Lesson 1: Introduction to Statistical Concept
qualitative phenomenon.
Statistics help to decide on everyday life.
Statistics – science of collecting organizing,
summarizing, and analyzing information to draw
conclusions or answer questions.
 About providing a measure of confidence in any
conclusions.
Field of Statistics
A.) Mathematical Statistics – this study and
development of statistical theory and methods in
the abstract
B.) Applied Statistics – the application of statistical
methods to solve real problems involving
randomly generated data and the development of
new statistical methodology motivated by real
problems.
Function of Statistics
Condensation – reduce or to lessen a huge mass of data
into few observations (classification and tabulation)
Comparison – compare data collected from different
sources (through graphs and charts, summary measures).
Forecasting – to predict or to estimate beforehand
(times series data)
Estimation – is related to model building, finding the
most appropriate parameter that best describes the
multivariate distribution of historical data
Test of Hypothesis – is used to access the plausibility of
a hypothesis by using the sample data using statistical
test or analysis.
Scope of Statistics
 Statistics and Industry: widely use in industries
(control charts)
 Statistics and Commerce: blood life of
successful commerce
 Statistics and Economics:
 Statistics and Education
 Statistics and Planning
 Statistics and Medicine
 Statistics and Modern Applications
Limitation of Statistics
- Statistics is not suitable to the study of
- Statistics does not study individuals
- Statistical laws are not exact
- Statistics table may be misused
- Statistics is only one of the methods of studying
a problem.
Process of Statistics
- Identify the research objective
- Collect the information needed to answer the
questions.
- Organize and summarize the information
- Draw Conclusion from the information.
Branches of Statistics
- Descriptive Statistics – concerned with the
description and summarization of data. Deals
with the techniques used in the collection,
presentation, organization, and analysis of the
data on hand.
- Inferential Statistics – concerned with the
drawing of conclusions from data. Deals with
the techniques used in generalizing from
samples to populations, performing estimations
and hypothesis test determining relationships
among variables and making predictions.
Definition of Terms
- Universe – set of all entities under study
- Population – is the total or entire group of
individuals or observation from which
information is desired by a researcher.
- Sample – subset of the population
- Individual – is a person or object that is a
member of the population being studied.
- Parameter – is a numerical summary of a
population
- Statistic – is a numerical summary of a sample
Variables – characteristics of the individuals within the
population.
- Qualitative Variables (Categorical
Variables): a variable that yields categorical
responses. It is a word or a code that represents a
class or category.
- Quantitative Variables (Numeric): takes on
numerical values representing an amount or
quantity.
  Discrete Variable – a quantitative
variable that either a finite number of
possible values or countable number of
possible values
 Continuous Variable – has an infinite
number of possible values that are not
countable
Level of Measurement
- Nominal – Qualitative Variable; also called
categorical scales/data. Classifies persons or
objects into two or more categories.
- Ordinal – Qualitative Variable; involves data
that may be arranged in some order, but
differences between data vales either cannot be
determined or meaningless.
- Interval – Quantitative Variable; specifies that
the distances between each interval on the scale
are equivalent along the scale from low interval
to high interval. A value of zero does not mean
the absence of the quantity. Arithmetic
operations such as addition and subtraction can
be performed on values of the variable.
- Ratio Data – Quantitative Variable; has the
properties of the interval level of measurement
and the ratios of the values of the variable have
meaning. A value of zero means absence of the
quantity. Arithmetic operations such as
multiplication and division can be performed on
the values of the variable.
Lesson 2: Data Collection and Sources of Data
Data Collection - Is the process of gathering and
measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer state research questions, test hypothesis, and
evaluate outcomes.
Consequences from Improperly Collected Data
- Inability to answer research questions
accurately.
- Distorted findings resulting in wasted resources.
- Compromising decisions for public policy.
- Inability to repeat and validate the study
- Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless
avenues of investigation.
- Causing harm to human participants and animal
subjects.
Steps in Data Gathering
1. Set the objectives for collecting data
2. Determine the data needed based on the set
objectives
3. Determine the method to be used in data
gathering and define the comprehensive data
collection points
4. Design data gathering forms to be used
5. Collect Data
6. Organize, Summarize, and Analyze data
gathered.
Sources of Data
- Primary Data: Include information and
processed directly by the researcher
1. Direct Personal Interviews – The
researcher has direct contact with the
interviewee. The researcher gathers
information by asking questions to the
interviewee.
2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method – This
method of data collection involves sourcing
and accessing existing data that were
originally collected for the purpose of the
study.
 Keep the questionnaire as short as
possible
 Decide on the type of questionnaire
(Open or Close ended)
 Write the questions properly
 Order the questions appropriately
 Avoid questions that prompt or motivate
the respondent to say what you would
like to hear.
 Write and introductory letter or an
introduction.
 Write special instructions for
interviewers or respondents
 Translate the questions of necessary.
 Always test your questions before taking
the survey. (Pre-test)
Open Ended VS Closed Ended Questionnaire
Open Ended: Advantages
- More detailed answers
- Could reveal additional insights
Disadvantages
- Difficult to Encode, Tabulate, and Analyze
 - Low response rate
- Respondents must be articulate
- Respondent could feel threatened
- Responses could have different levels of detail

Close Ended: Advantages

- Easy to Encode, Tabulate, and Analyze

- Easy to Understand
- Enables Inter-study comparisons
- Saves time and money
- High Response Rate

Disadvantages

- Could frustrate respondents

- Potentially biased response sets
- Difficult or impossible to detect if respondent
truly understood the questions.
3. Focus Group – Is a group interview
approximately six to twelve people who
share similar characteristics or common
interests. A facilitator guides the group
based on a predetermined set of topics.
4. Experiment – is a method of collecting data
where there is direct human intervention on
the conditions that may affect the values of
the variable of interest.
5. Observation – Method of collecting data on
the phenomenon of interest by recording the
observations made about the phenomenon as
it happens.
- Secondary Data: Information that has already
been collected, process and reported out by
another researcher/entity.
 Method of Collecting Secondary Data
- Published report on newspaper and periodicals
- Financial Data reported in annual reports
- Records maintained by the institution
- Internal reports of the government departments
- Information from official publications.