Review Questions Key 2010

1.
(a) succession: orderly change over time in an ecosystem;

succession e.g. temperate forest development;
zonation: the arrangement/patterning of plant

communities/ecosystems, into parallel/sub-parallel bands in
response to change, over a distance, in some environmental factor;
zonation e.g. changes in ecosystems up a mountain with increasing
altitude;
Accept other reasonable responses.
6 max
Award [1] for definition, [1] for example and [1] for a diagram
of each process.
1
(b) food production system e.g. intensive wheat production;
natural ecosystem e.g. deciduous woodland;
both wheat fields and woodlands have low initial productivity;

increases rapidly as biomass accumulates;
wheat harvested before production:respiration = 1;
herbivores controlled or isolated from the food production system;
natural woodland consumer community increases so naturally
high productivity is balanced by consumption and respiration;
woodland reaches climax when production: respiration = 1/all
productivity is balance by respiration; 6 max
Award [2 max] for examples and [4 max] for comparisons.
(c) characteristics: [3 max]

greater habitat diversity;
complex ecosystem;
various niches;
different nutrient and energy pathways;
large size;
little human activity;
minimal pollution;
plentiful abiotic factors e.g. water, light, heat;
different trophic levels;
threats: [3 max]
pollution – kills some species, makes conditions impossible for
others/Trent Biotic Index organisms/degradation of ecosystems;
selective logging;
hunting of top carnivores;
human activities – burning/building;
grazing animals;
climate change; 6 max
Award credit if named examples are used.
Expression of ideas [2 max]
[20]
2
2. (a) e.g. the Aral Sea, Former Soviet Union;
sustainable use of water resources means using them at a rate
that allows natural regeneration and minimizes damage to
the environment;
this has not happened in the Aral Sea which has been
shrinking in size due to excessive removal of water from
feeder rivers;
water was taken and used to irrigate cotton fields by the
Soviet government;
high rates of evaporation together with high applications of
chemical fertilizers led to salinization;
and pollution of remaining water resources;
this has had a knock-on effect on local communities as water
supplies were decimated;
and local farming and fishing industries collapsed; 6 max
(b) global warming will lead to changes in global water budget;

with increased melting of glacial ice and ice caps;
and will cause changes in precipitation (amounts and distribution);
evaporation rates will change;
seasonality will vary which could be significant in water supply;
increased flood risks in certain areas;
and expanding desert zones with water shortage; 5 max
(c) economic factors will be central - whether or not a country can

pay for sanitation and water purification;
technological factors – if the technology is available;
often Governments will be reluctant to impose limits if multinational
companies will then be deterred from locating there;
monitoring water quality in remote rural areas can be very difficult;
the political priority might be development first, environment later;
the political structure might favour short-term profits rather than
long-term environmental protection;
cultural inertia - reluctance to change the way in which resources
have always been used; 6 max
[20]
3
3. (a) Baseline study: [2 max]
a baseline study seeks to measure existing conditions prior to the
implementation of a project in order to have a standard of
comparison once the project is completed;
baseline studies are used to determine potential impacts on
the environment of a project;
Biotic: [2 max]
use of transects to determine cover/abundance of fauna and flora;
use of quadrats to measure species abundance and diversity
(application of diversity indices);
use of Lincoln Index/capture-mark-release-recapture to
determine numbers of different animal species;
determination of biomass by removal and drying of plant tissue;
Accept other reasonable answers.
Abiotic: [2 max]
testing of water for various parameters (e.g. nitrates/dissolved
solids/BOD/DO) using testing kits and/or electrodes of various types;
air speed and direction using anemometers;
determination of soil pH using universal indicators;
determination of water flow throughout year using flow weirs; 6 max
(b) the ecological footprint will increase; (must be included for full marks).
availability of cash leads to greater purchasing power;
consequent increase in consumer good acquisition;
production of these goods requires energy that may release CO2 thus
increasing footprint;
money allows people to buy more animal protein from grain
fed animals, so the footprint increases;
as people enter a consumer society and turn away from
subsistence level lifestyles footprint increases;
money may allow access to better homes resulting in less
need for locally produced firewood thus decreasing footprint; 6 max
(c) reuse, recycling and re-manufacture reduce need for raw material;
reduces stress on a finite resource;
aluminum requires far less energy to recycle than to produce;
produces less waste;
employs people (possibly no net loss of employment);
creates environmental awareness;
reduce need to intervene rivers for hydroelectric power; 5 max
[20]
4
4. (a) population pyramids give age/sex structure for country;
age/sex pyramids identify percentage of providers and dependents
within a country;
allows for monitoring change in dependent to provider ratio;
measures the size/structure of a population over time;
number in fertile age bracket;
expanding/contracting population;
gender ratios;
birth rate and death rate;
impact of events, e.g. wars, disease, etc.
5 max
Award [1] for a diagram.
(b) global population continues to rise/per capita resources

consumption increasing/resource exploitation is reaching its limits;
technology can increase carrying capacity e.g. GM crops/fertilizers/
alternative energy sources;
must use resources more effectively;
as resources are depleted they become more economically expensive;
economic growth means demand for resources is increasing so
cost increases (crude oil);
may not be sustainable in the long-term; 6
Accept any other reasonable suggestions.
5
(c)
Advantages Disadvantages
reducing use resources are conserved/last hard to do/slows economic
longer; growth/reduces standard of
living in present consumer
culture;
reusing reduces resources use; saves health and safety issues/loss of
energy in extraction, technological edge;
processing or recycling;
recycling reduces resource use not economic as lot of energy
e.g. aluminium recycling required to recycle e.g.
versus energy efficient; plastics/paper/lower quality
reduces landfill/increased materials;
environmental awareness;
e.g. aluminium cans/bottles;
Award [1] for each advantage and disadvantage. Award credit

for relevant examples. 7 max
[20]
5. (a) a simplified description;

designed to show the structure/workings of an object/system/concept;
require approximations to be made; 2 max
6
(b) predicting the growth of human populations: [3 max]
growth of human population depends (at a simple level) on birth rates
and death rates;
from this rates of natural increase can be calculated and population
total predicted;
population pyramids enable policy makers to chart what proportion
of the population are in the fertile age bracket helping to predict
likely birth rates;
demographic transition model shows how population growth is
linked to economic development;
enables the reasons for population growth to be understood;
but not all countries conform to the stages identified;
models are hugely simplified, and may not reflect the complex and
unpredictable factors which affect growth rates e.g. war/disease;
predicting climate change: [3 max]
models can demonstrate anticipated changes to climate based on
carbon emissions;
model only as good as the data that goes in and it may be suspect;
conflicting models can show different effects in same place;
hugely complex in terms of numbers of factors involved in
atmospheric systems so in process of oversimplification accuracy is lost;
e.g. role of feedback/ocean systems not fully understood;
Accept other examples of feedback.
assessing demands human populations make on their
environments: [3 max]
ecological footprints can be effective for comparing environmental
impacts of different societies;
able to provide a quantitative estimate of human carrying capacity;
a quantification of what can be a very complex set of factors;
can be useful tools for getting people to think about their impact;
stresses the systems approach and interconnectedness of eco and
social systems;
very difficult to calculate figures e.g. per capita CO2 emissions; 9 max
To receive full marks answers must have a balance of strengths
and weaknesses. Award credit if other relevant models are evaluated.
7
(c) strategies for controlling growth include availability of contraception/
financial incentives/public information/legislative changes (e.g.
making abortion illegal);
often the reasons for family size can be attributed to cultural
factors so for policies to be effective they need to understand the
underlying reasons why people decide to have a certain number
of children;
the need for male children in some cultures is linked to the
traditional practices and structures e.g. inheritance by male heirs
and dowries for females;
sometimes cultural factors indirectly play a role in fertility rates
e.g. education and employment opportunities for women lead to
delayed marriages and lower birth rates;
provision of contraception in e.g. remote, rural communities
may not be enough – programmes to educate males to be willing
to use the contraception are also needed;
cultural norms may be ingrained/deeply felt and policies need
to address these at the deepest level to change attitudes e.g.
religious beliefs in catholic countries;
culture and tradition evolve over time/cultural change can occur
and governments can be a part of this;
education and economic development are important factors in
bringing about cultural change; 7 max
Award [4 max] if no examples are used. Examples can be of cultural
practices and do not need to be located in named geographical
contexts.
[20]
6. (a) (i) maize: inputs – outputs = 298 – 294;

= 4 kg ha–1 (units needed); 2
ryegrass: inputs – outputs = 298 – 304;
= –6 kg ha–1 (units needed); 2
(ii) ryegrass: produces a net loss of nitrogen from the soil; 1
(b) (i) 30 × 70 = 2100 kg ha–1; 1

(ii) atmosphere: lost as nitrogen gas from the soil surface and plants;
consumed by animals (as a constituent of plant material)
and removed by the animal from the field;
leached away; 2 max
(c) add more fertilizer;

plant wheat/maize/other crops;
plant legumes {e.g. clover);
plant crops in rotation; 3 max
8
(d) (i) The answer should clearly describe the process of
eutrophication.
enhanced levels of N and P leads to increase in algal
growth/algal blooms;
as algal blooms are decomposed by bacteria, respiration
leads to diminishing oxygen levels;
water quality decreases, so less oxygen for other organisms; 3
(ii) changing agricultural practice, e.g. different crops;

contour plowing;
timing fertilizer application to minimise impact;
adopting different fertilizer (synthetic, slow release);
treating drainage water (removing N and P);
clean up and re-oxygenate water course;
oxygen enrich water course;
harvest (remove) algae; 3 max
(e) loam soils contain a good balance of sand, silt and clay particles;
therefore have airspaces for root penetration;
and good drainage;
and the clay humus complex for mineral retention;
and water retention; 3 max
[20]
7. (a) natural capital is a term sometimes used by economists for natural

resources that, if appropriately managed, can produce a “natural
income” of goods and services;
the natural capital of a forest might provide a continuing natural
income of timber, game, water and recreation;
sustainability – using global resources at a rate that allows
natural regeneration and minimizes damage to the environment;
e.g. a system of harvesting renewable resources at a rate that
will be replaced by natural growth might be considered to
demonstrate sustainability;
Wilson is advocating that countries should adopt this approach
when assessing their resource base; 5
Answers which do not refer to the statement should be awarded [4 max].
9
(b) Water [7 max] or [6 max]
water is replenishable natural capital (it is non–living but is dependent
on the solar engine for renewal);
but globally it is being used at a faster rate than it can be replenished;
only a small fraction of the Earth’s water supply is available as a
readily usable resource for humans;
there are growing demands on water resources as populations increase;
societies become more affluent and expectations rise;
irrigation, industrialization and domestic demand are all increasing;
withdrawal of water from underground aquifers is often occurring
at a faster rate than it can be replenished;
this has led to falling water tables;
degradation of water supplies through pollution reduces the
amounts which are available to us;
global warming may disrupt rainfall patterns and supplies and make
matters worse;
a lot of water is wasted or used inefficiently;
Give credit for named examples and case studies.
Soil [6 max] or [7 max]
soils are renewable in that they will regenerate naturally given
enough time;
however, misuse of soils by a variety of human activities is leading to
degradation of soil resources at a faster rate than they can cope with;
examples of unsustainable practice with regard to soils include:
overgrazing – where the trampling and feeding of livestock leads to
loss of vegetation, and exposure of underlying soil;
deforestation – removing vegetation;
overcultivation – leading to a loss of soil fertility and structure;
all leave top soil vulnerable to erosion by wind and water;
excessive irrigation can lead to salinization and toxification; 13 max
[20]
8. (a) increase in population growth as death rates lowered due to

better medical care;
increased wealth means people are consuming more (sometimes
more than they need);
economics of food production systems mean that food production
is a business and subsidies may guarantee prices no matter how
much is produced;
desire for food security in turbulent political times;
as more and more land is used for settlement and industry,
increasing need to intensify production on existing farm land;
in LEDCs food production used as a way to generate foreign currency; 4 max
10
(b) Answer will, of course, depend on the problems chosen. [4] for each
problem. Credit should be given for use of examples and case studies.
e.g. soil erosion:
use of heavy machinery leads to compaction of soil, so soil
structure is lost;
top soil is more easily removed by the agents of erosion
(wind or water);
even more erosion likely if wind breaks (hedgerows and walls)
are removed;
once top soil is lost, organic material is gone and the fertility of
the soil is reduced;
this occurred during the 1930s in the US due to intensive farming
on the prairies;
leading to the dust bowl as vast quantities of soil were blown away;
leads to lower yields and a vicious cycle as remaining soil may be
even more intensively farmed by farmers to compensate; 8 max
(c) Answers may be general, covering a variety of strategies or more

specific, addressing strategies related to a particular problem.
Credit should be given for use of examples and case studies.
e.g. a general answer:
use of natural fertilizers (e.g. manure) rather than chemical fertilizers;
controlling the amount of fertilizers that are applied to ensure excess
is not washed into water bodies;
organic farming methods applied and marketed effectively to consumers to
compensate for higher production costs;
biological pest control rather than chemical control;
keeping stores of genetic material to ensure species diversity is not lost;
encouraging polyculture to reduce vulnerability to disease;
agro-forestry to reduce soil erosion;
specific strategies to reduce soil erosion e.g. terracing; 5 max
[20]
11
9. (a) Transfers: [3 max]
transfers normally flow through a system and involve a change in
location;
water will flow through soil (infiltration) to replenish groundwater
(transfer);
excessive flow of water through a very porous soil will wash away
the nitrates into rivers and sea (leaching);
water can flow from soil into plants by uptake into roots;
Transformation: [3 max]
lead to an interaction within a system in the formation of a new end
product/involve a change of state;
soil water may evaporate back into the atmosphere (transformation);
few plants have the ability to absorb atmospheric nitrogen directly,
so it has to be converted by bacteria;
these bacteria exist, in decaying remains/in the soil, to form nitrates
which can be taken in by the plants in solution with water in the
ground (nitrification);
but people can also add nitrogen to the soil in the form of artificial
fertilizers;
by planting leguminous crops e.g. peas/beans/clover, which are
able to fix atmospheric nitrogen;
the soil is the home of bacteria and if it becomes waterlogged near
the surface the bacteria are unable to break down the decaying plant
and animal matter;
then the poorly decomposed matter forms peat on the surface e.g.
in a peat bog (denitrification); 5 max
12
(b) large-scale cereal cultivation in the prairies, USA – high technology
approach to minimizing wind erosion;
e.g. use of specially adapted ploughs;
shelterbelts of trees planted;
GM crops with shorter stalks to minimize wind damage and exposure
of soil;
application of fertilizer to retain fertility of soil;
small-scale agriculture e.g. vegetable farming in Thailand – manure
from working livestock allowed to fertilize soil;
terraces built by hand to reduce run-off;
fields allowed to be fallow/rest by crop rotation/soil is rested;
variety of crops grown reduces the likelihood of exposure of soil at
different times;
commercial farming system relies on a technological approach to
managing the soil (technocentric);
whereas subsistence depends more on traditional practices, which
have evolved over time as people live on the land (ecocentric) e.g.
application of manure;
tend to be low tech and simple;
but system can break down when population pressure leads to
abandonment of traditional methods;
e.g. shortage of firewood means manure is burnt for fuel instead
of being returned to land; 8 max
Accept any other reasonable answers.
Award [1] for naming commercial and subsistence farming systems.
Award [4 max] if no named systems are mentioned. Answer needs
to show comparison. If systems are simply described award [6 max]
13
(c) systems are models with inputs, outputs and storages;
activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, unsustainable agriculture
and irrigation cause processes of degradation;
these include soil erosion, toxification and salinization;
systems approach stresses the interconnectedness of soils and
emphasizes the knock-on impact that actions can have;
with overgrazing an understanding of the balance of animals that
can be supported before the critical threshold is reached will help
farmers plan herd size;
seeing soils as renewable resources in equilibrium (inputs of nutrients
through rain and organic matter) and outputs through natural leaching;
will help farmers to compensate for the losses to overall nutrient
balance by removing crops, and the importance of returning nutrients
through the use of fertilizers;
understanding that soils are living systems which are integral parts
of ecosystems will help farmers to take a broader perspective when
managing their land e.g. deforestation on nearby slopes can have
an impact on water flows and likelihood of soil erosion in flash
flood conditions;
some processes of degradation are examples of positive feedback
e.g. less vegetation → greater wind speeds → more soil erosion →
less top soil → less vegetation etc., understanding this can help
farmers to break the cycle; 5 max
Do not accept arguments that are not linked to the concept of systems.
[20]
10. (a) non-renewable are natural resources which cannot be replenished

within a timescale of the same order as that at which they are taken
from the environment and used (e.g. fossil fuels);
renewable are natural resources that have a sustainable yield/harvest
equal to/less than their natural productivity, (e.g. food crops, timber);
replenishable are non-living natural resources that depend on the
energy of the Sun for their replenishment, (e.g. groundwater);
renewable are biotic and depend on biotic processes;
whereas replenishable are abiotic and depend on abiotic processes; 3 max
14
(b) Award [1] for a named example of replenishable natural capital.
e.g. ozone/groundwater;
e.g. for ozone:
human actions damaging resource:
human activity releases ozone depleting substances such as CFCs/
halons/NOx;
CFCs are found in refrigerants and propellants;
pollutants enhance the rate of destruction of ozone in the stratosphere;
ozone depleting substances already released remain active for long
periods;
there has been a decline in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere
of about 4 % every ten years;
ozone depletion has lead to “holes” in the ozone layer e.g. over Antarctica;
possible effects:
ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (270–315 nm)
of ultraviolet light from passing through the Earth’s atmosphere;
so a thinning/hole allows more UVB wavelengths through;
this has consequences such as increases in skin cancer/increased
mutations;
damage to plant tissues;
and reduction of plankton populations;
which has knock-on effects for their consumers (zooplankton)/for food
chains/webs;
e.g. for groundwater:
human actions damaging resource (examples need to be related to
groundwater not other water resources):
human activity is releasing pollutants so water quality is lost;
sources of pollution include agricultural products;
and underground storage tanks/landfills/septic tanks/mining run-off;
excessive abstraction/extraction/groundwater mining means water
tables are lowered;
can lead to salt water intrusion in coastal areas, further contaminating
supply;
excessive use of surface water means that groundwater supplies
are not being replenished;
possible effects:
reduced availability of water resources;
knock-on impacts on agriculture, as less water is available for
irrigation and yields decline;
higher costs of water for industry, with knock on effects for economy;
increase in tensions/conflict over the limited resource; 8 max
Award up to [5 max] for human actions damaging resource and up
to [5 max] for possible effects.
15
(c) description: Award [3 max]
the Gaia hypothesis was developed by James Lovelock;
it compares the Earth to a living organism in which feedback
mechanisms maintain equilibrium;
the initial hypothesis was that the biomass modifies the conditions
on the planet to make conditions on the planet more hospitable
(full homeostasis);
and that the earth is a global control system of surface temperature,
atmospheric composition and ocean salinity;
evaluation: Award [5 max]
strengths:
sustainable management means ensuring resources are not degraded/
natural capital is not used up, so that future generations can
continue to use the resource;
global perspective is useful because many problems have global
consequences e.g. global warming;
so understanding knock-on effects outside of national boundaries
helps governments to be more responsible;
understanding that our actions can have an impact on others is good
for getting societies to think about impacts on different generations,
not just in different countries;
sometimes problems need international agreements e.g. CITES for
trade across boundaries to ensure populations are big enough to
sustain the species;
ecosystems are affected by global processes e.g. hydrological cycle/
atmospheric system;
global perspective stresses the interrelationships between systems so
knock-on effects are reduced;
weaknesses:
but ecosystems can exist at many scales, and so a more local
perspective is sometimes appropriate;
human actions can be culturally specific e.g. traditional farming
methods;
often local methods have evolved to be more sustainable/appropriate
for the local environment;
individual/small-scale community action can be very effective for
managing resources sustainably e.g. recycling;
some environmental problems are local in nature e.g. point source
pollution; 7
max
Evaluation needs strengths and weaknesses. Award [2 max] if only
strengths or weaknesses are addressed.
[20]
16
11. (a) 6
Insolation Insolation
185000 1972000
Fjord Open sea

3470 Phytoplankton
Farmed shrimp 847
461
Kawai
Salmon
26
410 4.3 6.2 572
Inuit
12.5 Other human activities 4.1 Managing salmon

14 Managing shrimp farm Fishing for
kawai 6.7
Award [1] for each two correct labels.
(b) (i) the quantity of organic matter produced or solar energy

fixed, by photosynthesis in green plants per unit area
per unit time; 1
(ii) net primary productivity is GPP less the biomass / energy

lost by plants through respiration; 1
(iii) nutrient and mineral availability;

temperauture; 2
847 – 572
(c) kaway × 100 = 32.5% ;
847
461 – 410
salmon × 100 = 11.1% ;
461
kaway is more efficient; 3 max
17
(d) in terrestrial systems most food is harvested from relatively
low tropic levels, but in aquatic systems most food is
harvested from higher trophic levels;
energy conversions along the food chain may be more
efficient in aquatic systems;
initial fixing or available solar energy by primary producers
tend to be less efficient due to the absorption and reflection
of light by water; 3
(e) salmon is a source of income as well as a food source; 1
(f) technology likely to be simpler;

methods likely to be more traditional;
environmental impact will probably be smaller;
more likely to be sustainable in the long term; 3 max
[20]
12. (a) The system should be both terrestrial or both aquatic. Examples
could compare salmon fishing in Norway with rice fish farming
in Thailand, intensive beef farming in North America and Masai
herding in Kenya. No credit should be given for naming the food
production system. However, if food production system is not
named award [5 max].
Award [2 max] for resource inputs.
The following points could be considered:
comparison of contrasting fertilizer use;
variation in water resource use;
labour input;
energy input;
Award [2 max] for resource outputs.
consideration of variation in system productivity;
reference to net and gross production;
Award [2 max] for technology.
comparison of the variation in technology and the implication for
the system;
technology may include machinery and organic technology
e.g. GM crops, the use of draft animals versus agricultural
machinery; 6 max
Any other reasonable answers.
18
(b) Answers should clearly demonstrate the direct and indirect impact
of the two farming systems on their immediate environment.
The nature of the systems chosen will dictate the content of the
answer.
salmon fishing in Norway:
organic debris contamination of coastal waters from waste food
and excreta;
the addition of steroids and other chemical waste to the adjacent
coastal waters;
accidental escape and the contamination of local gene pools;
potentially introduces non-natural genetic variation;
rice fish farming:
impacts on local biodiversity – both plants and animals;
introduces alien species;
changes nutrients budget;
impacts directly on natural resources/food within the system; 5 max
Answers must refer to both systems for full marks.
(c) (i) Award [2 max] for any of the following.

food resources needs:
needs will change over the next 100 years as the global
human population continues to increase;
as countries develop further their demand for a greater
variety of food products (at a greater level) will expand;
dietary animal protein will increase/food fashion may change;
change in productivity due to environmental degradation
will further stress systems;
Award [2 max] for any of the following.
achievement of food resource change:
adoption of new crop varieties;
use of GM crops;
increased productivity driven by new technology and
farming initiatives; 4 max
(ii) environmental stress;

more land required for food production;
agricultural intensification;
loss of diversity; 2 max
[20]
19
13. (a) acid rain [2 max]
effect tends to be regional;
acidification of lakes/soils;
poisoning of fish through aluminium ions;
accelerated leaching of calcium from soils;
loss of needles from coniferous forests;
damage to limestone buildings;
Any other reasonable points.
global warming [2 max]
effects are global;
thermal expansion of oceans/rise in sea levels/flooding of
low-lying areas;
melting of polar ice caps;
retreat of valley glaciers (Alps/New Zealand);
changes in climatic patterns;
increased evaporation; 4 max
Do not credit vague responses e.g. damages plants/kills fish etc.
(b) acid rain [3 max]

SOx/NOx produced by combustion of fossil fuels (oil/coal/gas)/
generating power/use of transport;
S/N oxides dissolve in water in atmosphere;
producing acid which falls to ground;
and may be distributed by winds;
e.g. Northern England, Scotland, Germany to Scandinavia;
global warming [3 max]
CO2 produced from burning of fossil fuels;
methane produced by farm animals/rice paddies/landfill;
CFCs produced from refrigeration, etc.;
deforestation increases CO2 levels through burning/decreased
photosynthesis;
increases in levels of greenhouse gases which trap more heat;
temperature rises as more energy enters than leaves; 6 max
Do not reward a point already credited in (a).
20
(c) means of reduction
reduce use of fossil fuels through energy efficient technology;
switch to alternative energy sources e.g. solar/wind/tidal/hydro/
nuclear;
encourage energy conservation measures (heat exchangers,
insulation, use of public transport);
use low sulfur oils/low sulfur coal;
remove pollutants from waste gases from power stations by
use of scrubbers;
remove pollutants from vehicle exhausts with catalytic converters;
use of liming to neutralise lakes/soils;
use acid resistant building materials instead of limestone;
international/regional agreements/treaties;
taxation of emissions;
evaluate
many governments dependent on tax revenue from extraction/use of fuels;
especially in LDCs with rapidly rising populations/aspirations;
many alternative sources have disadvantages e.g. aesthetic
aspects of solar/wind generation;
problems of disposal of nuclear waste;
many alternatives are costly/require advanced technology;
desulfurisation of coal is costly;
scrubbers/CATS expensive to install/maintain;
liming is short- term solution/can cause further environmental
damage due to quarrying;
alternative building materials may have other environmental
costs/costly to replace old buildings;
difficult to implement international/regional agreements; 7 max
Award [4 max] if no evaluation is included.
Expression of ideas [3]
[20]
14. (a) the area of land (and water) required to provide all the necessary
resources;
and assimilate all wastes (based on syllabus definition)/OWTTE; 2
21
(b) CO2 footprint varies widely/0.28 to 11.03 ha;
higher in MEDCs such as Singapore, Australia/lower in LEDCs
such as Sri Lanka;
Australia, Singapore have high standard of living;
therefore much energy use for domestic purposes, e.g. air
conditioning/cooking/ refrigeration;
Australia has high private car (automobile) ownership (Singapore
less so);
Singapore, Australia highly industrialised;
high energy subsidy in Australia’s agriculture (diesel,
fertilizers, transport);
difference in capacity of local vegetation to absorb CO2; 4 max
Any other valid points
(c) Australia 1
(d) Sri Lanka, Singapore 1

Award no mark if only one given, or if Australia is also given.
(e) Advantages
once built, cheap to run;
almost no atmospheric pollution;
not confined to a particular locality;
therefore may be a source of employment in economically
depressed areas;
amounts of fuel very small in relation to electricity produced;
may be a source of military plutonium etc. for weapons;
(allow also as disadvantage – but not both)
may provide a source of isotopes for medicine/industry/research;
sometimes seen as “cleaner” and safer than industries
based on coal;
do not reward very vague responses; “not harmful” is
insufficient. Do not allow “renewable resource”.
Disadvantages
very expensive to construct;
risk of hijacking/terrorist use of nuclear materials;
precautions against these may have civil liberties implications;
expensive and elaborate health and safety measures needed;
consequences of escape of nuclear radiation very serious
(Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, Windscale);
problems of decommissioning at end of useful life;
supply of nuclear fuel may eventually run out;
problem of disposal of radioactive waste; 3 max
Any other reasonable points
Award [1] for each two points (advantages or disadvantages),
but allow only [2 max] if only advantages or disadvantages
are given.
22
(f) (i) Nature of answer will depend on example selected. Allow
a specific name e.g. Marron (freshwater crayfish) farm,
near Margaret River, Western Australia, or a somewhat
more general response (e.g. cereal farming in Canadian
Prairies). Should give some point of detail other than
simply the name for full [2].
e.g. sample descriptions
organisms kept in artificial pools under controlled conditions;
extensive monoculture in areas of flat topography; 2
(ii) e.g. Marron farm

inputs:
stock marron;
food;
fresh water;
power/energy for pumping etc.;
labour;
funds/investment;
Any three reasonable points for [1]
outputs:
named examples of pollutants (e.g. fecal material, food waste);
heat;
marron for sale to restaurants, etc;
waste water;
profits; 2 max
Any three reasonable points for [1]
If a candidate gives more than three examples, and some
are wrong she or he receives credit for those that are
correct, even if not the first three.
(g) N.B. Do not allow points already rewarded in (f)

eutrophication of water;
algal blooms;
reduction of biodiversity of water-body;
creation of artificial water-bodies/interference with hydrology;
(unpleasant) odours;
Any other reasonable points 3 max
[18]
23
15. (a) Lost from atmospheric storage by fixation by photosynthesis [1];
Photosynthesis by green plants/phytoplankton/producers/autotrophs [1];
Takes carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and light energy to make organic
compounds/glucose and releases oxygen [1];
Light energy is transformed to chemical energy [1];
Release by respiration [1];
By animals/heterotrophs/zooplankton/decomposers [1]; producers
also respire [1];
Breakdown/oxidation of organic matter using oxygen to produce energy,
carbon dioxide and water [1];
Release by combustion – fast oxidation of organic matter [1];
Release by diffusion of carbon dioxide from the water to the
atmosphere [1]/dissolves in atmosphere (rain) [1]
(Award marks for reasonable points e.g. examples of the above.) 8 max
(b) More C in atmosphere as carbon dioxide [1]/less C in sink as organic

molecules [1];
Due to: increased burning of fossil fuels [1]/increased use of cars [1]/
increased industrialisation [1];
deforestation [1];
increased water temperature – gases less soluble [1]
(Accept any reasonable activity) 4 max
(c) Effects: global warming [1];

Sea temperatures rise – plankton killed [1];
Ice caps melting [1]/habitats destroyed [1];
possible rise in sea levels due to thermal expansion [1]/low lying
lands flooded [1]/organisms displaced [1]/ecosystems destroyed [1];
weather patterns changed [1]/crop growth patterns altered [1];
(Award marks for any reasonable answers that relate changes
to the biosphere.) 5 max
[20]
24
16. (a) methane:
anaerobic respiration/decomposition in rice paddies;
anaerobic respiration/decomposition in landfill sites;
leakage of gas from pipes/wells/appliances;
fermentation in stomach/intestines of farm animals;
ozone:
formed by action of light on pollutants;
nitrogen dioxide from burning fossil fuels is broken down
by light;
unburned hydrocarbons from vehicles/industry are broken
down by light;
sulphur dioxide:
burning oil or coal (containing sulphur) in power stations/vehicles;
smelting of (sulfide) ores/metals; 7 max
For full credit, answers must describe at least one process for
each pollutant gas.
(b) (i) e.g. sulfur dioxide forms aerosols which reflect heat back
to space;
so reduces global temperature;
methane/ozone/sulfur dioxide are greenhouse gases;
so increase global temperature;
which may lead to:
increased incidence of hurricanes/extreme weather patterns;
changes in rainfall/cloud cover in some areas;
some areas becoming cooler and some warmer; 4 max
Do not credit melting of ice-caps/rising sea levels and
other effects e.g. on vegetation which are not effects on
global climate.
(ii) warmer temperatures may increase productivity in some

areas/cooler temperatures may decrease productivity in
some areas;
but available water/insolation may also limit changes
in productivity;
sulfur dioxide aerosols may reduce global temperature/
insolation and hence reduce productivity;
climatic zones favouring high productivity may migrate
polewards so that they lie over infertile soils/oceans,
reducing productivity;
ozone damages plants; 3 max
Reject reference to damage to living organisms by UV
light resulting from ozone depletion.
25
(c) flue gas desulfurisation/scrubbers;
reduce impact of existing technology which cannot be replaced
in short term; (e.g. coal-fired power stations);
but exploit another natural resource (limestone);
switching to low sulfur fuels;
is often more expensive;
so may not be an option in LEDCs;
switching to alternative fuels (e.g. hydrogen, ethanol);
involves conversion of engines which is expensive;
new infrastructure needed to ensure reliable supply;
reducing energy use;
has advantage of reducing emissions of all pollutants produced
by burning fossil fuels;
changing to renewable energy sources;
may still involve some pollution in production of solar panels etc.;
international agreements;
have global impact;
but are hard to implement/police; 3 max
Credit other valid suggestions, but responses must contain an element
of evaluation to gain full credit here.
[20]
17. (a) Effects due to: increased carbon dioxide levels/sulfur oxides/
nitrogen oxides/unburned hydrocarbons/particulates/lead/
carbon monoxide/mining/pollution of oceans.
Allow up to [2] for more than 3 effects and then up to [2] for each
category.
Candidates are asked to review so there should be an overview of
most effects not emphasis on one or two.
Carbon dioxide increases → global warming → climate change
→ sea levels rise/disruption of ocean currents (e.g. in North
Atlantic)/possible negative feedback effects from increased snow
fall at poles/coral bleaching/ice caps melt/flooding of low-lying
lands/biomes shift/food production changes [2];
sulfur dioxide → acid deposition → Al/cations leaching → tree
death/acidifies lakes/limestone buildings eroding [2];
nitrogen oxides → also acid deposition/photochemical smog/
CFC breakdown/pollution of oceans/effects of transporting
large quantities of oil round the world e.g. oil spillages,
Exxon Valdez (March 1989), oiling of seabirds [2].
Credit up to one specific health effect correctly attributed to fossil
fuel induced pollution e.g. asthma.
(Give credit also for review of other impacts.) 8 max
26
(b) Award marks for up to 5 strategies (e.g. carbon taxes/alternative
sources of energy/energy efficiencies/liming), provided some
relevant detail is given for each example. 5 max
(c) USA uses more [1]/larger and less efficient automobiles [1];
→ more gases released [1]/In North America, petrol is cheaper so
North Americans use more gasoline per capita [1]; ecological
footprint high [1]/new cars – more efficient technology in
newer engines – cleaner emissions [2]/pollution effects lead to
strong campaign for pollution controls [1]/more smog and
other pollution effects (including lead in environment) [1]. 4 max
Candidates may approach problem from either European ‘direction’
or North American ‘direction. e.g. expensive petrol in Europe
encourages more use of public transport, leading to less pollution;
cheap petrol in USA makes public transport unattractive and use
of cars more likely, etc. Credit either approach.
[20]
18. (a) Both must be correct for [1].

(i) 1970
(ii) 1970 1 max
(b) Must have “improved” and a satisfactory reason for [1].

improved. Lead is toxic and concentrations have declined
substantially/water was very acidic and is, by 2000, approaching
neutrality/acid water often has lower biodiversity; 1 max
(c) A mark for each of three valid points: don’t expect too much.
No mark for simply saying there has been an improvement – already
rewarded;
water may have been very polluted;
as the result of chemical or metallurgical industries/run-off from
roads;
but there may have been improvement over 30 years through legal
controls, regulations;
extraction of pollutants before water released into lakes;
high acidity might have been counteracted by adding alkali;
as water becomes less acidic it leaches less lead out of environment;
cessation of use of leaded petrol;
any other reasonable alternative; 3 max
27
(d) measurement of species diversity;
by collection under standard conditions for a set time;
and comparing results at different sites/times;
use of indicator organisms;
any other reasonable alternative; 2 max
(e) (i) the natural or artificial enrichment of a body of water,

particularly with respect to nitrates and phosphates/OWTTE; 1 max
(ii) rapid growth of algae;
high rate of decomposition;
low levels of oxygen;
death of aerobic organisms;
increased turbidity;
loss of macrophytes;
loss of species diversity;
reduction in length of food chains;
aesthetic deterioration (smell, etc.); 3 max
Do not allow a point already rewarded in (i).
(f) Responses may approach the question by mentioning “early” or

“upstream” strategies or “later” or “downstream” ones.
Reward understanding of principles and practical details.
altering activity producing pollution;
by switching to slow-release fertilizers;
other methods of encouraging crop growth;
alternative (non-P) detergents;
regulation and reduction at point of emission
e.g. by sewage treatments that remove N and P;
“post-pollution clean-up”;
by pumping mud;
chemical treatment;
replanting vegetation indigenous to area;
reintroducing fish/other organisms; 5 max
any other reasonable suggestions;
(g) (i) advantages:

substantial reduction of waste volume;
unsophisticated technology;
energy released may be used as source of power;
destroys pathogens;
in some circumstances may be cost-effective; 2 max
28
(ii) disadvantages:
disposal of ash;
atmospheric pollution;
CO2 produced;
loss of material such as paper, cardboard, plastics that might
be recycled;
smoke;
aesthetic, smell etc.;
loss of organic material that might be composted;
any other reasonable suggestion; 2 max
[20]
19. (a) Award [1] for each pair of valid advantage and disadvantage up to [4 max].
advantages
use very small volume of fuel;
once constructed, cheap to run;
can be constructed away from source of coal etc;
can be a source of other radioactive materials for industry/medicine;
little/no CO2 produced;
can be a source of military plutonium;
could be considered a disadvantage - do not allow both.
causes relatively little atmospheric pollution;
creates (high level) jobs/employment;
disadvantages very expensive to construct;
problems of decommissioning at end of useful life;
strict health and safety requirements/risk of leakages, etc;
risk of theft/ hijacking of radioactive materials;
so civil liberties implications for protection of plant/ fuel;
problems of disposal of spent fuel/ very long half-life of fuel;
require large amounts of cooling water;
require a technically advanced/ educated labour force;
Any other reasonable points 4 max
(b) (i) Western Europe and

Australasia; 1 max
Candidates must have both of these, and in the right order
for the mark.
504 − 40
(ii) × 100;
40
= 1160%; 2
29
(iii) Four of the following points:
output in all regions has steadily increased;
with increases in population (E);
and improvements in agricultural technology (E);
signs of slow-down in rate of increase in Africa;
and actual reversal in Europe;
because of overproduction/set-aside (E);
because of pollution/eutrophication (E);
consumption in Europe much higher than Australasia/Africa;
because of large area of arid/semi-arid land unsuitable for
agriculture (E);
because of lower level of technology/subsistence agriculture
in Africa (E):
high subsidies for fertilizer in Australia and Europe (E); 4 max
Any other reasonable suggestions
Must have at least one “explain” point for [4 max].
(c) Award [1] for each of the following.

increase in crop production;
increase in N loss through soil leaching;
increase in loss of heat (through use of fuel in spreading, increased
growth);
increase in CO2 production (through use of fuel in spreading);
Any other reasonable suggestions 2 max
Reject increase in farm income as this is an input.
Reject ‘pollution’ (too vague).
(d) (i) the area of land/land and water required;

to (sustainably) support a defined human population (at a
given standard of living) (glossary). OWTTE; 2
(ii) Award [1] for each of the following.

footprint of DC commercial farmer will be much larger;
will use more chemicals;
which will need a larger area to absorb;
will use more fossil fuels/energy subsidy;
and so produce more CO2;
which will need a larger area to absorb;
DC farmer will use more water for irrigation etc.;
Any other reasonable point 5 max
Converse statements equally acceptable e.g. “footprints of
LDC farmer will be much smaller” or “LDC subsistence
farmer will use less chemicals”, but same point cannot
be rewarded twice.
[20]
30
20. (a) Composition [4 max]
mostly nitrogen and some oxygen/approximately 80% nitrogen
and 20% oxygen/78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen;
small percentages (1% or less) of other named gases (any two of
argon, ozone, methane, SOx, NOx, helium, neon, hydrogen,
krypton, zenon);
(variable percentage of) water vapour (1% – 4%);
small percentage of carbon dioxide (0.03–0.04%);
Structure [4 max]. Information may be given in the form of a diagram.
Must mention troposphere and stratosphere for full credit.
atmosphere consists of a number of layers;
layer adjacent to Earth’s surface is the troposphere and layer above
troposphere is the stratosphere;
correct details of thickness of any named layer;
density of layers decreases with height;
ozone layer lies in lower part of stratosphere;
in troposphere temperature decreases with height (lapse rate);
in stratosphere temperature increases with height; 7 max
Allow any other reasonable points
(b) Formation [4 max]

formed from by-products of combustion of fossil fuels/vehicle
emissions;
nitrogen (di)oxide is broken up by action of sunlight;
releases reactive oxygen atoms that combine with oxygen
molecules to form ozone;
commonly forms in places with sunny climates and high traffic density;
worse in areas where topography limits air circulation;
example of city badly affected, e.g. Los Angeles/Santiago/Mexico
City/Athens;
Do not award marks for information on stratospheric ozone.
Consequences [2 max]
breathing difficulties in humans and animals;
eye irritation;
increased rates of respiratory disease;
reduced productivity/damage to crops/forest; 6 max
Allow any other reasonable points e.g. details of chemical processes
31
(c) Award [2 max] for methods (M) and [2 max] for evaluation (E) of methods.
traffic congestion charges; (M)
may have economic impact/politically unpopular; (E)
requires monitoring system; (E)
difficult to collect fines; (E)
may bankrupt/prevent from travelling to shift work (the poor
and ill-educated); (E)
have reduced pollution substantially in some cities; (E)
e.g. London has put system in place/other cities (e.g. Sydney)
considering it; (E)
improving transport services/reducing charges on public transport; (M)
requires substantial capital investment; (E)
use of electric vehicles; (M)
vehicles have limited range/speed; (E)
pollution transferred to area of power station (unless electricity
generated by nuclear/renewables); (E)
use of hybrid vehicles (can switch between petrol and electric); (M)
encouraged by exemption from charges; (E)
overcomes problem of limited range of electric vehicles; (E) 4 max
Allow other relevant suggestions
[20]
32
21. (a) Overall, Phaeocytis (P) has lower maximum growth rate than
Cheatoceros (C)/C has higher max growth rate than P;
• P shows (0.3 – 0.22 =) 0.08 divisions day–1 less/C
shows 0.08 divisions day–1 more;
 0.3 − 0.22 
• P shows  × 100 =  27% lower rate/C
 0.3 
 0.3 − 0.22 
shows  × 100 =  36% higher rate;
 0.22 
• in both cases UVB has caused decrease in growth rate/
UVB filter has allowed increase in growth rate;
 0.22 − 0.12 
• P shows  ×100 =  45% reduction due to
 0.22 
 0.22 − 0.12 
 ×100 =  83% increase with UVB filter;
 0.22 
 0.30 − 0.27 
• C shows  × 100 =  10% reduction due to
 0.30 
 0.30 − 0.27 
UVB/  × 100 =  11% increase with UVB filter;
 0.27 
• Growth rate in P reduced by 0.1 cell divisions day–1 in

UVB/increased by 0.1 divisions day–1 with UVB filter;
• Growth rate in C reduced by 0.03 cell divisions day–1 in
UVB/increased by 0.03 with UVB filter;
• P is more sensitive to UVB than C/C is less sensitive to
UVB than P; 5 max
Credit any other valid comparisons regarding growth rate.
33
(b) Allow [4 max] for impacts on Antarctic marine ecosystem.
reduced ozone will lead to greater penetration of UVB radiation;
this will cause higher mutation rates/inhibit growth in phytoplankton;
they are the major primary producers of system so less food
available for whole food web;
top carnivores will be most at risk, possibly leading to loss of species;
species of phytoplankton more tolerant of UVB will
outcompete/displace other species;
likely to cause a general reduction in species diversity for the
system, thereby reducing stability;
increased mutation could accelerate evolution/adaptation and
lead to increased population growth;
Allow [3 max] for impacts on wider environment.
plankton provide biggest proportion of global productivity;
act as significant carbon sink, reducing global warming;
many organisms of other ecosystems obtain food from marine
systems;
loss of biodiversity represents loss of human resources/loss of
global stability; 7 max
Any other appropriate point.
(c) Names of agreements not required, but can be credited [1 max] e.g.
Vienna Convention;
Montreal Protocol;
London Amendment;
Successes:
reduced production of many ozone depleting gases in western countries;
retail of ozone depleting products has reduced;
some evidence ozone hole over Antarctic is decreasing;
Limitations:
some evidence of black market sales to developing countries;
some countries (e.g. China) still producing large quantities;
ozone depleting gases have long half-life;
and continue depleting ozone cyclically;
international agreements must be followed by ratification which
does not always happen;
even ratified agreements not always implemented;
difficulty in reducing already existing CFCs; 5 max
If either successes or limitations are not addressed award up to [3 max].
[20]
22. (a) (i) solar energy/the sun 1

(ii) evaporation 1
34
300
(b) (i) × 100 = 75%
400
need correct answer for the mark, not necessarily working. 1
336
(ii) × 100 = 84% 1
400
(c) (i) 100 – 64 or 336 – 300 = 36 × 1015 kg

Award [1] for correct answer (36) and [1] for units (1015 kg). 2
(ii) Burning fossil fuels releases more carbon dioxide/greenhouse

gases [1]; …
which increases global temperatures [1]; … which melts ice [1];
increased temp. → increased evaporation → increased
cloud cover [1]. max 3
(d) Vegetation/plants/animals/organisms/biomass/soil water [1];

Appropriate mechanisms for transfer [2]/
e.g. organisms – water enters by absorption through roots or
digestive system [1];
water leaves by transpiration or excretion (sweating, urination) [1]. max 3
(e) (i) Condensation/precipitation/run off/groundwater flow would

increase (because of extra water in atmosphere) [1]
Or: run off/groundwater flow would decrease (because of
extra evaporation from warmer surfaces) 1
(ii) (accept any two of)

• increase in evaporation/condensation leads to increased
cloud cover [1]; leads to increased reflection of solar
radiation/higher albedo [1];
• increase in precipitation leads to more snow [1]; leads to
increased reflection of radiation [1];
• decrease in the rate of evaporation decreases amount of water
vapour entering the atmosphere [1]; water vapour is a
greenhouse gas (so reducing it will reduce the greenhouse
effect) [1] and/or reducing atmospheric water vapour will
reduce cloud cover [1]; and hence increase radiation loss to
space [1].
(One change in flow [3 max], two changes in flow [4 max]) 4
35
(iii) (Response must follow on from (e) (ii))
For increases in flow given above; feedback is negative [1]
For decreases in flow given above; feedback is positive [1] 1
(If part (ii) is not answered or answer does not mention a
direction of change in flow and its consequences, no credit
can be given here.)
(f) Transformation = condensation and evaporation [1];

Transfer = precipitation and run off/groundwater flow [1]. 2
[20]
23. (a) the release of pollution from numerous widely distributed origins
(Glossary)/the contamination of a wide area by a pollutant where
no single source can be identified OWTTE;
e.g. waste gases from the exhaust systems of vehicles/fertilizer
leaching into groundwater from the lawns of a suburb; 2 max
Award [1] for any reasonable example.
(b) (i) 3.8 mg kg–1 (accept 3.78 mg kg–1) units required 1

(ii) 15.9 mg kg–1 (accept 15.93 mg kg–1) units required 1
(c) (i) at both locations and at all times Fe amounts are higher than Pb;
Possible reasons:
both locations are some distance from mine site and Pb,
being the heavier material, is precipitated closer than either
location 1 or 2;
there is very little Pb in the ore mined/much more Fe than
Pb mined and therefore emitted owtte;
Pb is removed from the material emitted; 2 max
(ii) at location 2, precipitation is much higher in April–May

than at other times of the year;
Possible reasons:
seasonal variation in wind direction;
amount of mining activity varies over time; 2 max
(iii) average concentration of Pb is much higher at location 2

than at location 1;
Possible reason:
location 2 is closer to mine site; 2
Accept any other reasonable points throughout.
36
(d) monitoring of the level of pollution using biotic index/
monitoring using observations on the abundance and types of
organisms present;
Example:
monitoring air pollution by noting the number of lichens present;
the more species and the more individuals the less pollution;
i.e. very few species in the “lichen desert” of large cities;
many dozens of species in uncontaminated area (e.g. Cornwall,
SW Tasmania, Tierra del Fuego); 3 max
(e) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)/Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA) approach;
careful pre-development baseline measurements/environmental study;
of abiotic factors, e.g. air quality;
biotic factors, e.g. biodiversity/rare species;
comparison with similar sites elsewhere;
computer (or other) simulation;
assessment of vulnerability to local impact;
consideration of associated activities, e.g. traffic/transport, etc.
socio-economic impacts; 4 max
(f) e.g. nuclear waste:

incorporate in glass or artificial rock;
deep burial in abandoned mines/caves;
shallow burial in places where radiation can be monitored;
surround by lead or similar material;
transport to reprocessing plant; 3 max
Must give a reasonable example, “toxins” or “waste” are not sufficient.
[20]
24. (a) sustainability is the exploitation of natural income without

causing long-term deterioration of natural capital/OWTTE;
sustainable yield is the rate of increase of natural capital which
can be exploited without depleting the original stock/OWTTE; 2
37
(b) food production:
crops or animals are renewable resources;
food can be produced sustainably provided that farming procedures
do not cause long-term damage to soil;
e.g. use of contour plowing techniques;
salinisation of soils can be caused by excessive irrigation;
restrictions on hunting/fishing of wild populations (e.g. fish)
may be needed to conserve breeding stock;
lower density stocking of animals needed to minimize damage
to soil/vegetation;
Any other appropriate examples.
fresh water:
fresh water resources are replenished by the water cycle;
fresh water is used sustainably if the rate of extraction is no
greater than the rate of replenishment;
e.g. by aquifer recharge, rainfall etc.;
over-exploitation of aquifers in coastal areas can cause intrusion
of salt water;
lowering of water table;
e.g. parts of coastal western Australia;
over-extraction of river water reduces flow downstream/
affects ecosystems/affects fishing;
e.g. Murray River;
water can be used more sustainably by reducing wastage;
e.g. more water-efficient appliances (low flush toilets, water
saving taps etc.);
use of grey or recycled water for purposes other than drinking
and cooking;
mending leaks;
drip irrigation systems; 10 max
Allow any other valid points and examples.
Award [7 max] if only food or water are discussed.
(c) non-renewable resources cannot generate natural income;

examples include metals and aggregates (e.g. sand, gravel, lime, stone);
exploitation of non-renewables depletes natural capital;
non-renewables should be recycled;
e.g. aluminium cans to make new aluminium goods;
buildings/machines should be designed to minimize use of
non-renewables;
buildings/machines should be designed to be easily repaired
(avoid built in obsolescence);
redundant buildings/machines should be dismantled and their
components re-used;
unwanted goods containing non-renewables should be relocated
where they can be used e.g. bicycles/spectacles from developed
world to Africa; 5 max
[20]
38
25. (a) (i) 1
X Y
(ii) population growth will eventually slow down as food supply

becomes a limiting factor; 1
(b) (i) population growth exponentially (geometric rate);

and food supply grows arithmetically / population
growth outstrips food supply increase; 2 max
(ii) as population grows more and more babies are born

and each one is able to have children and so
the rate of growth accelerates;
food supply does not growth as rapidly, this may be due
to a number of factors e.g. limits to soil fertility / availability
of technology / patterns of land ownership; 2
(c) To obtain marks, candidates must refer to a specific named farming

which may be terrestrial or aquatic e.g. shifting cultivation,
South East Asia.
possible improvements could be in:
farming inputs e.g. green revolution;
irrigation;
storage or distribution;
social or organizational changes e.g. in land tenure or
cooperative harvesting; 3 max
(d) introduce and encourage contraception;

setting up family planning clinics;
compulsory sterilization;
advertising campaigns;
making abortion legal;
cutting maternity benefits;
education of women to have greater personal
and economic independence; 2 max
39
(e) attitudes to contraception e.g. religious objections;
traditional societies and the desire for male offspring;
early marriage ages;
and the desire to appear fertile;
lack of other opportunities for women; 3 max
Credit can be given for the use of examples / case
studies to illustrate these points.
[14]
26. (a) (i) the mass of organic material in organisms or ecosystems,

usually per unit area; 1
(ii) dry weight measurements are taken;
these figures are then extrapolated to estimate total biomass; 2
(b) (i) tropical rainforest; 1

(ii) ideal growing conditions due to high temperatures (typically 28 °C);
and high rates of precipitation (typically over 2000 mm p.a.);
continuous growing season;
due to geographical location in equatorial area with sun
directly overhead;
for much of the year and energy of sun therefore concentrated
in this zone; 3
(iii) biomass is per unit area, productivity is production per unit time;
NPP is the quantity of biomass potentially available to
consumers in an ecosystem; 2
(c) (i) temperature deciduous woodland; 1

(ii) deep humus means lots of organic matter and this leads to greater
fertility than acid humus (due to pine needles), therefore
coniferous is less fertile;
this soil has less leaching than the temperate coniferous
– i.e. fewer minerals washed out;
and parent material not as weathered as in tropical rainforest;
therefore likely to be contributing more minerals; 3 max
[13]
27. (a) Coal use has decreased proportionally → better for environment
as less sulfur/acid rain/less smog [1]; oil use has increased
→ oil spills in oceans [1]/carbon dioxide released to atmosphere
as in coal and natural gas combustion [1]; proportional increase
in ‘cleaner’ fuels of hydro-electric and nuclear is small [1];
credit any reasonable explanation [1] 3 max
40
(b) Allow [2] for advantages and [2] for disadvantages.
e.g. nuclear: advantages – cheap electricity [1]; no release of
carbon dioxide [1]/
disadvantages – possibility of radioactivity release [1]; expensive
to build nuclear power stations [1]; danger of acquisition of nuclear
material by terrorist groups [1]; problems of waste disposal [1];
expense of eventual decommissioning [1] 4 max
(c) Name [1]; evaluation [2]

e.g. wood [1]; can replant trees that are felled [1]/to provide a
sustainable yield [1]/large volume required [1]/heat of
combustion is not as high as fossil fuels [1]/seldom used to
generate electricity [1]/any reasonable points [1] 3 max
(d) Ecological footprint of a population is the area of land that would

be required to provide all its resources and assimilate all its wastes
(from the subject guide) [1]; land in the same vicinity as the
population [1]/is the inverse of carrying capacity [1]; for
Singapore, the population requires 264 times the land area of
Singapore to maintain it [1]; Singapore is not self-sustaining [1]/
Singapore imports most requirements and exports wastes [1] 3 max
(e) Ecological footprint will decrease in size [1]; because vegetables

require less energy input than meat [1]/eating meat adds another
link in the food chain – energy is lost at each trophic level [1] 2 max
[15]
28. (a) Non-point source as pollutant drains through soil into water
bodies [1]/mixes with other pollutants [1]; is untraceable to
a particular source [1]/blown by wind over large area [1].
Allow marks for a reasoned argument for a point source
e.g. a single nozzle spray and a contact pesticide [2] 2 max
(b) (i) Because the carnivorous birds consume the insecticide

in their food [1];
the insecticide becomes more concentrated in their bodies/
causing decreased birth rates [1]/interference with breeding
(shells weakened) [1].
Carnivorous birds may feed on insect eating birds [1];
decline in these → less food for carnivores [1]. 2 max
(ii) Insecticide targets insects so insect-eating birds get more

insecticide [1]/food is scarcer [1]. 1 max
41
(c) (i) By measuring relative abundance of species [1]; variety of
species present [1]/named species [1]; and relative tolerance/
sensitivity of those species present [1]/can estimate the
impacts of pollution on biotic components [1]/needs
a baseline survey [1]. 3 max
(ii) Identify a number of sampling sites above and below point

of discharge [1];
carry out standardised sampling for aquatic organisms at
the sites [1]/e.g. Surber sampler/kick samples [1]/identify
all species in samples [1];
find the group sensitivity/tolerance to which they belong
in the biotic index [1]/count number of individuals per
species [1]; calculate biotic index from data [1]/compare
sites up and downstream from discharge [1]/examples of
organisms/biotic indices [1]
Allow measurement of faecal bacteria (or similar) [1]. 4 max
(iii) Any one of: turbidity/oxygen concentration/suspended solids/

temperature/nitrogen/phosphate [1]. 1
(d) e.g. electric vehicles [1]; limited range [1]/limited to towns [1]/
heavy batteries need recharging frequently [1]/e.g. LPG/
alcohol [1]; cost of conversions [1]/lack of infrastructure
to deliver it [1]. 2 max
[15]
29. (a) Examiners should note that the data in the bar-chart are for daily
consumption; the question asks for annual.
Belgium:
(10.4 × 365 × 106 × 4000 =) 1.5184 × 109/1.5184 × 1013/15.184 × 1012 kJ
(units required);
Burundi:
(6.4 × 365 × 106 × 3000 =) 7008 × 109/7.008 × 1012 kJ (units required);
Some credit should be allowed to those who have omitted the
conversion from daily to annual. Award [1 max] overall if candidate
has not calculated the “total annual energy” and omitted “× 365”
from either/both calculation but all other values are correct e.g.
Belgium:
(10.4 × 106 × 4000 =) 41.6 × 109/4.16 × 1010 kJ (units required);
Burundi:
(6.4 × 106 × 3000) = 19.2 × 109/1.92 × 1010 kJ (units required);
As the question does not require the working to be shown, answers
without working may be credited. 2 max
42
(b) greater intake in Belgium will mean more food is required;
this will require a greater area to produce it;
and greater area to assimilate waste;
which will lead to a larger ecological footprint;
Award equal credit if expressed as converse for Burundi (i.e.
“Lesser intake in Burundi…etc.”). 2 max
(c) Food production: [2 max]

due to higher technology/energy subsidy in farming;
Belgium is likely to have greater production per unit area;
leading to a smaller footprint;
CO2 emissions: [2 max]
due to more industrialised society;
Belgium’s emissions are likely to be greater;
leading to larger footprint;
CO2 absorption: [2 max]
due to tropical ecosystems in Burundi;
vegetation likely to be more effective at absorbing CO2;
leading to smaller footprint;
Award credit for other responses appropriately linking factor
to country and size of footprint. 6 max
(d) genetically modified crops;

irrigation;
increasing productivity of food;
greater use of fertilizers;
increasing productivity of food;
greater inputs of energy subsidy;
giving higher productivity of food;
better/more transportation of food by AID agencies;
giving better distribution to those below minimum requirement;
improved storage techniques;
allowing better distribution over time;
political pressure from humanitarian/environmental groups;
increasing responsibility of wealthier countries for less wealthy/charity;
improved democratic structures lead to more equitable distribution of food;
Award credit for other responses appropriately linking factor to
reduction of malnourishment. 4 max
[14]
43
30. (a)
Heat Heat Light H2O
CO 2 O2
Tissue to other
TREE trophic levels
Litter to soil
Nutrients
Water 3 max
Award [1] for tree in box, [1] for two matter flows and [1] for two
energy flows.
(b) producers convert solar energy into chemical energy through

photosynthesis;
one of the main contributors to organic matter in soil;
through symbiotic bacteria, producers are significant in fixing
nitrogen;
provide habitat for other organisms; 2 max
Accept other reasonable statements that show ecological knowledge.
(c) e.g. Chilean matorral 3 max

producer primary consumer secondary consumer
Acacia cavens
Octodon degu / Felis guigna /
Chilean thorn
rodent Chilean wild cat
tree
Award [1] for appropriately labelled trophic levels, [2] for three
appropriate species or [1] for two appropriate species.
Do not accept rabbit, fox etc., unless there is some identifying
feature i.e. snowshoe hare and arctic fox.
(d) long-term stability leading to speciation/complexity;

high species number per unit area (South America 0.125 species km–2
versus 0.0027 species km–2 in temperate forests in North America);
high number of endemic species;
limiting factors low and so high productivity leading to high diversity; 3 max
44
(e) decomposers break down tissue;
release nutrients for reabsorption by producers;
form basis of decomposer food chain (which may be energetically
more important in some ecosystems than grazing food chains);
as chemosynthetic autotrophs may form basis of food chain;
through incomplete breakdown of organic material contribute
to build up of humus and improve nutrient retention capacity in soil;
are vital in nitrogen cycle; 2 max
(f) primary productivity would decrease;

Award [2 max] for the following.
acid rain can damage foliage directly thus reducing photosynthesis;
increase in solubility of nutrients facilitates leaching with consequent
loss of productivity;
increases susceptibility of trees to stresses such as disease/
temperature/insects/fungal infection; 3 max
[16]
31. (a) non-point;

Award [1] for explanation, e.g.
because involves large area and cannot be traced back to a single,
treatable source; 2
(b) Award [1] for method and [1] for a brief description e.g.
air: air-filter pumps;
water: collect water – filter – measure pH/chemical analysis;
soil: collect soil – granulometry (particle size measurement)
– determine pesticides;
biota: measure concentration of pesticides in tissues;
repeat measurements several times and calculate mean;
repeat measurements different distances from contamination and
over a period of time; 2 max
45
(c) Strategies:
introduce incentives for alternatives to pesticides/penalties/
legislation;
use of alternative pest controls/biological control;
setting and imposing standards;
ban the use of most toxic chemicals (e.g. DDT, Dieldrin);
use of certain pesticides only in specialized circumstances
(e.g. not entering the food chain);
compare effectiveness, i.e., rate of beetle infection with different
levels of pesticide use and alternative strategies;
regular monitoring prior and following changes in procedure;
Evaluation:
difficulty in enforcing penalties;
economic benefits/costs;
health considerations;
national/international differences (e.g. legislation); 3 max
Any other reasonable point. Award [2 max] if no evaluation is
provided.
(d) (i) the potato and tomato have very low residues;
lettuce has a very high initial concentration of residue
(after 3 days);
amount of pesticide in lettuce after 14 days is low/similar
to potato and tomato;
behaviour of residues varies (in some crops increasing,
some decreasing over time);
residue levels vary from crop to crop; 3 max
Any other reasonable suggestion.
(ii) all crops provide some risk of contamination;

lettuce should not be consumed within three days of
pesticide application;
pepper retains high levels of pesticides and probably
should not be sprayed; 1
Any other reasonable point.
[11]
32. (a) wave power/solar radiation/heat pumps/water wheels; 1

Accept other suitable answers if appropriate.
46
(b) Award [2] if both answers are correct and [1 max] if one or
two partial answers are correct. 2
Alternative How the energy is produced Major limitation
renewable
energy source
Tidal Power Energy is produced by using the good tidal range required/right
ebbing and/or flooding tide to shape of coastline/interferes with
turn turbines and produce navigation/impact on
electricity. wildlife/expensive;
(only one limitation required)
Wind Power Wind turbines are driven by Dependent on the wind;
available wind energy. The no wind equals no energy.
wind energy is turned into
electrical energy via a
generator. The electrical energy
is supplied to an electrical grid
to do work.
Biofuel plant material burned directly to Produces emissions and requires
produce heat/transformed into large areas to grow biofuel crop.
ethanol (used as fuel)/converted
to methane (methane digestion);
(only one method required)
(c) MEDCs traditionally/culturally dependent on fossil fuels;

fossil fuels are energy-efficient/easy to transport/relatively cheap;
changing to renewable energy on a large scale requires massive
capital investment/cultural inertia against change to renewables/
many renewables depend on environmental conditions that are
not constant (e.g. wind, sunshine, waves); 3
(d) named food production system: e.g. rice paddies

application of fertilizer;
using herbicides;
insecticides;
irrigation;
changing crop type/variety;
using GM crops; 2 max
Award [1 max] if no named food production system.
Note: that food production system must be reasonably specific.
Do not accept e.g. agriculture.
47
(e) carrying capacity is the number of individuals/species/load an
area of land/an environment can support (providing resources
and absorbing waste);
ecological footprint is area of land (and water) required to support
an individual/population (providing all resources and absorbing
waste);
ecological footprint is a theoretical area whereas carrying capacity
refers to a real area;
they are the opposite/inverse of each other;
carrying capacity involves sustainable support of a population,
whereas footprints are not necessarily sustainable; 3
[11]
33. (a) (i) energy is neither created nor destroyed/energy is

conserved/OWTTE; 1
(ii) 1000 kJ – 100 kJ (10%) = 900 kJ;
output = 900 kJ – 135kJ (15%) = 765kJ; 2
(b) (i) 1. evaporation;

2. transpiration/evapotranspiration;
3. precipitation;
4. run-off/infiltration; 2
Four correct [2], three or two correct [1].
(ii) too simplistic/no values/no indication of time/two dimensional; 1

(iii) 1960 = 2 × 103 km3 yr–1 2000 = 4 × 103 km3 yr–1;

4−2
× 100 = 100%; 2
2
Correct answer on its own, award [2].
(iv) increasing global population requiring more water;

industry expanding and requiring more clean water (cooling
processes, etc.);
globally, greater use of water for irrigation;
increase in water use by developing countries; 3
[11]
48
34. (a) (i) the area of land required to support a defined human population
at a given standard of living. (The measure takes account of the
area required to provide all the resources needed by the
population and assimilation of all wastes.); 1
1.1 + 1.2
(ii) × 100 = 42.6%; 1
5.4
(iii) Canada has a larger consumer driven economy;

Canada has a greater car culture;
Canada has higher consumer spending per capita;
Canada – climate difference – more energy required for heating; 2 max
(b) (i) Diagram should demonstrate high birth rate and high adult
death rate.
(ii) Diagram should demonstrate a falling birth rate and a

larger proportion of adults and aged persons.
(c) (i) Award [1] for any two of the following.

education/legislation/rising living standards/economic incentives; 1
(ii) Award [1] for any two of the following.

education/better diet/improved health care/political
stability/disease control; 1
49
(iii) LEDCs tend to have a diet based on plant products/plants
with little meat (12 % approximately) whereas MEDCs
tend to have a greater amount of animal protein in their
diet (30 % approximately);
it is less efficient to eat animal protein than plant material, so
greater surface area needed to produce the same amount of food;
countries that have a high animal protein content in their
diets potentially have a larger ecological footprint/OWTTE; 3
[11]
35. (a) (i) Sustainable yield: rate of increase is natural capital/resource

that can be exploited/taken/harvested without depleting the
original stock; 1
OWTTE.
(ii) High: 106 tonnes and low: 106 tonnes (units required); 1
Both correct values required for [1].
 48 − 24 
(iii)  × 100  = 100% difference 1
 24 
(iv) low intensity;

because more fish are left in the sea to breed and increase stocks/
the trend in low intensity is to have larger catch in year 4
compared with year 4 in high intensity; 2
(b) ignorance of how “in danger” a stock is;

miscalculation of how many are available;
short-term gain is more important than longer-term growth of the
industry;
if starving will break the law to catch food/hard for law-keepers
to monitor catch;
oceans are huge/vast areas;
international boundaries make legislation difficult; 2 max
50
(c) Terrestrial:
most food harvested from lower trophic levels/as crops/plants/
herbivores/ cattle etc. so less heat/respiratory losses/more efficient
fixation of solar energy as does not have to get through water first/
less efficient use of land area (efficiency in terms of space rather
than energy);
Aquatic:
most food from higher trophic levels/bigger fish/higher up food
chain so much energy has been lost/energy conversions more
efficient as fewer warm-blooded animals which use most energy
to keep body temperature stable/more efficient use of land area
(efficiency in terms of space rather than energy); 2
(d) fish farming/change fishing grounds/eat alternative food sources/

new technologies to ensure immature fish not caught/less wastage/
research into alternative fish species/monitoring population
numbers carefully to check stocks/research in GM fish (suitable
for aquaculture); 1
[10]
36. (a) (i) the number of species and their abundance found within a habitat; 1
(ii) N = total number of organisms within a population; 1
(iii) Candidates may describe a number of possible methods but their
design should include the following:
method must allow for the collection of data that is scientifically
representative and appropriate (e.g. multiple 1 metre quadrats);
method must allow for the collection of data on species present;
and abundance within species (expressed as number of individuals/
percentage cover);
method must include expression of data analysis, e.g. Simpson’s
index would be used to quantify diversity; 4
(b) (i) biological area(s) exhibiting a similar climate/weather that

supports a distinctive flora and fauna; 1
51
(ii) biomes are defined by climatic conditions/amount of available
light, temperature and available precipitation;
indigenous agriculture is dictated by climate;
crop type and livestock are suited to climatic conditions;
arable farming is limited to geographical bands which have
sufficient sunshine and temperature levels and moderate
amounts of precipitation;
rice fields require high levels of precipitation and high light
and temperatures; 3 max
Accept other reasonable answers of equivalent weight and validity.
[10]
37. (a) eutrophic/eutrophication/eutrophified; 1

(b) excessive growth of algae/algal blooms;
herbivore populations too small to control algae;
algae shade out larger water plants so they die;
excess algae sink to bottom;
bacteria decompose dead vegetation and use up oxygen;
oxygen levels fall very low;
most organisms die due to lack of oxygen;
black necrotic mud accumulates on bottom;
methane/sulfurous gases emitted;
deep-rooted plants may grow more quickly; 3 max
Do not credit eutrophication twice.
52
(c) treating sewage effluent by chemically precipitating phosphates
and nitrates;
extra treatment stage increases costs/precipitated material requires
disposal/manufacture of chemicals used for precipitation may
use fossil fuels/cause pollution/OWTTE;
filtering effluent through reed beds to remove excess nutrients;
uses land which is then unavailable for other purposes/may
provide additional habitat for wildlife/simple or inexpensive
or low impact solution;
fertilizer/manure only applied to fields in dry weather;
fertilizer/manure only applied to fields when plants growing
actively;
(evaluation) hard to predict weather;
use slow release/pelleted fertilizer;
limits leaching of nutrients (but difficult to achieve in unsettled/
variable climates);
pasture/cropland replaced by forest in catchment/reduction
in rate of bush/forest clearance;
pasture/cropland may be needed for food production;
use of low phosphate detergents;
but may be more expensive; 4 max
For full credit each valid suggestion must be matched by an
evaluative comment.
Award [2 max] if no evaluation.
[8]
38. (a) Award [1] for three of the following.

describe:
as household size increases, so does the total amount of waste
produced, but per capita
generation decreases;
when two people in household, the per capita rate is 1.4 kg day–1
but the rate decreases to 0.9 when three in household/
any other valid comparison;
the per capita rate remains constant when more than eight
in household;
the per capita rate drops by approximately half (from 1.4 to
0.7 kg day–1) when four in household instead of two;
no data for single person household;
explain:
economies of scale;
larger packets have lower proportion of packaging to food;
larger families may be poorer and so consume less; 3 max
If no explanation given, [2 max].
53
(b) environmental impact assessment/survey of existing situation;
start recycling program: glass/paper/cans;
produce compost from left-over food/garden waste;
reuse more materials;
minimize packaging;
buy second-hand articles;
buy articles with longer life-span; 4 max
[7]
39. (a) normally shallow;

low water visibility (generally murky brown or green);
high net primary productivity;
high levels of nutrients;
dense vegetation on lakes shores/by lake shores; 3 max
(b) dredging bottom sediment to remove excess nutrients;

remove excess of weeds/vegetation;
use of herbicides and algaecides;
pumping air to avoid oxygen depletion;
restocking with clean water species; 2 max
(c) use biotic index;

this involves levels of tolerance/diversity/abundance of organisms;
compare a polluted and unpolluted site;
e.g. bloodworms in polluted water; 2 max
[7]
54
40. (a) No mark is available for naming pollutants, but if no pollutant is
named a maximum of [2 marks] should be awarded. The same
pollutant need not be used for each of the three stages.
Production [1 max]
recycling could lead to less need for production (e.g. plastic);
producing less damaging alternatives for human use;
using different raw materials;
increasing price of commodity/taxing production of pollutant;
Release [1 max]
scrubbers/catalytic converters (e.g. sulphur oxides);
end pipe monitoring;
legislation/fines;
Long-term impact [1 max]
liming (e.g. acid rain);
restoration;
sealing off inputs;
Award credit similarly for any other valid strategies for the pollutants
named. 3 max
(b) Depends on strategies chosen but the following are examples that
could be credited:
recycling can be very expensive;
impacts of “less damaging” alternatives may be discovered later (e.g.
some alternatives to CFCs have been found to be damaging to the
environment);
cost of fines and taxing can be passed on to consumer and provide
little disincentive to large international companies;
scrubbers and converters limited to small range of pollutants;
monitoring often has to be very thorough/regular/expensive to
be effective;
restoration, again very expensive and often very limited in its
success;
liming can cause damage in immediate locality;
sealing off inputs to specific ecosystems only possible with certain
systems/pollutants and pollutant is still present in the wider
environment; 3 max
[6]
41. (a) carbon dioxide/CO2; 1
55
(b) comparison: [1 max]
acid rain emissions have been reduced by a greater percentage/more
successfully than greenhouse gases;
reason: [1 max]
NOx and SOx can be effectively removed from fossil fuel emissions
whereas CO2 cannot (as yet);
data show percentage reduction, but if greenhouse emissions were
higher in the first place then actual amounts of reduction would need
to be higher to show same percentage reduction; 2 max
Credit should not be given for reasons affecting both acid rain and
greenhouse gases e.g. use of alternative energy sources.
(c) reduced use of inorganic fertilizers in agriculture;

use of scrubbers in commercial activities involving fossil fuels
(mining, manufacturing, electricity supply);
use of low-sulfur coal in electricity supply;
use of low-sulfur diesel in transport;
use of catalytic converters in transport;
change to natural gas instead of oil/coal in domestic heating/
electricity generation;
more efficient boilers/engines producing less NOx;
use of alternative/renewable/nuclear energy sources to replace
fossil fuels;
legislative control of emissions; 2 max
Any other reasonable answers related to activities shown on graph
[5]
42. (a) accept answers between 10 and 14 billion; 1
(b) exponential;
rate of population increase increases over time; 1 max
Accept responses with a step by step description that demonstrates
that the rate of increase is increasing.
(c) more intense production;

input of technology e.g. GM crops to increase yields/farm machinery;
bringing new land under production e.g. through irrigation/hydroponics;
additional fertilizers to increase yield;
more efficient transport (as less food decays);
better storage (as less food decays); 2 max
Accept any other reasonable responses, but only if they lead to
an increase in yield.
Do not accept suggestions to limit food consumption as the question
is about meeting increases in demand.
56
(d) traditions e.g. for large family sizes;
religious resistance to contraception e.g. Catholic countries;
pressure for sons e.g. in farming countries causes increased birth rate
to secure a son;
remote areas with no access to information/contraceptives;
lack of education;
few alternatives for women;
economic costs of funding family planning/medical improvements;
value of large populations for economic growth; 2 max
[6]
43. (a) Natural income:

yield/output that can be used by people without diminishing the capital/
same as sustainable yield;
Natural capital:
natural resources that can produce goods and services/the natural
stock/storage of a resource; 2
(b) it has no economic value/not easy to quantify;

value of resource usually measured in economic terms;
need to consider aesthetic or intrinsic value which is subjective;
views can be diverse and hard to assess; 2 max
(c) by acid deposition which kills conifers;

by tropospheric ozone damaging forests;
photochemical smog obscures the view;
atmospheric particulates obscure the view;
air pollution can cause breathing difficulties/produce bad smell
which spoils experience of people at viewpoint;
chimneys/car parks may be built and are visual pollutants;
global warming changing vegetation and glaciers melting; 2 max
[6]
44. (a) an indirect measurement of the level of pollution using organisms

(based on their number and abundance)/OWTTE; 1
(b) Allow any reasonable example e.g.
lichens are very sensitive to atmospheric pollution;
and so counting of numbers of species of lichens;
noting certain indicator/critical/key species;
on walls, rocks, roofs in and near an urban/industrial area can
give information on pollution;
low number of individuals and species suggests high pollution; 3 max
[4]
57
(91.2 + 23.9 + 25.1 + 188)
45. (a) 100 × = 92.5 %; (accept 92.0 to 93.0 %) 1
354.7
(b) To achieve full marks the answer must include at least one evaluation
comment.
most of the waste generated can be recycled or composted;
some of the waste could be reused e.g. jars/bottles/textiles;
composting and recycling would significantly reduce the amount
of domestic waste going to landfill/combustion;
hazardous wastes must be treated appropriately to reduce
environmental damage;
the advantages of reducing landfill should be explained to
householders;
incentives may be necessary to encourage householders to
recycle rubbish;
recycling is cheaper if householders sort their own waste;
recycling will not continue if there is no demand for recycled
goods;
manufacturers may be made responsible for the final disposal
of large items e.g. cars/refrigerators; 3 max
Any other reasonable point.
[4]
46. (a) combustion of fossil fuel;

adds sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide to atmosphere;
these become dilute sulfuric and nitric acid on reaction with
water in atmosphere;
pollutants may be carried by prevailing wind some distance;
example: pollutants from northern England, Scotland and
Germany cause acid rain in Scandinavia; 2 max
(b) change in pH/acidity of lakes and rivers resulting in change

in species present;
loss of needles by conifers in forests;
aluminum ions in lakes cause toxicity in fish;
death of fish causes decline in predacious fish and water birds;
acid in soil causes leaching of soil nutrients; 2 max
Any reasonable alternative points.
[4]
58
47. a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down
the organic material;
in a given volume of water through aerobic biological activity/OWTTE;
high BOD levels often indicate high levels of organic matter (e.g. sewage)
polluting a water body;
provides indication of the level of eutrophication; 3 max
Award [2] for definition and [1] for explanation.
[3]
48. cheap/convenient;
provide a method of reclaiming old quarries and gravel pits;
methane may be extracted as an alternative energy source;
soil cover prevents many health problems;
not always close to sources/cost of transportation;
requires large area;
smells;
rats and other vermin;
unsightly;
may cause environmental problems if badly managed;
food wastes may generate methane (potentially explosive);
leachate may be polluted/possible contamination of groundwater;
requires planning for economical operation/supplies of soil for cover;
waste of land, especially where land is very expensive; 2 max
[2]
59

Review Questions Key 2010

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review Questions Key 2010

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1.

(a) succession: orderly change over time in an ecosystem;

zonation: the arrangement/patterning of plant

both wheat fields and woodlands have low initial productivity;

(c) characteristics: [3 max]

(b) global warming will lead to changes in global water budget;

(c) economic factors will be central - whether or not a country can

(b) global population continues to rise/per capita resources

Award [1] for each advantage and disadvantage. Award credit

5. (a) a simplified description;

6. (a) (i) maize: inputs – outputs = 298 – 294;

(b) (i) 30 × 70 = 2100 kg ha–1; 1

(c) add more fertilizer;

(ii) changing agricultural practice, e.g. different crops;

7. (a) natural capital is a term sometimes used by economists for natural

8. (a) increase in population growth as death rates lowered due to

(c) Answers may be general, covering a variety of strategies or more

10. (a) non-renewable are natural resources which cannot be replenished

Fjord Open sea

Farmed shrimp 847

410 4.3 6.2 572

12.5 Other human activities 4.1 Managing salmon

Award [1] for each two correct labels.

(b) (i) the quantity of organic matter produced or solar energy

(ii) net primary productivity is GPP less the biomass / energy

(iii) nutrient and mineral availability;

(e) salmon is a source of income as well as a food source; 1

(f) technology likely to be simpler;

(c) (i) Award [2 max] for any of the following.

(ii) environmental stress;

(b) acid rain [3 max]

(d) Sri Lanka, Singapore 1

(ii) e.g. Marron farm

(g) N.B. Do not allow points already rewarded in (f)

(b) More C in atmosphere as carbon dioxide [1]/less C in sink as organic

(c) Effects: global warming [1];

(ii) warmer temperatures may increase productivity in some

18. (a) Both must be correct for [1].

(b) Must have “improved” and a satisfactory reason for [1].

(e) (i) the natural or artificial enrichment of a body of water,

(f) Responses may approach the question by mentioning “early” or

(g) (i) advantages:

(b) (i) Western Europe and

(c) Award [1] for each of the following.

(d) (i) the area of land/land and water required;

(ii) Award [1] for each of the following.

(b) Formation [4 max]

• Growth rate in P reduced by 0.1 cell divisions day–1 in

22. (a) (i) solar energy/the sun 1

(c) (i) 100 – 64 or 336 – 300 = 36 × 1015 kg

(ii) Burning fossil fuels releases more carbon dioxide/greenhouse

(d) Vegetation/plants/animals/organisms/biomass/soil water [1];

(e) (i) Condensation/precipitation/run off/groundwater flow would

(ii) (accept any two of)

(f) Transformation = condensation and evaporation [1];

(b) (i) 3.8 mg kg–1 (accept 3.78 mg kg–1) units required 1

(ii) at location 2, precipitation is much higher in April–May

(iii) average concentration of Pb is much higher at location 2

(e) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)/Environmental Impact

(f) e.g. nuclear waste:

24. (a) sustainability is the exploitation of natural income without

(c) non-renewable resources cannot generate natural income;

(ii) population growth will eventually slow down as food supply