2004) by most severe in D. microcarpum a large
rodents to sites with more suitable conditions seeded species.
for germination was investigated (Vander
MATERIALS AND METHODS station, 2015 and Gombe State metrological

rainfall data, 2015). And the mean monthly
Study Site maximum and minimum temperatures for the
Our study site were Yankari Game Reserve wet and dry seasons are 34 and 20oC, and 38
(9o 50’ N and 10o 30’E) Bauchi, Bauchi State, and 26oC, respectively. YGR has been
Kanawa woodland (between 10o 16’ 30’’ N identified as a Birdlife International
and 10o 18’ 32’’ N and 11o 18’ 32’’ E and Important Bird Area and is home to several
11o 18’ 34’’ E) and Nafada (9o 31 N, 11’ 3o primate species including the Red Data
E) Gombe State, northeast Nigeria. Yankari Listed subspecies of chimpanzee (Pan
Game Reserve is 2,242 km2 in area, it is the troglodytes ellioti, the putty-nosed monkey
largest area of woodland in Bauchi State (Cercopithecus nictitans Gray), black-and-
(Bauchi Native Authority, 1945). The white colobus (Colobus guereza occidentalis
Reserve lies at 400-600 m elevation. de Roch.), mona monkey (Cercopithecus
mona Schreb.), tantalus monkey
Kanawa lies at 350-368 m a.s.l., the size of (Chlorocebus tantalus tantalus Ogilby) and
the woodland is about 41hectares (Gombe olive baboon (Papio anubis Lesson)
Native Authority, 1945) the black soil is good (Chapman, Olson & Trumm 2004).
for a rapid growth of tree species. and Nafada
(9o 31 N, 11’ 3o E), the Reserve lies at 200- Study Species
300 m elevation and are affected by annual For our investigation we chose Detarium
grass burning, cattle grazing and logging. microcarpum a large seeded and Diospyrous
Three obvious differences among the habitats mesfiliformis a small seeded species with
we studied (Yankari Game Reserve, Kanawa similar flowering and fruiting phenology and
and Nafada); from here on referred to as primary dispersal agents.
YGR, KNW and NFD respectively. Are i)
presence/absence of focal tree species and Detarium microcarpum is a small tree that
therefore food abundance; ii) density and grows up to 15 m in height. It produces
number of primary seed dispersers and iii) yellowish fruit when ripe, with 1 cm of
rodents behavior in terms of food satiation. greenish mealy pulp, fibrous and sweet,
Both D. microcarpum (Guill. & Perr) and (indehiscent drupe-like pod) 2.5–4.5 cm in
Diospyrous mesfiliformis (Hochst. ex A. diameter. Seed size is 15–20 mm x 6.5–8.5
DC.) are common in YGR. Diospyrous mm. Detarium microcarpum family
mesfiliformis is common in KNW and NFD Caesalpiniaceae is one of the species which
degraded woodlands (unpublished data, B. is used in many different ways through all
Aliyu). west tropical Africa; it is utilized for its
timber, as fuel wood, food source (seeds,
The mean annual rainfall in YGR, KNW and leaves and roots) and to treat numerous
NFD is approximately 1400 mm, 1200 mm ailments (diarrhoeas, dysenteries,
and 1200 mm respectively (Yankari weather haemorrhoids, leprosy, syphilis etc.), but the
species does not appear to be affected from in dry Savannah areas of Africa, and in Sudan
the harvesting level at present. Detarium it is found in Darfour, Blue Nile and
microcarpum is one of the local fruit-bearing Kordofan States, where it is locally known as
species most exploited in Burkina Faso. The Abu-laili in Sudan, 'dank' in Senegal and
bark leaves and roots are widely used because 'tamba dala' in Mali. Overall, seeds
of their diuretic and astringent properties. measuring 1 mm up to 7 mm are ingested and
They are also used against malaria, leprosy defecated during movement or flight,
and impotence. whereas larger seeds are dropped beneath
feeding roost once the pulp has been sucked
Diospyrous mesfiliformis (Ebenaceae) (Forget et al. 2007; Picot et al. 2007). In
produces fleshy fruit of approximately 3 cm Benin, for instance, Djossa et al. (2008)
in diameter and contain 4-6 seeds. Seeds, observed that the pulp of members this family
dark brown, bean-shaped shiny and glabrous. (Caesalpiniaceae) fruit and seeds were found
x 41 (± 0.71) mm with three or four seeds in the faecal sample and under feeding roosts,
measuring 28.4 (0.43) mm x 26.5 (± 0.38) of 5 monkeys species. among them the two
mm in length. Mature trees can reach up to 10 Olive baboons present in YGR.
m in height. Fruiting phenology for both
species varies among years but is mostly Experimental Design
towards the end of the dry season into the
middle of the wet season July to August. Fruit Our experiment included three habitats: i)
of D. mesfiliformis is swallowed by primates Extremely degraded woodland in Nafada
(including P. t. ellioti, C. nictitans, P. anubis (NFD), ii) Degraded woodland in Kanawa
and C. t. tantalus) and large gaped birds such (KNW) which was within 100 m of the
as the Cameroon olive pigeon (Columba grassland and iii) Yankari Game Reserve
sjostedti Reich.) and the piping hornbill (YGR) located in Bauchi. Within each habitat
(Bycanistes fistulator Cassin) (Ihuma 2011) five replicates of a 1x1 m grid of 4 x 5 seeds
while the mesocarp of the fruit of D. were set up at least 25 m apart. The grids
Microcarpum is soaked and the endocarp is were set in areas of each habitat in which
thrown, many fruit were observed sucked by adult trees of either or both focal species were
primates, with seeds accumulating on bare present, or where seed of these species had
ground under parent tree or primates roosts been observed to have been primarily
(Chauvet, Feer & Forget 2004; Feer & Forget dispersed by frugivores. The grid design
2002; Forget 1991). aimed at simulating primary dispersal of our
key species (frugivores).
Ebenaceae and Caesalpiniaceae plant
families are a preferred source of fruit in the Within the grid, each seed was marked with a
diet of World primates and thus act as key one meter long white nylon thread following
dispersers for a range of seed size (Fujita & the method of Forget (1990) to aid us in
Tuttle, 1991). The tree is widely distributed finding them. As the seed coat of D.
mesfiliformis was too thin to tolerate glue, the
thread on these seeds was attached by drilling Data Analysis

a hole through the seed and tying the thread
round. This was feasible because the We were analysed our data on rates of
cotyledons are sufficiently robust that they do predation vs caching and burying within a
not break with drilling. In contrast the hard Bayesian framework because this approach is
seed coat of D. microcarpum shattered when superior to classical statistical approaches
drilled but was hard enough to tolerate glue. when it is necessary to fit complex multilevel
To test for any effect of the two treatments, models (Clark 2005; Gelman & Hill 2007).
we compared seed removal rates of glued Bayesian inference is based on testing
versus drilled seeds at NFD and YGR. No hypotheses of probability distributions and is
difference in seed removal was observed. increasingly used in ecology (Ellison 2004),
see McCarthy (2007) for an introduction to
Once set up, the grids were censused after Bayesian methods in ecology.
three (3) and seven (7) days for seed fate,
which was categorized into four classes: i) We interested in seed fate, that is, the
immediate consumption (predation); ii) probabilities of seed remaining on the plot,
caching under the litter, seeds being hidden being predated, cached or buried (dispersed)
below leaves; iii) burying into the ground or lost in the different habitats (YGR, KNW
with seeds being buried into soil; and iv) and NFD), and how seed species (large vs.
removed (fate unknown). Predated seeds small) affected fate. We fitted one mixed
were identified by having been partially effect logistic multinomial regression model
consumed or by the presence of a thread with to examine the influence of seed species and
no seed attached. Removed seeds were habitat on seed fate. Additive random effects
searched for within a 5 m radius which was were fitted for plot, habitat and replicate
then extended to 10 m if all seeds were not variables. The multinomial probabilities of
found. When a seed was found buried or each seed fate were averaged over habitat*
cached a knot was made in the end of the plot* replicate and were reported in terms of
thread. All threads from missing or eaten posterior means and a 95% credible interval
seeds were removed following the method of (Bayesian analogue of a 95% confidence
(Forget 1996). interval) (Table 2). The effects of species as
well as species*habitat interaction were
The experiments were repeated two times, on assessed by evaluating deviance information
the 27th April 2016 and 7th May 2016 for each criterion (DIC) for the model with and
species. without the above factors (fig. 2).
Infra-red motion detector cameras (Spy point We fitted another mixed effect logistic
IR-6) were attached to trees above the plots multinomial regression model to examine the
to determine which rodent genera were influence of seed species (large) and habitat
predating/dispersing the seeds. (YGR, KNW and NFD) on the response
variable dispersal distance. Dispersal
distance was multinomially distributed. RESULTS

Additive random effects were fitted for plot,
habitat and replicate variables. As in the Fifteen of the 16 images taken by the infra-
previous model the multinomial probabilities red cameras were of the African pouched rat
were averaged over habitat *plot* replicate Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse
and were reported in terms of posterior means (Nesomyidae). The other visitor caught by
and a 95% credible interval. We used DIC to the camera was a porcupine Atherurus
evaluate whether considering the effects of africanus Gray (Erethizontidae).
species as well as species* habitat interaction Rodents visited all plots regularly,
improved the fit of our models. irrespective of habitat. After 7 days, of the
The DIC reflects the goodness-of-fit of a total 2,400 seeds censured across all the three
model while penalizing for complexity habitats, 1167 (48%) were removed from the
(Spiegelhalter, 2002). The smaller DIC value plots. Of those removed 853 (73%) were
corresponds to the better model, and while a recovered. The actual fate of the recovered
difference of 5-10 is suggestive, a difference seed in each habitat is presented in Table 1.
of >10 indicates that the model with the The probability of any recovered seed being
smaller DIC is clearly statistically better. 100 predated, cached, buried or missing after 3
000 iterations were run for each model, after and 7 days, as predicted from the mixed
the first 10 000 were discarded as a burn-in. effects logistic multinomial regression model
The convergence was assessed visually. We is presented in Figures 1 and 2. As the
used the statistical software package conclusions drawn from day 3 and day 7
WinBUGS (Spiegelhalter et al. 2002 ) for our census were very similar, from here on in this
analysis. paper we discuss the results for day 7 only.
Table 1: The fate of the recovered seed in each habitat after day 3 and day 7
Habitat species Day Predated Cached Buried Missing TOTAL
Diospyrous 3 8 24 44 23 99
Diospyrous 7 8 14 29 17 68
YGR
Detarium 3 18 32 17 17 84
Detarium 7 22 27 40 28 117
Diospyrous 3 18 15 40 27 100
Diospyrous 7 16 3 31 25 75
KNW
Detarium 3 43 8 28 17 96
Detarium 7 39 3 33 44 119
Diospyrous 3 29 18 54 45 146
Diospyrous 7 21 0 23 13 57
NFD
Detarium 3 60 5 26 31 122
Detarium 7 36 0 21 27 84
TOTAL 318 149 386 314 1167

Figure 1: The fates of seeds in the three habtats.

Predation rates distribution of seed fates were different for
Detarium microcarpum seeds had a higher the two species. In general, the predation
probability of being predated than D. rates of D. microcarpum increased relatively
mesfiliformis seeds in all three habitats but more with degradation from KNW to NFD
especially in the NFD and KNW than did Diospyrous mesfiliformis.
(ΔDIC=80.3) (Table 2). Predation rates
increased with degradation irrespective of Table 2. Estimated posterior means and
species; the probability that predation rates 95% CIs for the probability of being
increased with degradation (YGR->KNW- predated by habitat type and species
Species YGR KNW NFD
>NFD) is 0.94. This probability is
Diospyrous 0.59 0.47 0.42
comparable to p-values in classical, statistics.
(.54,.64) (.42,.51) (.37,.47)
The inclusion of the interaction term
Detarium 0.57 0.40 0.30
species*habitat significantly improved our
(.53,.62) (.36,.45) (.26,.35)
model fit (ΔDIC=6.9), implying that the
effects of habitat on the multinomial

Figure 2: The fates of seeds in the three habitats
Caching and burying rates

resilience into the system (Gilbert 1980). In
Rodents either cached seeds beneath the thick this study we have quantified the role
litter that covers the ground early in the rainy interplay of habitat and seed type on rodent
season or buried them 1-2 cm deep and behavior in the secondary dispersal of large,
covered the site with litter. The probability of frugivore dispersed seeds in a range of
seeds being hoarded in this way varied woodland habitats suffering increasing levels
between the two species; it was markedly of degradation. While rodents may hinder
higher in D. mesfiliformis than in D. regeneration of frugivore-dispersed tree
microcarpum across the three habitats species through predation they may, under
(ΔDIC=1719) (Table 1). For both seed some circumstances enhance regeneration
species in each habitat, burying was more through scatterhoarding (Forget 1993). In
common than caching: D. microcarpum woodlands which have lost their primary
YGR P= 0.0021; KNW P< 0.0001; NFD P< dispersers scatterhoarding may be key to a
0.0001; D. mesfiliformis YGR P=0.0439; species survival (Feer & Forget, 2002). To
KNW P<0.0001 and NFD P<0.0001 (Table date research into diplochory in African
1). woodlands has been minimal (Nyiramana et
al. 2011; Midgley, Gallaher & Kruge 2012;
DISCUSSION
Aliyu et al. 2014), yet African woodlands are
When plant-frugivore mutualisms are just as vulnerable as Neotropical forests to
threatened by frugivore decline, the wider degradation. The results of our study strongly
interaction networks in which they are supported two of our three original
embedded may become critical by building hypotheses i) that irrespective of habitat,

predation rates would be higher in the more more abundant. The proportion of seed
large D. microcarpum than D. mesfiliformis predated vs scatterhoarded varies with
and iii) that rodent behaviour would vary increasing degradation. While some authors
according to land use such that rates of seed report decreased dispersal with increasing
predation will increase with increasing degradation (Asquith et al. 1999; Cordeiro &
degradation. In contrast, hypothesis ii) that Howe 2003; Galetti et al. 2006; Cramer
combined caching and burying rates (seed Mesquita & Williamson 2007a; Cramer et al.
dispersal) would be higher for D. 2007b; Wright et al. 2007) our results were
mesfiliformis than for D. microcarpum. concordant with those of Dennis et al. (2005)
across all three habitats was only weakly and Jorge & Howe (2009) in that we
supported. measured the highest predation rates in the
NFD an extremely degraded habitat and the
The most parsimonious explanation for lowest in the YGR a protected and
higher predation of D. microcarpum seeds comparatively less degraded habitat, across
relative to D. mesfiliformis and the one we both species. The reason for this finding may
used in developing our first hypothesis was be that NFD support fewer large seeded
based on comparative studies of Neotropical fruiting trees because of their inability to
Moronobea coccinea Aubl. (Clusiaceae) tolerate exposure effects such as high light
(Forget 1991) and Chrysophyllum intensity, logging, fire encroachment, and
lucentifolium Cronq. and Manilkara huberi low relative humidity relative to the YGR
(Ducke) A.Chev. (Sapotaceae) (Feer & (Knorr & Gottberger, 2012). In addition,
Forget 2002; Feer & Forget 2004). As is the what primary dispersers there are in the NFD
case for M. coccinea, the fruit of D. do not disperse seeds as they would in YGR
mesfiliformis has yellow-to-orange latex habitat (Howe & Smallwood 1982). Together
which in M. coccinea has been shown to be these factors can explain why rodents
relatively unpalatable to rodents (personal behaved more as predators than dispersal
observations P.M. Forget). In contrast agents in the NFD and the KNW woodland
Neotropical members of the Caesalpiniaceae (Theimer, 2005). In contrast, in the YGR
family have palatable and nutrient rich habitat, markedly more seed is
cotyledons, a hard seed coat (associated with scatterhoarded because the abundance of
a rich resource and show intense post- seed dispersed onto the woodland floor
dispersal seed predation by rodents (Feer & which satiates the rodents (Feer & Forget,
Forget 2002; Feer & Forget 2004). 2002), leaving excess seed to be
scatterhoarded (Forget, 1993).
Rodent behaviour is well known to vary both
temporally and spatially. For example Feer & In addition to more seed being dispersed in
Forget (2002) found that rates of seed the YGR, we found that dispersal quality
predation on Chrysophyllum lucentifolium (sensu Schupp, 1993) was higher than in the
were higher in years when fruit was overall NFD and the KNW. Seed dispersal rate on
253
Babale A. et al., 2019
average was five times more in the YGR than mesfiliformis is more likely than D.
the NFD. Theoretically the higher dispersal microcarpum to tolerate increasing degration
of an individual seed is from a parent tree, the effects because its seeds are not particularly
higher the likelihood of its survival because large with much nutrients to predators;
it ‘escapes’ from density dependant would- be predators become dispersers.
intraspecific competition and host specific
parasites and predators (Janzen, 1970; Acknowledgements
Connell, 1971; Terborgh et al. 1993; Notman
We thank the Gombe State University for the
Gorchov & Cornejo, 1996; Peres & Baider,
permission and logistical support during the
1997).
research. Several reviewers provided
Our third hypothesis, that caching and invaluable comments on earlier drafts of the
burying rates (seed dispersal) combined manuscript. The study was funded by the
would be higher for the small D. Tertiary Education Trust Fund (scholarship
mesfiliformis than for D. microcarpum was to Dr. Aliyu Babale, Mal. Ismail Mohammed,
only weakly supported. It may be that within Mr. Iliya Musa and Mr. Lazurus Joseph in
the context of the whole community other 2015).
factors came into play which obfusce this
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Bima Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 3(1) July, 2019.

Vol. 3. No. 1 ISSN: 2536-6041 July/August, 2019

Dr. Aliyu Babale Dr. Elisha Karu

A SURVEY ON THE SOLVABILITYAND SIMPLICITY STATUS OF PERMUTATION

The study as we know is focused on the The series of subgroups

1 M. Bello and A. U. Terrang, 2019

𝐺 is solvable if and only if 𝐺 (𝑛) = 1, for

2 M. Bello and A. U. Terrang, 2019

Theorem 1.5 (Milne, 2009) (18)(27)(36)(45)(14725836)(14)(23)(58)(67)(16385274)(16)(25)

(ii) The dihedral group 𝐷𝑛 is solvable ℎ1 ℎ2 = 𝑒 ⟹ ℎ1 = ℎ2 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 = {𝑒}.

whose subgroups are as follows; c) 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 are both normal in G

3 M. Bello and A. U Terrang, 2019

Two elements ℎ1 and ℎ2 of 𝐺 commute if and p-sub groups. By second Sylow

a) G is not simple. (𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 .

a) It is clear by second Sylow theorem that gap> C1:=Group((1,2));

4 M. Bello and A. U Terrang, 2019

gap> D1:=Group((3,4,5)); gap> IsSimple(w2);

acting on the sets 𝑆3 = {1,2}𝑎𝑛𝑑∆3 =

Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟒 and gap> C4:=Group((1,2,3));

Consider the permutation groups 𝑪𝟓 and 𝑫𝟓

𝐶5 = {(1), (123), (132)},

6 M. Bello and A. U Terrang, 2019

acting on the sets 𝑆6 = Let 𝑃 = 𝐶7 ∆7 = {𝑓: ∆7 ⟶ 𝐶7 }𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑃| =

(𝑓1 𝑓2 )𝛿1 = 𝑓1 (𝛿1 )𝑓2 (𝛿1 )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝛿1 ∈ ∆1 .

7 M. Bello and A. U Terrang, 2019

We can easily verify that 𝑊7 is a group with Burnside W. (2012),”Theory of Groups of

a) Is solvable for all values of p and r.

Audu M.S., K.E Osondu, A.R.j. Solarin

8 M. Bello and A. U Terrang, 2019

PLANKTONIC COMPOSITION OF DADIN KOWA DAM, GOMBE STATE,

Keywords: Plankton, zooplanktons, phytoplankton, Dadin-kowa, Gombe.

The water world is another ecosystem with Phytoplanktons are assemblage of

9 Bara’atu A et. al., 2019

Okan 2007). They also provide information MATERIALS AND METHODS

10 Bara’atu A et. al., 2019

Plankton analysis (2013). Count was made and expressed as

Table 1: Phytoplankton composition in Dadin Kowa Reservoir

Phytoplankton Spirogyra Spp Anabaena Spp Fitagiria Spp Tubellaria

Characium Spp Cladophora Spp Cyclotella Spp Closterium Spp

Scendesmus Spp Oscillatoria Spp Navicular Spp -

Coelastrum Spp Nostoc Spp Diatoma Spp -

Volvox Spp Apharizomena Spp - -

Table 2: Relative Abundance of Phytoplankton Species in Dadin Kowa Reservoir

Zooplanktons composition species, Copepod, Phacus and Bosmina

Table 3: Zooplankton composition in Dadin-kowa Reservoir

Zooplankton species Euglena Spp Keratella Spp Limnoclanus Spp DapniaSpp

12 Bara’atu A et. al., 2019

Table 4: Relative Abundance of Zooplanktons Species

1. Euglena Spp 2 - - 1 2 1 6 8.7

3. Keratella Spp 2 1 1 - - 1 5 7.2

4. Limnoclanus Spp - 2 1 2 1 - 6 8.7

5. Copepod Spp 3 1 - 2 1 1 8 11.6

6. Chlamydemonas Spp 2 1 2 1 - 2 8 11.6

7. Phacus Spp 2 1 3 - 1 1 8 11.6

8. Dapnia Spp 3 - 2 - 1 1 7 10.1

9. Rotaria Spp 2 1 2 - 1 1 7 10.1

10. Bosmina Spp 3 - 3 1 - 1 8 11.6

DISCUSSION Lake Buhi, Camarines Sur, Philippines

13 Bara’atu A et. al., 2019

14 Bara’atu A et. al., 2019

Anene, A. (2003). Techniques in Pyrenees). Hydrobiology 551:209-

15 Bara’atu A et. al., 2019

16 Bara’atu A et. al., 2019