RASTER DATA MODEL

Institute of Geographical Information Systems (IGIS)

School of Civil & Environmental Engineering (SCEE)
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST) 1
 RASTER DATA

 Vector Data Model:

 Geometric objects: point, line and polygon to
represent spatial features
 Ideal for Discrete features with well defined loc.
& shape
 Drawback: not suitable for continuous features
which vary in space/location i.e. ppt, elev. Soil
erosion etc.

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 What is raster data?
• Raster data represents the real world as an array of cells
arranged in rows and columns.
• Satellite images, aerial photographs, digital elevation models
(DEMs), scanned maps, and pictures are examples of raster
data.

Each cell has a value that is used to represent some characteristic of that
location, such as temperature, elevation, or a spectral value. Groups of cells
that share a value represent the same type of geographic feature. 3
 What is raster data?
• Raster data is typically used for the following:

• Representing continuous spatial features

such as land-use or soils data and
characteristics such as temperature and
elevation.
• Representing multispectral data such as
satellite imagery.
• Representing pictures such as scanned maps
or drawings and building photographs.
• Analyzing spatial relations among features.
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 What is raster data?

Aerial Photo

Digital Elevation
Model

Scanned Map
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Pictures
Which dataset is most appropriate to use?

 Both rasters and vectors are

extremely useful in a geographic
information system (GIS).
 Raster datasets have a simple data
structure, provide greater detail, and
support advanced spatial and
statistical analysis.

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 Vector datasets have a low data
volume, display faster.
 In addition, they have a complex
data structure.
 By contrast, raster datasets have a
high data volume, display slower,
and can contain spatial inaccuracies
owing to limits imposed by the cell
dimensions of the raster dataset.
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 Overlaying polygon vector layers
can be computationally complex.
 An overlay can be a simple
operation when you are working
with raster data because cells
from the raster layers stack
directly on top of one another.
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Which dataset is most appropriate to use?

An overlay operation can be more complex with vector layers than with
raster layers.

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 Sometimes, you will not have the
choice of working with one dataset
type over another
• —for example, your imagery may be
available only as a raster. Otherwise,
your operational choice depends on
your purpose and the availability of
resources.

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 Typically, raster and vector datasets
complement each other. Being able
to use both raster and vector
datasets allows you to benefit from
the advantages of both.

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 The following table summarizes the
advantages and disadvantages of
using either vector or raster datasets
to store spatial data.

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 In the following scenarios, identify
whether raster data or vector data is
most appropriate to represent real-
world features or characteristics

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 Being able to move back and forth smoothly
between raster and vector representations of
data is an important aspect of spatial analysis.
 You can convert point, line, and polygon features
from any type of source file to a raster, as
described in the following table.

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 When you convert a raster to point features, a
point is created for each non-NoData cell. The
point coordinates are those of the centroid of
the cell.
 When you convert a raster representing linear
features to polyline features, lines are created
from connected chains of same-value cells so
that the lines pass through the center of the
cells.
 When you convert a raster representing areas,
polygon features are built from groups of
connected same-value cells. The bounding lines
are created from the external cell borders.
The graphic on the left is an example of
a road network (vector data) that has
been converted to raster data. The
graphic on the right is an example of
soils data in raster form converted to
vector data. The result of this
conversion is a categorized polygon
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feature.
 Raster data characteristics
 When you have a raster dataset, you
may need to understand its
fundamental characteristics, such as:
• the number of columns and rows, its
format, pixel type, cell size, extent,
projection, and size.

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The graphic illustrates the grid structure of a raster, where
some element of the real world is assigned to each cell (or
pixel) of the grid. 18
 The following table defines various
raster terms.

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 Cell Size of Raster
 The cell size, or spatial resolution, of a raster
becomes important when displaying or
comparing raster data with other data types,
such as vector.
 The cell size determines how coarse or fine
the patterns or features in the raster will
appear.
 Spatial resolution refers to the dimensions of
the cell size representing the area covered on
the ground.
 Therefore, if the area covered by a cell is 1 x
1 meter, the resolution is 1 meter.

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 Cell Size of Raster

A lake (a simple polygon feature) is represented by a raster

dataset at various cell sizes.
The dimension of the cells (square meter values represent the
area of the lake on the ground) can be as large or as small as
needed to represent the surface. If a 4 * 4 grid depicts a lake
where each cell represents 16 square meters on the ground,
the total area of the cells representing the lake is 80 square 21
meters.
 The cell size must be small enough to capture the
required detail but large enough so that
computer storage and analysis can be performed
efficiently.

This comparison of large

and small cell size in a
raster shows how cell size
affects the level of detail
of features or phenomena
represented by a raster.

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 Determining cell size
 Choosing an appropriate cell size is not always
simple. You must balance your application's need
for spatial resolution with practical requirements
for quick display, processing time, and storage.

Raster data is shown

here with different cell
sizes. The smaller the
cell size, the higher the
spatial resolution, and
vice versa.
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 Determining an adequate cell size is as important
in your GIS application planning stages as
determining which datasets to obtain.
• For example, if you are performing analysis at the
parcel level, you would need a small cell. But if you
are performing analysis at the county level, your cell
size can be larger.
 The following factors should be considered when specifying
cell size:

• The spatial resolution of the input data and the storage size of
the raster
• The application and analysis to be performed
• The level of detail you want for the analysis to be performed
• Accuracy and precision and the desired response time

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The graphic
illustrates two
different cell sizes of
a raster. The cell
size of the data in
the left image is
smaller than that of
the data in the right
image.

But the scale at

which each is
displayed is the
same.
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•
Locating cells
In a raster, the location of each cell is defined by the row and column
position within the raster matrix.
• Every cell in a raster can be uniquely identified by its row and column
position.
• The rows and columns are numbered from the top-left corner of the
raster, starting with zero, so the row and column coordinates of that
cell are (0,0). This cell is known as the raster's origin.
• The matrix is represented by a Cartesian coordinate system, in which
the rows of the matrix are parallel to the x-axis and the columns to
the y-axis of the Cartesian plane.
• Values are positive to the right of the origin on the x-axis and above
the origin on the y-axis.
• The location of any point can be specified by an x,y coordinate pair.

A raster that represents geographic

information has a second location on
the x-axis and y-axis. The Cartesian
origin is in the bottom-left corner.

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 The extent of a raster is defined by the top,
bottom, left, and right coordinates of the
rectangular area covered by that raster.

A raster extent displays the

coordinates for the extents of the
image.

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 Raster bands
A band refers to the set of wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum.
It is represented by a matrix of cell values that characterize the raster
dataset—for example, spectral value (overall intensity or strength of light).

Bands can represent any portion of

the electromagnetic spectrum,
including ranges not visible to the
eye (for example, infrared or
ultraviolet).

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 Some rasters have a single band, or layer, of data, whereas
others have multiple bands.
• An example of a single-band raster dataset is a digital elevation
model (DEM). Each cell in a DEM contains only one value representing
surface elevation.
• An orthophoto can have a single band of data (sometimes called a
panchromatic or grayscale image) or three bands (RGB).
• Most satellite or hyperspectral imagery (which records the intensity of
many different bands simultaneously) such as Landsat images have
multiple bands. Typically, these bands contain values within a range
or band of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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 Match the rasters with their
corresponding bands

 Raster data can consist of one or more raster

bands. You have obtained several raster
datasets.
 identify the typical number of bands for each of
these raster.

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 Raster formats
Raster datasets can be stored in many formats, including:
Esri Grid, United States Geological Survey (USGS) Digital Elevation
Model (DEM), National Imagery Transmission Format (NITF), as well
as various image formats:
such as the Tagged Image File Format (TIFF), Multi-resolution
Seamless Image Database (MrSID), Graphics Interchange Format
(GIF), ERDAS IMAGINE (IMG), and Joint Photographic Experts
Group (JPEG).
These formats each have different properties and requirements, and
support specialized uses.

Some offer high data compression, some handle color better than others,
and some are designed specifically to store geographic data.

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 TIFF is recommended for most applications.
• It is the most widely supported format.
• It can be used to store and transfer digital satellite
imagery, scanned aerial photos, elevation models,
scanned maps, or the results of many types of
geographic analysis.
• It supports black-and-white, grayscale, pseudo-color,
and true-color images, all of which can be stored in a
compressed or decompressed format.

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 Raster attribute table
Raster datasets that contain attribute tables typically have cell values that
represent or define a class, group, category, or membership.

The following graphic illustrates a classification analysis of a satellite image

for defining land uses. The categories in this land-use classification are
forest, water, crop land, urban area, and NoData.

The numbers in this

classification
analysis represent
the cell values in
the raster dataset
for various land-use
classes. 33
Attributes for an integer raster (the attribute for each cell is an integer like
10,20,30) are stored in a value attribute table (VAT).

A VAT has one record for each unique value in the raster. The record stores
the unique value (VALUE is an integer that represents a particular class or
grouping of cells) and the number of cells (COUNT) in the raster
represented by that value.
If 11 cells
have a value
of 1
representing
water, the VAT
would show a
VALUE = 1
and COUNT =
11 for each of
the 11 cells.
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 Acquiring raster using
sensors
 Using different methods of remote sensing,
information about the earth is collected
using sensors (mounted on a satellite
orbiting the earth, or on a plane or other
airborne structure).
 These sensors measure the energy reflected
from the earth. This information is
processed, analyzed, and displayed as a
digital image or as a photograph.
 These images can be panchromatic,
multispectral, pan-sharpened, or thermal.
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 Aerial Image
 An image of a portion of the surface of the earth
taken from a platform flying above the surface but not
in orbit, usually an aircraft.
 An example of a passive sensor that can only be used
to detect energy when the naturally occurring energy
is available.
 Aerial imagery is often used as a cartographic data
source for basemapping, locating geographic features,
and interpreting environmental conditions.
 For example, foresters use aerial images for preparing
forest cover maps, locating possible access roads, and
measuring quantities of trees harvested.

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 Lidar is a remote sensing technology
that measures distance by
illuminating a target with a laser and
analyzing the reflected light.

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 Lidar Image
 A profile slice of a lidar all-return point
cloud. Each return is labeled distinctly.
This basic lidar concept can be used to
illustrate the fact that one pulse out of
a lidar sensor can have up to four
associated returns.
 This graphic illustrates an active sensor
that provides its own energy source for
illumination and includes the ability to
obtain measurements any time,
regardless of the time of day or season.

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 Thermal Image
An overlay of a USGS photograph and a thermal image of the same
area, highlighting several active breakouts on the coastal plain.

Thermal infrared radiation refers to electromagnetic waves with a

wavelength of between 3.5 and 20 micrometers.
Lie detection equipment
in airports is old news,
but the use of thermal
imaging cameras and
powerful software to
covertly spot potential
deception is not.

The solid blue swatch of color flowing

down the left side is the Mississippi
River.
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 Radar Image
 Radar uses relative long wavelengths that
allow these systems to "see" through
clouds, smoke, and some vegetation.
 Radar images are currently being used for
studies of ecology, hydrology,
oceanography, geology, ice sheets, glaciers,
icebergs, and archeological exploration.
 An image of Chattanooga, Tennessee,
obtained using the Side-Looking Airborne
Radar image-producing system.

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 Creating rasters from scanning
and surveying
 Scanning and surveying are additional sources
for creating rasters.
 Hard-copy maps and photographs can be
incorporated into the GIS environment
through the use of a scanning device, which
can convert the maps and photographs into a
digital (raster) format.
 Surveying requires the use of specialized
equipment and software. Receivers intended
for mapping have high accuracy and provide
user interfaces that allow rapid data collection.
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The graphic shows a scanned
map. The map, photograph,
transparency, or other object to
be scanned is typically placed
on a flat surface, and the device
scans the image from side to
side to record it. Scanning
converts the image from analog
to digital format.

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A surface map created
using GPS data. Capturing
GPS data is manually
intensive but can also
provide highly accurate
locational data. This data
can also be used to verify
or correct the accuracy of
other digital data sets

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Deriving rasters from vectors or
from other rasters
 Rasters can be derived by performing
various geoprocessing operations that
combine data from various sources
such as vectors, other rasters, or
terrain data.

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 Lidar Derived DEM
The graphic shows a bare-earth
lidar-derived DEM, where all man-
made structures and vegetation
have been removed. This DEM is
obtained using the point cloud
lidar data, and is an example of a
raster derived from vector data
(lidar points).
These DEMs have a wide range of
uses such as earthquake hazard
studies, hydrologic modeling,
forestry, flood plain mapping,
wetland studies, geologic studies,
and a variety of analytical and 45

cartographic projects.
The graphic shows a
HillShade
hillshade surface obtained
by determining illumination
values for each cell in a
raster. This is done by
setting a position for a
hypothetical light source
and calculating the
illumination values of each
cell in relation to
neighboring cells. A
hillshade can greatly
enhance the visualization of
a surface for analysis or
graphical display, especially 46

when using transparency.

 Slope
This graphic shows a slope
map calculated using the
maximum rate of change in
elevation over the distance
between the cell and its
eight neighbors. The
vertical angle of the surface
or local steepness of terrain
is the slope. The lower the
slope, the flatter the
terrain; the higher the slope
value, the steeper the
terrain.
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 Flow accumulation grid
This graphic shows a flow
accumulation grid created
using a lidar-derived DEM.
This model is typically
useful for forecast flooding,
to generate drainage
networks, and to order
streams. A flow
accumulation grid connects
the direction of flow from
cell to cell and determines
the number of cells
accumulating within a
downslope flow path. 48
 Thematic Map
This graphic shows a
raster representing
thematic data derived
using a satellite image
classified by land-cover
categories. A discrete
thematic raster
represents objects that
have known and
definable boundaries,
such as buildings and 49

wells.
 Lidar-derived Intensity image
This graphic shows a lidar-derived
intensity image created using a
point-cloud lidar dataset (vector
data). Intensity is a measure,
collected for every point, of the
return strength of the laser pulse
that generated the point. The
intensity images have a variety of
uses in GIS applications such as
feature detection and extraction,
lidar point classification, and as a
substitute for aerial imagery
when none is available. If your
lidar points include intensity
values, you can make images
from them that look something
like black and white aerial photos, 50

as shown in this graphic.

 Suitability Raster
The graphic shows multiple
rasters with values
representing vegetation,
precipitation, and elevation
overlaid, and a series of
operations applied to them
to identify suitable areas for
crop production. Suitability
analysis is typically
performed for land-use
analysis, retail site
selection, crime analysis,
and so forth. 51
 Mosaic Dataset
The graphic shows a
mosaic dataset created
using multiple rasters
within a geodatabase. A
mosaic dataset allows
you to store, manage,
view, and query
collections of raster and
image data.

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Drone Mapping

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THANK YOU

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